Algebra and Real Numbers

Definition 1: Addition and Multiplication of Rational

For rational numbers a/b and c/d, where a, b, c, and d are integers and b ≠ 0 , d ≠ 0 :
a c ad +bc
Addition: + =
b d bd
a c ac
Multiplication: ∙ =
b d bd
Example1: Arithmetic of Rational Numbers
Perform the indicated operations.
( )
−1
( A ) 1 + 6 ( B ) 8 ∙ 5 ( C ) −17 ( D )(−6+ 9/2 )−1
3 5 3 4 9
Solutions:
1 6 5+18 23
( A) + = = .
3 5 15 15
8 5 40 10 40 10
( B ) ∙ = = , = because 40 ∙ 3=10 ∙ 12.
3 4 12 3 12 3
( C )(−17 /9 )−1=−9/17.

( ) ( ) ( )
−1 −1 −1
( D ) (−6+ 9/2 )−1= −6 + 9 = −12+ 9 = −3 = −2 .
1 2 2 2 3
Polynomials: Basic Operations and Factoring
Polynomials can be classified according to their degree. If a term in a polynomial has only
one variable as a factor, then the degree of that term is the power of the variable. If two or
more variables are present in a term as factors, then the degree of the term is the sum of the
powers of the variables. The degree of a polynomial is the degree of the nonzero term with
the highest degree in the polynomial. Any nonzero constant is defined to be a polynomial
of degree 0. The number 0 is also a polynomial but is not assigned a degree.
Example 1 Polynomials and Nonpolynomials
(A)Which of the following are polynomials?
1
1. 2 x +5− . 2. x −3 x +2. 3. √ x −4 x +1. 4. x + √ 2 .
2 3 4
x
(B) Given the polynomial x 3−x 6 +7 ,what is the degree of the first term? The third term?
The whole polynomial?
(C) Given the polynomial x 3 y 2 +2 x 2 y +1 , what is the degree of the first term?
The second term? The whole polynomial?
Solutions:
(A) 2 & 4 are polynomials (The others are not polynomials since a variable appears in a
denominator or within a radical.)
(B) The first term has degree 3, the third term has degree 0, and the whole
polynomial has degree 6.
(C) The first term has degree 5, the second term has degree 3, and the whole
polynomial has degree 5.

1
Addition and Subtraction
Example 2 Adding Polynomials
Add: x 4 −3 x 3 + x 2 ,−x 3−2 x2 +3 x ,∧3 x 2−4 x−5.
Solution:
Add horizontally:
¿ ( x 4 −3 x 2 + x 2 ) + (−x 3−2 x 2+ 3 x ) + ( 3 x 2−4 x−5 ) .
4 3 2
¿ x −4 x +2 x −x −5.
Multiplication
Example 4 Multiplying Polynomials
Multiply ( 2 x−3 ) ( 3 x2 −2 x +3 )
Solution:
( 2 x−3 ) ( 3 x2 −2 x +3 ) =6 x 3−4 x2 +6 x−9 x 2 +6 x−9=6 x 3−13 x 2+ 12 x−9.
Definition 1 Prime Polynomials
A polynomial of degree greater than 0 is said to be prime relative to a given set of numbers
if: (1) all of its coefficients are from that set of numbers; and (2) it cannot be written as a
product of two polynomials (excluding constant polynomials that are factors of 1) having
coefficients from that set of numbers.
Example 5 Factoring Out Common Factors
Factor out, relative to the integers, all factors common to all terms:
( A ) 2 x3 y−8 x 2 y 2−6 x y 3 ( B ) 2 x (3 x−2 )−7 ( 3 x−2 )
Solutions:
( A ) 2 x3 y−8 x 2 y 2−6 x y 3 =( 2 xy ) x 2−( 2 xy ) 4 xy−( 2 xy ) 3 y2
¿ 2 xy ( x 2−4 xy−3 y 2 )
( B ) 2 x ( 3 x−2 )−7 ( 3 x−2 )= (3 x−2 )( 2 x−7 )
Example 6 Factoring by Grouping
Factor completely, relative to the integers, by grouping:
( A ) 3 x 2−6 x+ 4 x−8 ( B ) wy +wz−2 xy−2 xz ( C ) 3 ac+ bd−3 ad−bc
Solutions:
( A ) 3 x 2−6 x+ 4 x−8=( 3 x 2−6 x ) + ( 4 x−8 ) =3 x ( x−2 ) + 4 ( x−2 )
¿ ( x−2 ) ( 3 x+ 4 )
( B ) wy+ wz−2 xy −2 xz =( wy +wz )−( 2 xy +2 xz ) =w ( y + z )−2 x ( y + z )
¿ ( y + z ) ( w−2 x )
( C ) 3 ac +bd −3 ad−bc=3 ac−bc−3 ad +bd=( 3 ac−bc )−( 3 ad−bd )
¿ c ( 3 a−b )−d ( 3 a−b ) =( 3 a−b ) ( c−d )
Example 7 Factoring Second-Degree Polynomials
Factor each polynomial, if possible, using integer coefficients:
( A ) 2 x2 +3 xy−2 y 2 ( B ) x 2−3 x+ 4 ( C ) 6 x2 +5 xy−4 y 2
Solutions:
( A ) 2 x2 +3 xy−2 y 2=( 2 x− y ) ( x+ 2 y )
( B ) x 2−3 x + 4. Not factorable using integer coefficients.
( C ) 6 x 2 +5 xy−4 y 2=( 3 x+ 4 y ) ( 2 x− y )
Special Factoring Formulas

