Chapter 1: Math Reminders

I) International System of Units and Dimensional Equations:

1- International system of units:
The international system (S.I.) is made up of fundamental units of the MKSA
system (M: Meter, K: Kilogram, S: Second and A: Ampere) and has
additional units: temperature, light intensity, volume. There are definitely seven
basic units: the meter (m), the kilogram (kg), the second (s), the ampere (A), the
kelvin (K), the candela (cd) and the mole. (mol). From these fundamental units
derive all the so-called derived units such as the Newton (N=Kg.m /s2) for the
force which is a combination of 3 fundamental units (the kilogram, the meter and
the second).

NB. : Radian and steradian are defined as dimensionless derived units, they are
not "physical" units.

2- Dimensional equations:
The dimensional equation is an expression linking different quantities and makes
it possible to verify the homogeneity of literal relations and thus ensure the
accuracy of the dimensions of equations and formulas. These dimensional
equations make it possible to describe quantities derived from fundamental units.

Example: speed (or velocity) is nothing but the combination of

two fundamental quantities time and length:
Whose dimensional writing is given by the expression:
The dimension of an expression (or physical quantity) G is written:
a, b, c, d, and e are the exponents of the different
quantities.
Example [P]= [m].
[]
=.

=M.L.T-2=(Kg.m/s2)
[] 
the dimension of the weight is written
Quantity Symbole of quantity Symbole of dimension Unit IS Symbole of unit

Mass m M kilogramme kg
Time t T seconde s
Length l, x, r… L meter m
Temperature T Θ kelvin K
Electric intensity I, i I ampere A
Quantum of
n N mole mol
mater
 SI derivative Unit SI and special symboles6
Symbo
Nom Quatitie In IS unit Alternative
le
radianN 1 rad angle m/m 1
steradianNl sr solide angle m2/m2 1

hertz Hz frequency s−1

newton N force, weight kg m s−2

pascal Pa pressure, constraint kg m−1 s−2 N/m2

joule J energy, Works kg m2 s−2 N m = Pa m3

watt W power, energy flow kg m2 s−3 J/s
coulomb C electrical charge sA
electric potential (electrical
volt V kg m2 s−3 A−1 W/A = J/C
voltage), e.m.f.
farad F electrical capacity kg−1 m−2 s4 A2 C/V

ohm Ω resistance, impedance, reactance kg m2 s−3 A−2 V/A

siemens S electrical conductance kg−1 m−2 s3 A2 Ω−1
weber Wb magnetic flux kg m2 s−2 A−1 Vs
tesla T magnetic field kg s−2 A−1 Wb/m2
henry H inductance kg m2 s−2 A−2 Wb/A
degré Celsius °C θ(°C) = T(K) - 273.15 K
lumen lm luminous flow cd sr cd sr
lux lx luminous illuminance cd sr m−2 lm/m2
radioactivity (disintegrations per
becquerel Bq s−1
second)
absorbed dose (of ionizing
gray Gy m2 s−2 J/kg
radiation)
equivalent dose (of ionizing
sievert Sv m2 s−2 J/kg
radiation)
katal kat catalysis mol s−1
II) Calculation of uncertainties:
Given a quantity A, its exact value is a and its value measured experimentally is
b. The absolute error committed on A is: δA=a-b and the absolute uncertainty
committed on A is: ∆A=∣∣a-b∣∣,(∆A˃0 and ∆A≥δA)
And we write the result as follows: A=(a±∆A), a and ∆A have the same unit
and the same number of significant digits:
example A=(29.314±2.030)u.

The relative uncertainty is given by the ratio (∆A/a), it is generally expressed

as a percentage. To calculate this relative uncertainty, we go through the
differential calculus (and the derivation and sometimes by the logarithm
function). In the general case, we use, in case of quantity g depending on
other quantities (x, y et z), the following formula:

and are the partial

derivatives of the quantity f.

Example: let G=k.fa.g-b-hc , a, b, c and k are constants, then

ΔG/G = a(Δf/f) + b(Δg/g) + c(Δh/h)

III) Vector Calculation

1- Representation of a vector:
In three-dimensional space any vector
is represented by its three components

such as

with

and cos α, cos β and cos θ are the cosines directors of the vector are its
components and its modulus (or norm) is given by :

2- Sum and subtraction:

Let be two vectors and
their sum is given by:

and their difference by:

3- Scalar product
The scalar product between two vectors is given by:

With; We have

4- Cross product
The cross product between two vectors is given by the determinant method:

The direction of the vector resulting from the cross product is determined by the
rule of the corkscrew or the three fingers of the right hand.

