SUB CODE: BBOC407 SUB: BIOLOGY FOR ENGINEERS MODULE-1 FACULTY: Dr.

SUJITHA

Module - 1
CELL BASIC UNIT OF LIFE
Introduction. Structure and functions of a cell. Stem cells and their application.
Biomolecules: Properties and functions of Carbohydrates, Nucleic acids, proteins,
lipids. Importance of special biomolecules: Properties and functions of enzymes,
vitamins and hormones.

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Introduction

Cell Definition
“A cell is defined as the smallest, basic unit of life that is responsible for all of life’s
processes.”
• Cells are the structural, functional, and biological units of all living beings. A cell can
replicate itself independently. Hence, they are known as the building blocks of life.
• Each cell contains a fluid called the cytoplasm, which is enclosed by a membrane. Also
present in the cytoplasm are several biomolecules like proteins, nucleic acids and lipids.
Moreover, cellular structures called cell organelles are suspended in the cytoplasm.
• Most of the animal cells are small and range between 1-100 micrometres. But the average
size of human body cells is between 20-30 micrometres.
• The study of cells from its basic structure to the functions of every cell organelle is called
Cell Biology.
• Robert Hooke (1665) was the first Biologist who discovered cells.
• All organisms are made up of cells. They may be made up of a single cell (unicellular), or
many cells (multicellular).
• Cells are the building blocks of all living beings. They provide structure to the body and
convert the nutrients taken from the food into energy.

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• Cells are complex and their components perform various functions in an organism. They
are of different shapes and sizes, pretty much like bricks of the buildings. Our body is
made up of cells of different shapes and sizes.
• Cells are the lowest level of organisation in every life form. From organism to organism,
the count of cells may vary. Humans have more number of cells compared to that
of bacteria.
• Cells comprise several cell organelles that perform specialised functions to carry out life
processes. Every organelle has a specific structure. The hereditary material of the
organisms is also present in the cells.

Discovery of cells:

• Robert Hooke discovered the cell in 1665. Robert Hooke observed a piece of bottle cork
under a compound microscope and noticed minuscule structures that reminded him of
small rooms. Consequently, he named these ―rooms‖ as cells. However, his compound
microscope had limited magnification, and hence, he could not see any details in the
structure. Owing to this limitation, Hooke concluded that these were non-living entities.
• Later Anton Van Leeuwenhoek observed cells under another compound microscope
with higher magnification. This time, he had noted that the cells exhibited some form of
movement (motility). As a result, Leeuwenhoek concluded that these microscopic entities
were ―alive.‖ Eventually, after a host of other observations, these entities were named as
animalcules.
• In 1883, Robert Brown, a Scottish botanist, provided the very first insights into the cell
structure. He was able to describe the nucleus present in the cells of orchids.

Characteristics of Cells
Following are the various essential characteristics of cells:
 Cells provide structure and support to the body of an organism.
 The cell interior is organised into different individual organelles surrounded by a separate
membrane.
 The nucleus (major organelle) holds genetic information necessary for reproduction and
cell growth.
 Every cell has one nucleus and membrane-bound organelles in the cytoplasm.
 Mitochondria, a double membrane-bound organelle is mainly responsible for the energy
transactions vital for the survival of the cell.

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 Lysosomes digest unwanted materials in the cell.

 Endoplasmic reticulum plays a significant role in the internal organisation of the cell by
synthesising selective molecules and processing, directing and sorting them to their
appropriate locations.

Cell Theory
Cell Theory was proposed by the German scientists, Schleiden and Schwann.
The cell theory states that:
 All living species on Earth are composed of cells.
 A cell is the basic unit of life.
 All cells arise from pre-existing cells.

Structure and functions of a cell

Cell Structure
The cell structure comprises individual components with specific functions essential to carry out
life‘s processes. These components include- cell wall, cell membrane, cytoplasm, nucleus, and
cell organelles. Read on to explore more insights on cell structure and function.
Cell Membrane
 The cell membrane supports and protects the cell. It controls the movement of substances
in and out of the cells. It separates the cell from the external environment. The cell
membrane is present in all the cells.
 The cell membrane is the outer covering of a cell within which all other organelles, such
as the cytoplasm and nucleus, are enclosed. It is also referred to as the plasma membrane.

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 By structure, it is a porous membrane (with pores) which permits the movement of

selective substances in and out of the cell. Besides this, the cell membrane also protects
the cellular component from damage and leakage.
 It forms the wall-like structure between two cells as well as between the cell and its
surroundings.
 Plants are immobile, so their cell structures are well-adapted to protect them from
external factors. The cell wall helps to reinforce this function.
Cell Wall
 The cell wall is the most prominent part of the plant‘s cell structure. It is made up of
cellulose, hemicellulose and pectin.
 The cell wall is present exclusively in plant cells. It protects the plasma membrane and
other cellular components. The cell wall is also the outermost layer of plant cells.
 It is a rigid and stiff structure surrounding the cell membrane.
 It provides shape and support to the cells and protects them from mechanical shocks and
injuries.
Cytoplasm
 The cytoplasm is a thick, clear, jelly-like substance present inside the cell membrane.
 Most of the chemical reactions within a cell take place in this cytoplasm.
 The cell organelles such as endoplasmic reticulum, vacuoles, mitochondria, ribosomes,
are suspended in this cytoplasm.
Nucleus
 The nucleus contains the hereditary material of the cell, the DNA.
 It sends signals to the cells to grow, mature, divide and die.
 The nucleus is surrounded by the nuclear envelope that separates the DNA from the rest
of the cell.
 The nucleus protects the DNA and is an integral component of a plant‘s cell structure.
Cell Organelles
Cells are composed of various cell organelles that perform certain specific functions to carry out
life‘s processes. The different cell organelles, along with its principal functions, are as follows:
Cell Organelles and their Functions
Nucleolus
The nucleolus is the site of ribosome synthesis. Also, it is involved in controlling cellular activities and
cellular reproduction.
Nuclear membrane
The nuclear membrane protects the nucleus by forming a boundary between the nucleus and other cell
organelles.
Chromosomes
Chromosomes play a crucial role in determining the sex of an individual. Each human cells contain 23
pairs of chromosomes.