5- Vector double product: The vector double product between three vectors is
given, using the
method of the determinant:

6- Mixed product: The mixed product between three vectors obeys the property
of circular permutation and it is given, using the determinant method, by:

Note: 1- if the 3 vectors represent distances, the modulus of the mixed product
gives the volume contained in the parallelepiped formed by these 3 vectors.
2- the derivation of the vectors is identical to that of the numerical
functions. Differentiating a vector means differentiating all of its
components.
IV) Coordinate systems:
1- Cartesian coordinates and Cartesian coordinate system
We choose the orthonormal direct
Cartesian coordinate system and
coordinates (x,y,z) and its base is direct
and orthonormal ( ).
Any vector is then written:

x, y and z are the components of the

vector and are the coordinates of the
point M. These coordinates are obtained by orthogonal projection of M on the
three axes of the coordinate system.
(x,y,z) are real numbers

Q.

2- Polar coordinates
We define the polar coordinates in the
xOy plane by taking an axis Ox (polar
axis and O the pole) coincident with the
axis Ox of the Cartesian coordinates and
two coordinates, one is the so-called radial
distance between O and the point M and an
angle Between Ox axis and OM
.
The base of these coordinates is orthonormal;

with The position vector is written:

with and

with  ≥ ≥ et r≥  And ,

3-Cylindrical coordinates
We add the Cartesian coordinate z and the Oz axis to the polar coordinates to
obtain the cylindrical coordinates:

The vector position: with

with and the cylindrical

base is orthonormal and direct

et
4-Spherical coordinates
They consist of three coordinates r
(distance between the center O and
the point M), an angle φ (between the
axis Ox and OM', M' the projection of
M on the plane xOy) and an angle θ
(between Oz and OM).

wjth , and

 ≥ , ≥ ≥ et  ≥  ≥ 

The spherical base

is orthonormal and direct:

IV) Differential equations:

Definition:
A differential equation is a relation that links the variable x, the function y and its
derivatives: F(x,y,y′,y"…)=0.

A- First order differential equations:

I) Differential equations with separable variables

1- Definition
A first-order differential equation is said to have separable variables if it can be put in
the form: y′=dy/dx=f(x)/g(y)
Whose variables can be separated, it is then said to have separated variables:
g(y)dy=f(x)dx.

2- Resolution
If F(x) and G(y) are primitives of the functions f(x) and g(y), then by integration:

∫g(y)dy=∫f(x)dx we get the integral equation: G(y)=F(x)+C (where C=cte ∈R).

3- Note
It is not always possible to express
y as a function of x, we are content to find a relation which links x and y.

II) Homogeneous differential equations

1- Definition
We call homogeneous differential equation of the first order, an equation of the form
F(y′,y,x)=0, which can be put in the form: y′=f(y,x)

2-Remarks
A function f(x,y) is said to be homogeneous function of degree n if:

∀λ∈
∈R,∀ ∈R+∗:f(λx,λy)=λnf(x,y).
∀n∈

3- Resolution
- We solve the equation y′=f(y/x) by setting: λ(x)=y(x)/x or y=λx
- The differential equation y′=f(y/x)=f(λ) becomes: y′=dy/dx=d(λx)/dx=xdλ/dx+λ

Which leads to the differential equation with separable variables:

λ+xdλ/dx=f(λ) (1)

If f(λ)−λ≠0, equation (1) is written: dx/x=dλ/[f(λ)−λ] by integration we obtain:

ln|x|=∫dλ/[f(λ)−λ]=F(λ)+K whence x=CeF(λ), y=CλeF(λ)

If f(λ)−λ=0, for a value λ0 then f(λ0)=λ0 defines one or more values which gives (by
parametric representation of the integral curves) one or more straight lines, called
singular, with equations y= λ0x.
On these lines, we have y′=λ0, y/x=λ0 and the relation y′=f(y/x) is verified.