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Endoplasmic reticulum
The endoplasmic reticulum is involved in the transportation of substances throughout the cell. It plays
a primary role in the metabolism of carbohydrates, synthesis of lipids, steroids and proteins.
Golgi Bodies
Golgi bodies are called the cell‘s post office as it is involved in the transportation of materials within
the cell.
Ribosome
Ribosomes are the protein synthesisers of the cell.
Mitochondria
The mitochondrion is called ―the powerhouse of the cell.‖ It is called so because it produces ATP – the
cell‘s energy currency.
Lysosomes
Lysosomes protect the cell by engulfing the foreign bodies entering the cell and help in cell
renewal. Therefore, they are known as the cell‘s suicide bags.
Chloroplast
Chloroplasts are the primary organelles for photosynthesis. It contains the pigment called chlorophyll.
Vacuoles
Vacuoles store food, water, and other waste materials in the cell.

Types of Cells
Cells are similar to factories with different labourers and departments that work towards a
common objective. Various types of cells perform different functions. Based on cellular
structure, there are two types of cells:
 Prokaryotes
 Eukaryotes
Prokaryotic Cell
The term ―prokaryote‖ is derived from the Greek word ―pro―, (meaning: before) and ―karyon‖
(meaning: kernel). It translates to ―before nuclei.―
Prokaryotes are one of the most ancient groups of living organisms on earth, with fossil records
dating back to almost 3.5 billion years ago.

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Eukaryotic Cell
The term

―Eukaryotes‖ is derived from the Greek word ―eu―, (meaning: good) and ―karyon‖ (meaning:
kernel), therefore, translating to ―good or true nuclei.‖ Eukaryotes are more complex and much
larger than prokaryotes. They include almost all the major kingdoms except kingdom monera.

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Difference between Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic Cells

Prokaryotes Eukaryotes
Type of Cell Always unicellular Unicellular and multi-cellular
Cell size Ranges in size from 0.2 μm – 2.0 μm in Size ranges from 10 μm – 100 μm in
diameter diameter
Cell wall Usually present; chemically complex in When present, chemically simple in
nature nature
Nucleus Absent. Instead, they have a nucleoid Present
region in the cell
Ribosomes Present. Smaller in size and spherical in Present. Comparatively larger in size
shape and linear in shape
DNA arrangement Circular Linear
Mitochondria Absent Present
Cytoplasm Present, but cell organelles absent Present, cell organelles present
Endoplasmic Absent Present
reticulum
Plasmids Present Very rarely found in eukaryotes
Ribosome Small ribosomes Large ribosomes
Lysosome Lysosomes and centrosomes are absent Lysosomes and centrosomes are
present
Cell division Through binary fission Through mitosis
Flagella The flagella are smaller in size The flagella are larger in size
Reproduction Asexual Both asexual and sexual
Example Bacteria and Archaea Plant and Animal cell

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Difference between Plant cell and Animal cell

In an ecosystem, plants have the role of producers, while animals have taken the role of
consumers. Hence, their daily activities and functions vary, and so does their cell structure. Cell
structure and organelles vary in plants and animals, and are primarily classified based on their
function. The difference in their cell composition is the reason behind the difference between
plant and animal cells.
Each cell organelle has a particular function to perform. Some of the cell organelles are present
in both plant cells and animal cells, while others are unique to just one of them. Most of the
earth‘s higher organisms are eukaryotes, including all plants and animals. Hence, these cells
share some similarities typically associated with eukaryotes.
As stated above, both plant and animal cells share a few common cell organelles, as both are
eukaryotes. The function of all these organelles is said to be very much similar. However, there
are major differences between plant and animal cells.
The major differences between the plant cell and animal cell are mentioned below:
Plant Cell Animal Cell
Cell Shape
Square or rectangular in shape Irregular or round in shape
Cell Wall
Present Absent
Plasma/Cell Membrane
Present Present
Endoplasmic Reticulum
Present Present

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Nucleus
Present and lies on one side of the cell Present and lies in the centre of the cell
Lysosomes
Present but are very rare Present
Golgi Apparatus
Present Present
Cytoplasm
Present Present
Ribosomes
Present Present
Plastids
Present Absent
Vacuoles
Few large or a single, centrally positioned vacuole Usually small and numerous
Cilia
Absent Present in most of the animal cells
Mitochondria
Present but fewer in number Present and are numerous
Mode of Nutrition
Primarily autotrophic Heterotrophic

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Stem cells and their applications:

“Stem cells are special human cells that can develop into many different types of cells, from
muscle cells to brain cells.”
 Stem cells are cells that do not yet have a specific role and can become almost any cell
that is required. They can also regenerate damaged tissue under the right conditions.
 Stem cells are undifferentiated cells that can turn into specific cells, as the body needs
them.
 Stem cells also show promise for treating some diseases that currently have no cure.

Based on source of origin:

1. Embryonic stem cells
 From the very earliest stage of pregnancy, after the sperm fertilizes the egg, an embryo
forms.
 Around 3–5 days after a sperm fertilizes an egg, the embryo takes the form of a
blastocyst or ball of cells.
 The blastocyst contains stem cells and will later implant in the womb. Embryonic stem
cells come from a blastocyst that is 4–5 days old.
 When a sperm fertilizes an egg, these cells combine to form a single cell called a zygote.
 This single-celled zygote then starts to divide, forming 2, 4, 8, 16 cells, and so on. Now it
is an embryo.
 Soon, and before the embryo implants in the uterus, this mass of around 150–200 cells is
the blastocyst. The blastocyst consists of two parts:
 an outer cell mass that becomes part of the placenta
 an inner cell mass that will develop into the human body

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 The inner cell mass is where embryonic stem cells are found. Scientists call these
totipotent cells. The term totipotent refer to the fact that they have total potential to
develop into any cell in the body.
 With the right stimulation, the cells can become blood cells, skin cells, and all the other
cell types that a body needs.
 In early pregnancy, the blastocyst stage continues for about 5 days before the embryo
implants in the uterus, or womb. At this stage, stem cells begin to differentiate.
 Embryonic stem cells can differentiate into more cell types than adult stem cells.

2. Adult Stem Cells

These stem cells are obtained from developed organs and tissues. They can repair and replace the
damaged tissues in the region where they are located. For eg., hematopoietic stem cells are found
in the bone marrow. These stem cells are used in bone marrow transplants to treat specific types
of cancers.
3. Induced Pluripotent Stem Cells
These cells have been tested and arranged by converting tissue-specific cells into embryonic
cells in the lab. These cells are accepted as an important tool to learn about the normal
development, onset and progression of the disease and are also helpful in testing various drugs.
These stem cells share the same characteristics as embryonic cells do. They also have the
potential to give rise to all the different types of cells in the human body.
4. Mesenchymal Stem Cells
These cells are mainly formed from the connective tissues surrounding other tissues and organs,
known as the stroma. These mesenchymal stem cells are accurately called stromal cells. The first
mesenchymal stem cells were found in the bone marrow that is capable of developing bones, fat
cells, and cartilage.

Based on the type of differentiation:

 Totipotent Stem Cells: These can differentiate into all possible types of stem cells.
 Pluripotent Stem Cells: These are the cells from an early embryo and can differentiate
into any cell type other than non embryonic tissues like placenta.
 Multipotent Stem Cells: These differentiate into a closely related cell type. E.g., the
hematopoietic stem cells differentiate into red blood cells and white blood cells.

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 Unipotent Stem Cells: They can produce cells only of their own type. Since they have
the ability to renew themselves, they are known as unipotent stem cells. E.g., Muscle
stem cells.

Stem cell therapy:

Stem-cell therapy is the use of stem cells to cure or prevent a disease or condition. The damaged
cells are repaired by the generated stem cells, which can also hasten the healing process in the
injured tissue. These cells are essential for the regeneration and transplanting of tissue.

Applications of Stem Cells

Following are the important applications of stem cells:
 Tissue Regeneration
This is the most important application of stem cells. The stem cells can be used to grow a
specific type of tissue or organ. This can be helpful in kidney and liver transplants. The doctors
have already used the stem cells from beneath the epidermis to develop skin tissue that can repair
severe burns or other injuries by tissue grafting.
 Treatment of Cardiovascular Disease
A team of researchers have developed blood vessels in mice using human stem cells. Within two
weeks of implantation, the blood vessels formed their network and were as efficient as the
natural vessels.
 Treatment of Brain Diseases
Stem cells can also treat diseases such as Parkinson‘s disease and Alzheimer‘s. These can help to
replenish the damaged brain cells. Researchers have tried to differentiate embryonic stem cells
into these types of cells and make it possible to treat diseases.
 Blood Disease Treatment
The adult hematopoietic stem cells are used to treat cancers, sickle cell anaemia, and other
immunodeficiency diseases. These stem cells can be used to produce red blood cells and white
blood cells in the body.

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Biomolecules:
What is a biomolecule?
Biomolecule, also called biological molecule, any of numerous substances that are
produced by cells and living organisms. Biomolecules have a wide range of sizes and
structures and perform a vast array of functions.

• The Iiving matter is composed of mainly six elements – C, H, O, N, P and S -

constitute about 90% of the dry weight of the human body.
• Several other functionally important elements are also found in the cells like Ca,
K, Na, Cl, Mg, Fe, Cu, Co, I, Zn, F, Mo and Se.

Micromolecules
Micromolecules are small sized, simple chemicals that have lower molecular weight,
that means usually 1000 daltons and below with higher solubility.

Macromolecules
Macromolecules are large sized, complex chemicals that have higher molecular
weight, that means usually 10,000 daltons and above with lower solubility.

The four major types of biomolecules are carbohydrates, lipids, nucleic acids, and
proteins. Among biomolecules, nucleic acids, namely DNA and RNA, have the unique
function of storing an organism‘s genetic code—the sequence of nucleotides that
determines the amino acid sequence of proteins, which are of critical importance to life
on Earth.

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Properties and Functions of Carbohydrates:

Carbohydrates are a class of organic compounds that play a crucial role in biology and are an
important source of energy for living organisms. They are composed of carbon (C), hydrogen
(H), and oxygen (O) atoms and are classified based on their molecular structure and function.
General formula is Cn(H2O)n.

1. Monosaccharides
These are the simplest form of carbohydrates and include glucose and fructose. They are
easily soluble in water and serve as the primary source of energy for the body.

Figure: Structural formula of glucose

Figure: Ring structural formula of glucose, fructose, and galactose

• Monosaccharides are simple sugars in which there are one oxygen atom and two
hydrogen atoms for each carbon atom present in the molecule.

• They have general formula as (CH2O)n.

• Monosaccharides are reducing sugars.

• The test for reducing sugar is called Benedict‘s test.

• They are sugars, which taste sweet, are soluble in water and are insoluble in non-polar
solvents.
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• They exist in straight chains or in the ring or cyclic forms.

• They are classified according to the number of carbon atoms in each molecule as trioses
(3C), tetroses (4C), pentoses (5C), hexoses (6C), heptoses (7) and so on.

• They are used as a source of energy in respiration.

• They are important building blocks for large molecules.

• The names of all sugars end with -ose.

• Examples: Glyceraldehyde (triose), Erythrose (tetrose), Ribose (pentose), Glucose

(hexose), Fructose (hexose), Galactose (hexose), Sedoheptulose (heptose), etc.

2. Disaccharides
• These are formed by the condensation of two monosaccharides and include sucrose,
lactose, and maltose. They are commonly found in sugar and are broken down into
monosaccharides during digestion. A glycosidic bond is formed between two
monosaccharides. If carbon 1 on one monosaccharide joins to carbon 4 on another
monosaccharide, it is called a 1,4-glycosidic bond.
• Sucrose is the transport sugar and Lactose is the sugar found in milk which an important
constituent of the diet of young mammals.

Figure: Structural formula of sucrose, lactose, and maltose

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3. Polysaccharides
These are long chains of monosaccharides linked together. They serve as storage
molecules for energy, such as glycogen in animals and starch in plants, and also provide
structure and support, such as cellulose in plant cell walls. In addition to their role as energy
sources, carbohydrates also play important roles in cellular processes, such as cellular
signaling and recognition, and in regulating gene expression.

Figure: Ring structural formula and line structural formula of starch

• Molecules with 3-10 sugar units are known as oligosaccharides while molecules
containing 11 or more monosaccharides are true polysaccharides.
• Polysaccharides do not taste sweet.
• Because their molecules are so enormous, the majority of polysaccharides do not
dissolve in water.
• Polysaccharides made solely from one kind of monosaccharides are
called homopolysaccharides (Starch) while those made of more than one monomer are
called heteropolysaccharides (Hyaluronic acid).