III) Linear differential equations

1- Definition
A first order linear differential equation is an equation with variable coefficients, it is
of the form:
a(x)y′(x)+b(x)y(x)=f(x) (1)
where a, b and f are continuous functions of the variable x; a(x) and b(x) are called
coefficients and f(x) the second member.

If a(x) does not vanish, equation (1) can be solved (normalized) in y′(x). A problem
"of connection" of the solutions arises this coefficient,
equation (1) becomes: y′(x)+A(x)y(x)=F(x) (2)

We associate to the equation (1) or (2) with second member, the equation (3)
or (4) without second member sometimes called "homogeneous equation" associated
with (1) or (2), we obtain:
a(x)y′(x)+b(x)y(x)=0 (3)
or y′(x)+A(x)y(x)=0 (4)

2- Theorem
The general solution y of (2) is the sum of the "general" solution called the solution of
the homogeneous equation yH of (4) and of a particular solution yp of (2)

3- Resolution
Indeed, y general solution of (2) verifies: y′(x)+A(x)y(x)=F(x)
similarly yp, particular solution of (2): yp′(x)+A(x)yp(x)=F(x)

By subtracting the two previous differential equations, we obtain:

[y′(x)−yp′(x)]+A(x)[y(x)−yp(x)]=0 (4)

[y(x)−yp(x)]′+A(x)[y(x)−yp(x)]=0 (4)
By setting yH=y−yp, this solution satisfies the homogeneous equation (4) and
therefore: y=yH+yp.

a) Solving the equation without second member

Equation (4) has a variable coefficient: y′(x)+A(x)y(x)=0, The integral of this equation
with separable variables gives us: yH=Kexp(−∫A(x) dx) with K∈ ∈R

As A(x) is continuous, the primitives of A(x) will be: G(x)=∫x0xA(t)dt where x0 is

fixed . whence
yH=Kexp(−G(x)), K∈ ∈R Indeed, if yH′+A(x)y(x)=0 then

[y′(x)+A(x)y(x)]exp(G(x))=0 ⇒ (yH(x)exp(G(x))′=0 ⇒ yH (x)exp(G( x))=K K∈

∈R
⇒ yH(x)=Kexp(−G(x)) K∈ ∈R

b) Solving the equation with second member

The application of the theorem, to the resolution of this complete differential equation
requires the knowledge of yH general solution of (4) defined previously and that of yp
particular solution of (2) which remains to be determined.
The search for yp will always be easier in the case where A(x) is a constant because yp
will be a function of the same type as the second member.
The root is obvious from the simple view of the equation

c) Principle of superposition of solutions

For a second member of the form F(x)=∑fi(x) linear combination of several (n)
functions fi, the particular solution will be determined

By: yp=∑ypi with: ypi particular solution of (Ei):ypi′ (x)+A(x)ypi(x)=fi(x)

4- Method "of variation of the constant" of LAGRANGE

We seek the particular solution yp in the form: yp=K(x)exp(−G(x)) where the constant
K of yH is replaced by a function of x.

The solution yp satisfies the complete differential equation (2) from where:
yp′(x)+A(x)yp(x)=F(x)
K′(x)exp(−G(x))−K(x)G′(x))exp(−G(x))+A(x)K(x)exp(−G(x)=F (x))
after simplification (with G′(x)=A(x)): K′(x)exp(−G(x))=F(x)⇔ ⇔K′(x)=F(x)exp(−G(
x))

If H(x) is a primitive of the right hand side by integration:

K(x)=∫F(x)exp(G(x))dx=H(x)

hence the particular solution: yp(x)=K(x)exp(−G(x))=H(x)exp(−G(x))

The general solution of (2) is written: y=yH+yp=Ke−G(x)+H(x)exp(−G(x))

B- Second order differential equations: Linear differential equations with constant

coefficients, with second member

1- Definition: A 2nd order linear differential equation with constant coefficients, with
second member, is of the form
ay″+by′+cy=f(x) (1) or y″+Ay′+By=F(x) (2)
where A, B are constant coefficients and f(x) (or F(x)) the second member.
The equation without second member is: y″+Ay′+By=0 (3) , it is said to be
homogeneous, its solution is said to be homogeneous: yH"+A yH'+ yH=0 (4)

2- Theorem: The general solution y of (2) is the sum of the general solution yH of (3)
and of a particular solution yp of (2): y=yH+yP

The two general solutions y and particular solutions yp are solutions of (2) then:
y″(x)+Ay′(x)+By(x)=F(x) and yp″(x)+Ayp′ (x)+Byp(x)=F(x)

By subtraction we obtain: [y(x)−yp(x)]″+A[y(x)−yp(x)]′+B[y(x)−yp(x)]=0

By comparison we have: yH=y(x)−yp(x),
this solution verifies the homogeneous equation (3) and consequently y=yH+yp .