Functions of carbohydrates:
• Carbohydrates are helpful in performing many functions such as breakdown of protein
molecules, dehydration as well as eliminating ketosis.
• They serve as primary energy sources.
• They provide energy.
• They help in the regulation of blood glucose.
• They provide the carbon skeleton for the synthesis of some non-essential amino acids.

Overall, carbohydrates are essential components of biological systems and play a

crucial role in maintaining the health and survival of living organisms.

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Properties and Functions of Nucleic Acids:

Nucleic acids are biopolymers that play a crucial role in the storage and transfer of genetic
information in all living organisms. There are two types of nucleic acids:
 Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA): DNA is the genetic material that carries the
instructions for the development, functioning, and reproduction of all living organisms.
DNA is a double- stranded helix structure composed of nucleotides, which consist of a
sugar (deoxyribose), a phosphate group, and a nitrogenous base (adenine, guanine,
cytosine, or thymine).
 Ribonucleic acid (RNA): RNA is involved in the expression of the genetic information
stored in DNA by carrying the message from the DNA to the ribosome, where it is used to
build proteins. RNA is a single-stranded molecule composed of nucleotides, which
consist of a sugar (ribose), a phosphate group, and a nitrogenous base (adenine,
guanine, cytosine,or uracil).

Nucleic acids are naturally occurring chemical compounds that serve as the primary
information- carrying molecules in cells and make up the genetic material. Nucleic acids are
found in abundance in all living things, where they create, encode, and then store information
of every living cell of every life-form on Earth. In turn, they function to transmit and express
that information inside and outside the cell nucleus to the interior operations of the cell and
ultimately to the next generation of each living organism. The encoded information is
contained and conveyed via the nucleic acid sequence, which provides the 'ladder-step'
ordering of nucleotides within the molecules of RNA and DNA. They play an especially
important role in directing protein synthesis.

Types of RNA
There are various types of RNA, out which most well-known and most commonly
studied in the human body are :
1. tRNA – Transfer RNA

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The transfer RNA is responsible for choosing the correct protein or the amino
acids required by the body in-turn helping the ribosomes. and it forms a link between
the messenger RNA and the amino acid.

2. rRNA-Ribosomal RNA
The rRNA is the component of the ribosome and are located within the in the
cytoplasm of a cell, where ribosomes are found. In all living cells, the ribosomal
RNA plays a fundamental role in the synthesis and translation of mRNA into proteins.
3. mRNA – Messenger RNA.
This type of RNA functions by transferring the genetic material into the ribosomes
and pass the instructions about the type of proteins, required by the body cells. Based
on the functions, these types of RNA is called the messenger RNA. Therefore, the
mRNA plays a vital role in the process of transcription or during the protein synthesis
process.

The Functions of Nucleic Acids:

 Nucleic acids are responsible for the transmission of inherent characters from parent to
offspring.
 They are responsible for the synthesis of protein in our body
 DNA fingerprinting is a method used by forensic experts to determine paternity. It is also
used for the identification of criminals. It has also played a major role in studies
regarding biological evolution and genetics.
 Loss of DNA content is linked to many diseases.

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 All the information of a cell is stored in DNA.

Properties and Functions of Proteins:

Proteins are large, complex molecules made up of chains of smaller building blocks
called amino acids. They play a vital role in the structure, function, and regulation of cells,
tissues, and organs.
The process of synthesizing a protein from an mRNA template is known as translation.
The mRNA is loaded onto the ribosome and is read three nucleotides at a time by
matching each codon to its base pairing anticodon located on a transfer RNA
molecule, which carries the amino acid corresponding to the codon it recognizes. The
enzyme aminoacyl tRNA synthetase "charges" the tRNA molecules with the correct
amino acids. The growing polypeptide is often termed the nascent chain. Proteins are
always biosynthesized from N-terminus to C-terminus.

Amino Acids are the organic compounds that combine to form proteins, hence they are
referred to as the building components of proteins.

Figure: Structure of protein

Nine essential amino acids—histidine, isoleucine, leucine, lysine, methionine,
phenylalanine, threonine, tryptophan, and valine—are not synthesized by mammals
and are therefore dietarily essential or indispensable nutrients.

Nonessential amino acids include: alanine, arginine, asparagine, aspartic acid,

cysteine, glutamic acid, glutamine, glycine, proline, serine, and tyrosine.

Proteins are the chief actors within the cell, said to be carrying out the duties specified
by the information encoded in genes. With the exception of certain types of RNA,
most other biological molecules are relatively inert elements upon which proteins act.
Proteins make up half the dry weight of an Escherichia coli cell, whereas other
macromolecules such as DNA and RNA make up only 3% and 20%, respectively. The
set of proteins expressed in a particular cell or cell type isknown as its proteome.

Protein Structure
Protein structure is defined as a polymer of amino acids joined by peptide bonds.

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Let us see how a peptide bond is established from the following reaction:

Formation of Peptide Bond

We can thus see that the peptide bond (-CO-NH) is formed between the amine group of one
molecule and the carboxyl group of the adjacent molecule followed by the elimination of a water
molecule. This bond is otherwise an amide linkage. When peptide bonds are established among
more than ten amino acids, they together form a polypeptide chain.

Summary of Protein Structure

Linderstrom-Lang (1952) in particular first suggested a hierarchy of protein structure with four
levels: central, secondary, tertiary , and quaternary. You are already familiar with this hierarchy,
because the most useful starting point for teaching basic protein structure is this structural
grouping.

 The primary structure of protein is the hierarchy‘s basic level, and is the particular
linear sequence of amino acids comprising one polypeptide chain.
 Secondary structure is the next level up from the primary structure, and is the regular
folding of regions into specific structural patterns within one polypeptide chain.Hydrogen
bonds between the carbonyl oxygen and the peptide bond amide hydrogen are normally

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held together by secondary structures. They are found to exist in two different types of
structures α – helix and β – pleated sheet structures.
 Tertiary structure is the next level up from the secondary structure, and is the particular
three-dimensional arrangement of all the amino acids in a single polypeptide chain. This
structure is usually conformational, native, and active, and is held together by multiple
noncovalent interactions.
 Quaternary structure is the next ‗step up‘ between two or more polypeptide chains
from the tertiary structure and is the specific spatial arrangement and interactions.

Classification of Proteins
Based on the molecular shape, proteins can be classified into two types.

1. Fibrous Proteins:
When the polypeptide chains run parallel and are held together by hydrogen and disulfide bonds,
then the fiber-like structure is formed. Such proteins are generally insoluble in water. These are
water-insoluble proteins.
Example – keratin (present in hair, wool, and silk) and myosin (present in muscles), etc.

2. Globular Proteins:
This structure results when the chains of polypeptides coil around to give a spherical shape.
These are usually soluble in water.
Example – Insulin and albumins are common examples of globular proteins.

Protein Denaturation:

Denaturation of proteins involves the disruption and possible destruction of both the secondary
and tertiary structures. Since denaturation reactions are not strong enough to break the peptide
bonds, the primary structure (sequence of amino acids) remains the same after a denaturation
process. Denaturation disrupts the normal alpha-helix and beta sheets in a protein and uncoils it
into a random shape. A denatured protein cannot do its job.

Type I: Denaturation by change in pH.

Type II: Chemical Denaturation.

Type III: Denaturation by Heat and Radiation.

Though protein denaturation is detrimental for cell survival, it is often encountered in daily life.
For instance, egg white is primarily made of soluble proteins and is liquid and translucent in
fresh eggs. When it is boiled, heat denatures the proteins and makes them lose solubility.
Denatured proteins aggregate and form a mass that is now opaque and solid. Similarly, altering

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the pH of milk by adding acids such as citric acid from lemon juice denatures milk proteins and
curdles the milk. The solid white portion that separates from the whey is denatured protein. This
can also be seen when milk curdles naturally due to bacterial colonization. Bacteria can produce
lactic acid as a byproduct of metabolism. When properly controlled, this process of denaturation
is used to make yogurt and fresh cheese.
Denatured proteins are involved in a number of diseases, from Parkinson‘s disorder, Alzheimer‘s
to Huntington‘s chorea. People suffering from these illnesses have abnormally folded proteins in
some part of their body, with the brain and nervous system being particularly susceptible.
Additionally, one of the major causes for blindness is the presence of denatured proteins in the
lens of the eye. In this case, denaturation is said to arise due to ageing or from excess exposure to
UV radiation.

Functions of Proteins
1) Catalyzing chemical reactions
 Amylase: An enzyme that breaks down starch into simple sugars like glucose and
maltose. It is found in saliva and pancreatic juice.
 Lipase: An enzyme that breaks down fats into fatty acids and glycerol. It is found in
thepancreas and small intestine.
 Catalase: An enzyme that converts hydrogen peroxide into water and oxygen. It is
found inmost cells of the body.
 Trypsin: An enzyme that breaks down proteins into smaller peptides. It is produced in
the pancreas and released into the small intestine.
 ATP synthase: An enzyme that catalyzes the synthesis of ATP (adenosine
triphosphate) from ADP (adenosine diphosphate) and phosphate. It is found in the
mitochondria of cells.
2) Transporting molecules
 Hemoglobin: Hemoglobin is a protein found in red blood cells that transports oxygen
fromthe lungs to the tissues in the body.
 Albumin: Albumin is a protein found in blood plasma that helps transport various
substancessuch as hormones, fatty acids, and drugs throughout the body.
 Transferrin: Transferrin is a protein that transports iron in the blood from the site of
absorption in the gut to the bone marrow, liver, and other tissues that require it.
 Apolipoproteins: Apolipoproteins are a family of proteins that transport lipids (fats) in the
bloodstream. Examples include ApoA, ApoB, and ApoE.
 Ferritin: Ferritin is a protein that stores iron in a non-toxic form in the liver, spleen, and
bonemarrow.
 Glut transporters: Glut transporters are a family of proteins that transport glucose and
othersugars across cell membranes. Examples include GLUT1 and GLUT4.

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Providing mechanical support

 Collagen: Collagen is the main structural protein in the body and provides support to
tissuessuch as skin, tendons, cartilage, bone, and teeth.
 Elastin: Elastin is a protein that provides elasticity and stretchability to tissues such as
skin, lungs, arteries, and ligaments.
 Keratin: Keratin is a protein that forms the structural basis of hair, nails, and the outer
layer of skin.
 Actin and Myosin: Actin and myosin are proteins that are involved in muscle
contractionand provide the mechanical force required for movement.
 Tubulin: Tubulin is a protein that forms the structural basis of microtubules, which
provide support to cells and are involved in various cellular processes such as cell division
and intracellular transport.
 Laminin: Laminin is a protein that forms part of the extracellular matrix and provides
structural support to cells in tissues such as skin, muscles, and organs.
and

3) Regulating cell behavior

 Receptor proteins: Receptor proteins are proteins that are located on the surface of cells
and bind to specific signaling molecules such as hormones, growth factors, and
neurotransmitters. When these molecules bind to the receptor, they trigger a cellular
response, such as a change in gene expression or the activation of an intracellular
signaling pathway.
 Enzymes: Enzymes are proteins that catalyze specific chemical reactions in the body.
Many enzymes are involved in regulating cellular behavior, such as kinases and
phosphatases that regulate protein phosphorylation and dephosphorylation, respectively.
 Cytoskeleton proteins: Cytoskeleton proteins, such as actin and tubulin, play a critical role
in regulating cell shape, movement, and division.
 Transcription factors: Transcription factors are proteins that bind to DNA and regulate
gene expression. They play a critical role in regulating cellular differentiation,
proliferation, and apoptosis.
 Adhesion proteins: Adhesion proteins are proteins that are involved in cell-to-cell and
cell- to-matrix adhesion. They play a critical role in regulating cell behavior such as cell
migration, tissue development, and wound healing.
 Ion channels: Ion channels are proteins that allow ions to move across the cell membrane.
They play a critical role in regulating cellular excitability and communication.
Proteins are also involved in immune responses, hormone regulation, and muscle
contraction.The structure of a protein determines its function, and the sequence of amino acids
in a protein determines its structure.

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Properties and Functions of Lipids:

Lipids
Discussing about another important biomolecule, lipids, are a broad group of
naturally occurring molecules which includes fats, waxes, sterols, fat-soluble
vitamins (such as vitamins A, D, E and K), monoglycerides, diglycerides,
phospholipids, and others. Lipids are a group of organic compounds that include
fats, oils, waxes, and some hormones. The functions of lipids include storing
energy, signaling, and acting as structural components of cell membranes. Lipids
have applications in the cosmetic and food industries, and in nanotechnology.