• Search for yH solution of the homogeneous equation (4).

the characteristic equation is r2+Ar+B=0. The general solution is the sum of 2
solutions: yH=K1y1(x)+K2y2(x) , K1 and K2 are constants ,
and the two solutions y1(x) and y2(x) are linearly independent.
3 cases arise:

Case where ∆>0 ⇒ yH=K1exp(r1x)+K2exp(r2x) with y1(x)=exp(r1x) and

y2(x)=exp(r2x)

Case where ∆=0 ⇒ yH=(K1x+K2)]exp(rx) with y1(x)=xexp(rx) and y2(x)=exp(rx)

Case where ∆<0 ⇒ yH=eαx(K1cosβx+K2sinβx) with y1(x)=eαxcosβx and

y2(x)=eαxsinβx

yH can also be written yH= K3eαxcos(βx+α)= K4eαxcos(βx+φ)

• Finding the general solution yp

There are two methods that can be used:
The general method of "variation of constants" which considers the constants K1 and
K2 as functions of x, and the method of "indeterminate coefficients":
We prefer the second method ("indeterminate coefficients") which is relatively
simpler:
In general the particular solution is almost of the form of the second member, a
method of identifying the coefficients makes it possible to determine the solution
particular yp: y″+Ay′+By=F(x). Several cases arise depending on the form of F(x):
• F(x) = C, (C: constant)
yp=k (k:const) if B1=0
yp=kx (k: cste) if B=0 and A1=0
yp=kx2 (k: cste) if B=A=0

• F(x) = Pn(x) (Pn(x): polynomial of degree n)

yp=Qn(x) Polynomial of degree n if B1=0
yp=Qn+1(x) Polynomial of degree (n+1) if B=0 and A1=0
yp=Qn+2(x) Polynomial of degree (n+2) if B=A=0

• F(x) = h.eαx (α and h ∈ R2)

yp=k.eαx if α is not a root of the Characteristic Equation.
yp=kx.eαx if α is simple root of the Characteristic Equation.
yp=kx2.eαx if α is the double root of the Characteristic Equation.

• F(x) = Pn(x).eαx (Pn(x): polynomial of degree n) and α∈

∈R
yp=Q{n}(x).eαx Polynomial of degree n if α is not root of Equa. Character.
yp=Q{n+1}(x).eαx Polynomial of degree (n+1) if α is not root of Equat. Character.
yp=Q{n+2}(x).eαx Polynomial of degree (n+2) if α is not root of Equat. Character.

• F(x) = Asinβx+Bcosβx (A and B ∈R2 and β∈ ∈ R*)

yp=Csinβx+Dcosβx if (±jβ) is not root of Equat. Character.
yp=x(Csinβx+Dcosβx) if (±jβ) is root of Equa. Character.

• F(x) = eαx (Asinβx+Bcosβx) (A, B and α∈ ∈R3 and β∈∈ R*)

αx
yp=e (Csinβx+Dcosβx) if (a ± jβ) is not root of Equat. Character.
yp=xeαx(Csinβx+Dcosβx) if (a ± jβ) is root of Equa. Character.

• F(x) = eαx (Pn(x)sinβx+Qm(x)cosβx) (α∈∈ R and β∈ ∈ R*) where Pn(x) and Qm(x):
polynomials of degree n and m
Let Rp(x) and Sp(x): polynomials of degree p = Max(n, m)
yp=eαx(Rp(x)sinβx+Sp(x)cosβx) if (a ± jβ) is not root of Equat. Character.
yp=eαx(Rp + 1(x)sinβx+Sp + 1(x)cosβx) if (a ± jβ) is root of Equat. Character.

• F(x) = ∑fi (x)

The particular solution yp is the sum of the particular solutions ypi verifying the
differential equations: ypi"+A ypi′+B ypi=fi(x);
hence: yp=∑ypi (x)

V) Appendix:
1- Usual derivatives

Properties