Lipids may be broadly defined as hydrophobic or amphiphilic small molecules. A

biological membrane is a form of lamellar phase lipid bilayer.

Figure: Schematic representation of lipid molecule, bilayer formation, and miscelle formation

The formation of lipid bilayers is an energetically preferred process when the

glycerophospholipids described above are in an aqueous environment.This is known as
the hydrophobic effect. In an aqueous system, the polar heads of lipids align towards
the polar, aqueous environment, while the hydrophobic tails minimize their contact with
water and tend to cluster together, forming a vesicle; depending on theconcentration of
the lipid, this biophysical interaction may result in the formation of micelles,
liposomes, or lipid bilayers. Other aggregations are also observed and form part of the
polymorphism of amphiphile (lipid) behavior.

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Some of the applications are: Within the body, lipids function as an energy reserve,
regulate hormones, transmit nerve impulses, cushion vital organs, and transport fat-
soluble nutrients. Fat in food serves as an energy source with high caloric density, adds
texture and taste, and contributesto satiety.

Fats
provide energy for the proper functioning of the metabolic system. It is an essential nutrient,
which is necessary to keep us healthy, both saturated (bad fat) and unsaturated (good fat) fats are
an essential part of our daily diet. Both saturated and unsaturated fats are involved in the foods
which we eat.

Lipid obtained from food waste was used as a potential feedstock for biodiesel
production using both a chemical catalyst and a biocatalyst. Base (KOH) catalyzed
transesterification of the lipid allowed a 100% conversion of biodiesel in 2 h; whereas,
Novozyme-435 yielded 90% biodiesel in 24 h. So lipids are having a main application
in biodiesel production.

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Functions of Lipids
 Energy storage: Lipids are a major source of stored energy in the body, and they
can bebroken down to release energy when it is needed.
 Insulation: Lipids help to insulate the body, helping to regulate temperature and
protectagainst heat loss.
 Cell membrane structure: Lipids are a major component of cell membranes, helping
to maintain their fluidity and stability.
 Hormone synthesis: Some lipids, such as cholesterol, are precursors to hormones, and
arenecessary for their production.
 Transport: Lipids are soluble in fat, but not in water. This makes them ideal for carrying
fat- soluble vitamins and other lipophilic compounds through the bloodstream.
There are several types of lipids, including saturated and unsaturated fats,
phospholipids, and steroids. It is important to have a balanced diet that includes a moderate
amount of healthy lipids, such as monounsaturated and polyunsaturated fats, while limiting the
intake of saturated and trans fats. This can help to maintain overall health and reduce the risk
of chronic diseases such as heart disease and stroke.

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Importance of special biomolecules: Properties and functions of enzymes,

vitamins and hormones.

Properties and functions of enzymes:

Enzymes are proteins that act as catalysts in biological reactions. They speed up the
rate of chemical reactions without being consumed in the process. Enzymes are specific to the
type of reaction they catalyze, and they bind to specific substrates to facilitate the reaction.
Enzymes play a crucial role in various metabolic pathways, digestion, and cellular respiration.

Figure: Schematic representation of working of enzyme as catalyst

These are another important biomolecule, which are proteins that help speed up
metabolism, or the chemical reactions in our bodies. They build some substances and
break others down. All living things have enzymes. Our bodies naturally produce
enzymes.

The six kinds of enzymes are hydrolases, oxidoreductases, lyases, transferases,

ligases and isomerases.
EC 1, Oxidoreductases: catalyze oxidation/reduction reactions.
EC 2, Transferases: transfer a functional group (e.g. a methyl or phosphate group).

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EC 3, Hydrolases: catalyze the hydrolysis of various bonds

EC 4, Lyases: cleave various bonds by means other than hydrolysis and oxidation.
EC 5, Isomerases: catalyze isomerization changes within a single molecule
EC 6, Ligases: join two molecules with covalent bonds.

Each enzyme has an ideal temperature and pH:

pH: Enzymes are sensitive to acidity and alkalinity. They don‘t work properly if an
environment is too acidic or basic.
• The enzyme pepsin breaks down proteins in the acidic conditions of the
stomach. Pepsin has an optimum of pH 2.5 and a working range of between pH
1-4.
• Catalase has an optimum pH of 9 and a working range of between pH 7-11.
• Most other enzymes function within a working pH range of about pH 5-9 with
neutral pH 7 being the optimum.
Temperature: Enzymes work best when your body temperature is normal, about
98.6°F (37°C). As temperature increases, enzyme reactions increase. But if the
temperature gets too high, the enzyme stops working. That‘s why a high fever can
disrupt bodily functions.

"Lock and key" model

• To explain the observed specificity of enzymes, in 1894 Emil Fischer proposed
that both the enzyme and the substrate possess specific complementary
geometric shapes that fit exactly into one another.
• This is often referred to as "the lock and key" model.
• This early model explains enzyme specificity, but fails to explain the
stabilization of the transition state that enzymes achieve.

Induced fit model

In 1958, Daniel Koshland suggested a modification to the lock and key model: since
enzymes are rather flexible structures, the active site is continuously reshaped by
interactions with the substrate as the substrate interacts with the enzyme.

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Figure: Lock and key model and Induced fit model

Types of Enzyme Inhibition

Enzyme inhibitors prevent the formation of an enzyme-substrate complex and hence prevent the
formation of product
 Inhibition of enzymes may be either reversible or irreversible depending on the specific effect of
the inhibitor being used.

Normal Enzyme Reaction

 In a normal reaction, a substrate binds to an enzyme (via the active site) to form an enzyme-
substrate complex
 The shape and properties of the substrate and active site are complementary, resulting in
enzyme-substrate specificity
 When binding occurs, the active site undergoes a conformational change to optimally interact
with the substrate (induced fit).

 This conformational change destabilises chemical bonds within the substrate, lowering the
activation energy.
 As a consequence of enzyme interaction, the substrate is converted into product at an accelerated
rate.
Competitive Inhibition
 Competitive inhibition involves a molecule, other than the substrate, binding to the
enzyme‘s active site
 The molecule (inhibitor) is structurally and chemically similar to the substrate (hence able to
bind to the active site)
 The competitive inhibitor blocks the active site and thus prevents substrate binding
 As the inhibitor is in competition with the substrate, its effects can be reduced by increasing
substrate concentration.

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An example of a use for a competitive inhibitor is in the treatment of influenza via the
neuraminidase inhibitor, RelenzaTM

Noncompetitive Inhibition
 Non-competitive inhibition involves a molecule binding to a site other than the active site
(an allosteric site)
 The binding of the inhibitor to the allosteric site causes a conformational change to the enzyme‘s
active site
 As a result of this change, the active site and substrate no longer share specificity, meaning the
substrate cannot bind
 As the inhibitor is not in direct competition with the substrate, increasing substrate levels cannot
mitigate the inhibitor‘s effect.






 An example of a use for a non-competitive inhibitor is in the use of cyanide as a poison (prevents
aerobic respiration).

Properties of Enzymes for Engineering Applications

Enzymes have several properties that make them ideal for engineering applications,
including:
 Specificity: Enzymes have a high level of specificity for the substrates they bind and
thereactions they catalyze, making them highly efficient at performing specific tasks.

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 Reactivity: Enzymes increase the rate of chemical reactions without being consumed in
theprocess, allowing them to perform multiple cycles of the same reaction.
 Stability: Enzymes are generally stable at a wide range of temperatures and pH
values,making them useful in a variety of industrial processes.
 Renewability: Enzymes are biodegradable and can be produced from renewable
resources, making them an environmentally friendly alternative to traditional chemical
catalysts.
 Cost-effectiveness: Enzymes can be produced in large quantities through fermentation,
making them a cost-effective alternative to synthetic catalysts in many applications.
These properties make enzymes ideal for use in various industrial and engineering
applications, from bioremediation and biofuel production to food and beverage processing and
textile production.
Functions of Enzymes:
The enzymes perform a number of functions in our bodies. These include:
1. Enzymes help in signal transduction. The most common enzyme used in the process
includes protein kinase that catalyzes the phosphorylation of proteins.
2. They break down large molecules into smaller substances that can be easily absorbed by
the body.
3. They help in generating energy in the body. ATP synthase is the enzyme involved in the
synthesis of energy.
4. Enzymes are responsible for the movement of ions across the plasma membrane.
5. Enzymes perform a number of biochemical reactions, including oxidation, reduction,
hydrolysis, etc. to eliminate the non-nutritive substances from the body.
6. They function to reorganize the internal structure of the cell to regulate cellular
activities.

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Properties and Functions of Vitamins:

 Vitamins are organic molecules that serve as an essential nutrient for most living
organisms for the smooth functioning of their metabolism.
 Vitamins are essential to our body as they perform various activities that promote a
healthy life.
 Vitamins are the compounds that people need in less quantities. The body does not
produce vitamins on its own. Vitamins are to be obtained from the food we eat.
 Vitamins are essential because they prevent various health issues. If the body lacks any
vitamin, it may develop a deficiency and a related disease.
 Vitamin requirements vary with different organisms. For example, dogs can produce their
vitamin C they need, but humans need to acquire that from their diet.

Classification of Vitamins
Vitamins are generally classified as water-soluble vitamins and fat-soluble vitamins.
1. Fat-Soluble Vitamins
Vitamin A, D, E and K are fat-soluble. These are stored in adipose tissues and hence are called
fat-soluble vitamins.
2. Water-Soluble Vitamins
Vitamins in B-group and vitamin C are water-soluble and cannot be stored in our bodies as they
pass with the water in urine. These vitamins must be supplied to our bodies with regular diets.
Totally 13 vitamins are recognised.
1. Vitamin A
The chemical name includes retinol, retinal and other carotenoids.
Vitamin A comes under fat-soluble vitamins. We are taught that vitamin A is great for eye health
from our childhood. If this vitamin is deficient, the body may experience certain eye diseases
and infections.
Some of the finest sources of vitamin A are carrots, sweet potato, green leafy vegetables like
spinach, kale, eggs, and milk.
2. Vitamin B1
Vitamin B1 has the chemical name thiamine. Vitamin B1 comes under water soluble vitamins.
The main function of vitamin B1 is to produce various enzymes that break down sugar.
Vitamin B1 is found in abundance in brown rice, pork, cauliflower, oranges and eggs.
3. Vitamin B2
The chemical name of vitamin B2 is riboflavin. Vitamin B2 is a water-soluble vitamin. Vitamin
B2 is essential for the proper growth of body cells. It is also essential in metabolising food.
If our body is deficient in vitamin B2, symptoms are often shown in the mouth and lips.
Some of the foods that are rich in vitamin B2 are eggs, bananas, milk, cheese, fish, and beans.
4. Vitamin B3

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The chemical name of vitamin B3 is niacin. Vitamin B3 is a water-soluble vitamin. The main
function of vitamin B3 is to aid in the growth of cells. The cells require niacin to function
properly. If the body is deficient in vitamin B3, we may experience intestinal issues, skin
changes, and diarrhoea.
Good sources of vitamin B3 are chicken, tuna fish, tofu, broccoli, nuts, tomatoes, milk, carrots,
and eggs.
5. Vitamin B5
The chemical name of vitamin B5 is pantothenic acid. Pantothenic acid is a water-soluble
vitamin. This vitamin is essential for producing hormones.
Consuming vitamin B5 is essential. It is found in meat, grains, avocados, and yoghurt.
6. Vitamin B6
The chemical name of vitamin B6 is pyridoxine. This molecule is essential for forming red blood
cells in the body. Having a deficiency of vitamin B6 would lead to diseases like peripheral
neuropathy or anaemia.
Chickpeas, bananas, and nuts contain vitamin B6.
7. Vitamin B7
Vitamin B7 is popularly called Biotin. Biotin helps the body to metabolise proteins,
carbohydrates, and fats. It also helps in contributing to hair health.
Having B7 vitamin deficiency may cause the intestine to inflate and cause dermatitis.
Vitamin B7 is found in the yolks of eggs, liver, cheese, and spinach.
8. Vitamin B9
The chemical name of vitamin B9 is folic acid. The B9 vitamin is a water-soluble vitamin. It
plays a vital role in making DNA and RNA.
Pregnant women must be careful and not have a deficit of B9 vitamins as it can affect the
nervous system of the fetus.
Vitamin B9 can be found in leafy vegetables, peas, sunflower seeds, and fruits.
9. Vitamin B12
Methylcobalamin is the chemical name of vitamin B12. Just like the other B type vitamins, this
is water-soluble. Vitamin B12 helps in maintaining a healthy nervous system. Having low levels
of vitamin B12 may lead to various neurological problems.
Fish, eggs, milk, and meat are rich in vitamin B12.
10. Vitamin C
Vitamin C plays an important role in improving a person‘s overall health. Ascorbic acid is the
chemical name. This helps in the production of collagen. It helps the body to heal the wounds.
Vitamin C supports the blood vessels. It improves the immune system. Vitamin C provides
antioxidants.
If there is vitamin C deficiency, the body may take longer to heal wounds and have poor tissue
growth.
Vitamin C is found abundantly in fruits, especially citrus fruits and vegetables.
11. Vitamin D

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Ergocalciferol is popularly called vitamin D. vitamin D is a fat-soluble vitamin. Vitamin D plays

a vital role in helping the mineralisation of the bone. Vitamin D deficiency would cause bone-
related issues like rickets and soften the bones.
Vitamin D can be obtained naturally from the UVB rays of the sun. Fatty fish, eggs,
and mushrooms are also consumed for vitamin D.
12. Vitamin E
The chemical name of vitamin E is tocopherol. It is a fat-soluble vitamin. Vitamin E is useful to
prevent oxidative stress and prevent inflammation.
Usually, it is not common to have vitamin E deficiency. If a person has vitamin E deficiency,
their blood cells tend to be destroyed.
Kiwis are known for their vitamin E content. Including almonds, eggs, and leafy vegetables may
boost the vitamin E in the body.
13. Vitamin K
Vitamin K, a fat-soluble vitamin, has a chemical name called phylloquinone.
This vitamin is necessary for the blood to clot. A low level of vitamin E may cause excessive
bleeding.
Bleeding diathesis may also occur.
Vitamin K is found in green leafy vegetables, pumpkins, and figs.
Some of the other sources of vitamins are vitamin supplements. Multi-vitamin supplements are
recommended by a medical professional if required.

The main functions of vitamins are

 Help the body maintain good health
 Regulating the tissues and help in repairing cells
 Fight against ageing
 Formation of new cells
 Keeping bones, teeth and nails healthy.
 Help the muscles and ligaments function smoothly.

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Properties and Functions of Hormones:

Hormones are various chemicals released within the human body that regulate and control the
activities of multiple organs. The introduction of hormones to the blood takes place via
endocrine glands.
Our body contains two different kinds of glands.
a. Endocrine Glands: These glands, such as the pituitary and adrenal glands, do not have
ducts and deliver their secretions through the blood straight to the site of action.
b. Exocrine Glands: These glands have ducts by which their secretions are transported.
Example: sweat and liver,
Endocrine glands secrete ―Hormones‖.

Properties of hormones are

1. Hormones are secreted from their source (an endocrine glad) directly into the blood.
2. They regulate the physiological processes by chemical means. They affect the enzyme systems
of the body.
3. They act on target organs or cells usually away from the source.
4. Hormones produced in one species usually show similar influence in other species.
5. They are produced in very small quantities and are biologically very active.
6. Chemically, some hormones are peptides, amines or steroids.
7. Their excess (hypersecretion) or deficiency (hyposecretion), both may lead to serious
consequences.
8. Hormones are not stored in the body and are excreted from the body.
9. They have a low molecular weight; thus, they can easily pass through capillaries.
10. They are soluble in water so that they can be transported via blood.
11. The importance of hormones is that they are non-antigenic. They are organic catalysts.
12. Hormones act as coenzymes of other enzymes in the human body.
13. Hormones, in their first action, cause a limited number of reactions and do not influence any
metabolic activities of a cell directly.
14. A significant characteristic of hormones is that, after their function is over, they are readily
destroyed, excreted or inactivated.
15. Hormonal activities are not hereditary.

Characteristics of Hormones
Hormones possess the following characteristics:
 Endocrine cells release hormones into the body.
 Circulating in bodily fluids, hormones are chemical messengers.
 They act on one portion of the body after being secreted in another.
 Unlike enzymes, hormones do not catalyse any reactions.
 They are not stored beforehand and are only secreted in minute amounts when necessary.
 The nervous system uses the feedback effect to control hormone secretion.

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 The majority of the time, hormones have long-lasting impacts such as altered behaviour,
growth, etc.

Classification of Hormones
The hormones produced in the human body are classified based on their chemical structure and
nature as follows:
a. Peptide/Protein Hormones:
These hormones are made of polypeptide chains—linked chains of amino acids. The secretory
vesicles serve as both a place for peptide hormone synthesis and storage. They are located in the
membrane of the cell and are expelled from the parent cell through exocytosis. After being stored
in vesicles, the substance is released when a stimulus causes a reaction, such as when high blood
glucose levels cause the release of insulin. These hormones are water soluble but not fat soluble.
The cell membrane comprises a phospholipid bilayer that prevents any fat-insoluble compounds
from diffusing into the cell, preventing peptide hormones from passing through the membrane.
Since the peptide hormones are unable to pass through the cell's plasma membrane, the receptors
are present on the target's cell surface.
ADH (antidiuretic hormone), which is produced in the brain and released into the circulation by
the posterior pituitary gland, is one example along with oxytocin and vasopressin.
b. Steroid Hormones:
These hormones are lipid-derived hormones that are obtained from cholesterol. On-demand, they
are synthesised from precursors and released from the parent cell by a simple diffusion process.
These hormones typically have the goal response of inducing the synthesis of new proteins
because they bind to proteins while being transported through the blood. Steroid hormones, in
contrast to peptide hormones, are fat-soluble and may pass through the cell membranes. Steroid
hormones comprise sex hormones including progesterone, estrogen, and testosterone.

Functions of Hormones
The following are a few important functions that hormones perform:
 Metabolism of food.
 Development and growth.
 Controlling hunger and thirst.
 Preserving one's body's temperature.
 Maintain Homeostasis
 Regulating sleep and wake cycle
 Regulating mental and emotional functions.
 Establishing and sustaining sexual development and reproduction.
Examples of Hormones
 Insulin is a hormone that's made by the beta cells in the pancreas. When it is released into
the blood, insulin helps regulate how the cells of the body use glucose (a type of sugar)
for energy.

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 The thyroid gland secretes two main hormones, thyroxine and triiodothyronine, into the
bloodstream. These thyroid hormones stimulate all the cells in the body and control
biological processes such as growth, reproduction, development, and metabolism.

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