2
 2 2 2
1.u −2 uv+ v =( u−v ) Perfect square
2 2 2
2. u +2 uv+ v =( u+ v ) Perfect square
2 2
3. u −v =( u−v ) ( u+ v ) Difference of square
4. u −v = (u−v ) ( u +uv + v ) Difference of cubes
3 3 2 2

5.u + v =( u+ v ) ( u −uv + v ) ∑ of cubes

3 3 2 2

Example 8 Using Special Factoring Formulas

Factor completely relative to the integers:
( A ) x 2+ 6 xy+ 9 y 2 ( B ) 9 x2 −4 y 2 ( C ) 8 m3−1 ( D ) x 3 + y 3 z 3
Solutions:
( A ) x 2+ 6 xy+ 9 y 2=x 2+ 2 ( x ) ( 3 y )+ (3 y )2 =( x+3 y )2
( B ) 9 x 2−4 y 2= (3 x )2−( 2 y )2=( 3 x−2 y ) ( 3 x +2 y )
( C ) 8 m 3−1=( 2 m )3 −( 1 )3=( 2 m−1 ) [ ( 2 m )2 + ( 2 m )( 1 ) +12 ]
¿ ( 2 m−1 ) ( 4 m2 +2 m+1 )
( D ) x 3+ y3 z 3=x 3 + ( yz )3=( x + yz ) ( x 2−xyz + y 2 z 2 )

Homework
a) Perform the indicated operations and simplify.
1. 2 ( x−1 )+3 ( 2 x−3 ) −( 4 x−5 ) 2. ( m−n )( m+n )
b) Factor out, relative to the integers, all factors common to all terms.
4 3 2 5 3
1. 6 x −8 x −2 x 2. 3 x +6 x +9 x
c) Factor completely, relative to the integers.
2 2 2
1. x −xy+ 3 xy −3 y 2. x + 4 x + x+ 4

Example 1 Reducing Rational Expressions

Reduce each rational expression to lowest terms.
2 3
( A ) x −62
x+ 9 ( ) x −1
B 2
x −9 x −1
Solutions
x −1 ( x−1 ) ( x + x +1 ) x + x +1
2 2
2
x −6 x+ 9 ( x−3 ) x−3
3 2
( A) = = ∧( B ) 2 = =
2
x −9 ( x−3 )( x +3 ) x +3 x −1 ( x−1 )( x +1 ) x +1
Multiplication and Division
If a , b , c ,∧d are real numbers with b , d ≠ 0 , then:

a c ac
Multiplication: ∙ =
b d bd
a c a d
Division: ÷ = ∙
b d b dc
Example 2 Multiplying and Dividing Rational Expressions
Perform the indicated operations and reduce to lowest terms.
3 2 3 2 2 3 3
( A ) 10 x y ⋅ x2 −9 ( B ) 4−2 x ÷ ( x−2 )( C ) 2 x −2 x y +2 x y
÷
x +y
3 xy + 9 y 4 x −12 x 4 3
x y− x y
3 2
x +2 xy+ y
2

Solutions

3
 3 3 3
( x−3 )( x +3 ) 5 x 2
( A ) 10 x y ⋅ x2 −9 = 10 x y ⋅ =
3 xy + 9 y 4 x −12 x 3 y ( x +3 ) 4 x ( x −3 ) 6
4−2 x 2 ( 2−x ) 1 ( 2−x ) −( x−2 ) −1
( B) ÷ ( x−2 )= ⋅ = = =
4 4 ( x−2 ) 2 ( x−2 ) 2 ( x−2 ) 2
3 2
2 x −2 x y+ 2 x y
2 3
x +y
3
2 x ( x 2−2 xy+ y 2 ) x2 +2 xy + y 2
(C ) ÷ = ⋅
xy ( x 2− y 2 )
3 3 2 2 3 3
x y−x y x + 2 xy + y x +y
2 x ( x 2−2 xy + y 2) ( x + y )2 2
¿ ⋅ =
xy ( x− y ) ( x+ y ) ( x + y ) ( x −xy + y ) y ( x− y )
2 2

Addition and Subtraction

For a, b, and c real numbers with b ≠ 0
a c ad +bc
Addition: + =
b d bd
a c ad−bc
Subtraction: − =
b d bd
The least common denominator (LCD)
The LCD of two or more rational expressions is found as follows:
1. Factor each denominator completely.
2. Identify each different prime factor from all the denominators.
3. Form a product using each different factor to the highest power that occurs in any one
denominator. This product is the LCD.
Example 3 Adding and Subtracting Rational Expressions
Combine into a single fraction and reduce to lowest terms.
3 5 11 4 5x x+3 x+2 5
( A) + − (B ) − + 1( C ) 2 − 2 −
10 6 45 9 x 6 y2 x −6 x +9 x −9 3−x
Solutions
(A)To find the LCD, factor each denominator completely:

}
10=2⋅ 5
6=2 ⋅3 LCD=2 ⋅9 ⋅5=90
45=9 ⋅5
Now use the fundamental property of fractions to make each denominator 90:
3 5 11 9 ⋅3+15 ⋅5−2 ⋅11 27+75−22 80 8
+ − = = = =
10 6 45 90 90 90 9

}
2
( B ) 92x=3 x 2 LCD=2 ⋅32 x y 2=18 x y 2
6 y =2⋅3 y
2 2 2 2 2
4 5x 2 y ⋅4−3 x ⋅5 x +18 x y 8 y −15 x +18 x y
− 2 +1= 2
= 2
9x 6 y 18 x y 18 x y
x +3 x +2 5 x +3 x +2 5
(C ) 2 − 2 − = − +
x −6 x+ 9 x −9 3−x ( x −3 ) ( x−3 )( x +3 ) x−3
2

The LCD ¿ ( x−3 )2 ( x+ 3 )

x +3 x +2 5 ( x +3 ) ⋅ ( x +3 )− ( x −3 ) ⋅ ( x +2 ) +5 ( x−3 )( x +3 ) x2 +6 x +9−x 2+ x +6+ 5 ( x2 −9 )
− + = =
( x−3 )2 ( x−3 )( x +3 ) x −3 ( x−3 )2 ( x+3 ) ( x−3 )2 ( x+ 3 )
2
5 x +7 x−30
¿
( x −3 )2 ( x +3 )

4
 Homework
a) Reduce each rational expression to lowest terms.
x+ 1
2
x +3 x +2
b) Perform the indicated operations and reduce answers to lowest terms. Represent any
compound fractions as simple fractions reduced to lowest terms.
1 1 5 3 x +2 x−2
1. − 2. ÷ 3. 2 −
n m 12 4 x −1 ( x−1 )2
c) Perform the indicated operations and reduce answers to lowest terms. Represent any
compound fractions as simple fractions reduced to lowest terms.
2 15
1+ − 2
x x
4 5
1+ − 2
x x
Absolute Value in Equations and Inequalities
If a is the coordinate of a point on a real number line, then the distance from the origin to a
is represented by |a| and is referred to as the absolute value of a. So |5|=5, since the point
with coordinate 5 is five units from the origin, and since the point with coordinate −6 is six
units from the origin (Fig. 1).

Definition 1 Absolute Value

{ x if x ≥ 0
|x|= −1 if x <0
Note: −x is positive x if is negative.
Example 1 Finding Absolute Value
Finding Absolute vale 1.|π−3|2.|3−π|
Solutions:
1.|π−3|=π−3 , π ≈3.14
2.|3−π|=−( 3−π )=π−3
Theorem 1 For All Real Numbers a∧b,
|b−a|=|a−b|
Definition 2 Distance Between Points A and B
Let A and B be two points on a real number line with coordinates a and b, respectively. The
distance between A and B is given by
d ( A , B )=|b−a|
Example 2:
Interpret geometrically, solve, and graph. For inequalities, write solutions in both inequality
and interval notation.
1.|x−3|=5 2.|x −3|<5 3. 0<|x−3|<5 4.|x−3|> 5
Solutions:
5
1.|x−3|=5 , x −3=± 5 ⟹ x=3± 5=−2∨8
The solution set is {−2 , 8 }

2.|x−3|< 5
−5< x−3< 5⟹−5+3< x <5+3 ⟹−2< x <8
The solution set is (−2 , 8 )

3. 0<|x−3|<5
−5< x−3< 5⟹−5+3< x <5+3 ⟹−2< x <8 , x ≠ 3∨(−2 , 3)∪(3 ,8)

4.|x−3|>5
5< x−3 ←5 ⟹ 8< x ←2 ,(−∞, 2)∪(8 , ∞)

Example 3 Interpreting Verbal Statements Algebraically

Express each verbal statement as an absolute value equation or inequality.
1. x is 4 units ¿ 2
2. y is less than 3 units ¿−5.
3. t is no more than 5units ¿7.
4. wis no less than 2units ¿−1.
Solutions:
1.|x−2|=4.
2.| y +5|<3.
3.|t−7|≤ 5.
4.|w+1|≥ 2.
Theorem 2 Properties of Equations and Inequalities Involving |x|
For p>0 : p has to be positive
1. |x|=p is equivalent to x= p∨x=− p .
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 The distance from x to zero is p.

2. |x|< p is equivalent to − p< x < p .

The distance from x to zero is less than p.

3. |x|> p is equivalent to x ← p∨x > p .

The distance from x to zero is greater than p.

If we replace x in Theorem 2 with ax +b , we obtain the more general Theorem 3.

Theorem 3 Properties of Equations and Inequalities Involving |ax+ b|
For p>0 : p has to be positive
1. |ax+ b|= p is equivalent to ax +b= p∨ax+ b=−p .
2. |ax+ b|< p is equivalent to − p< ax+b < p .
3. |ax+ b|> p is equivalent to ax +b ← p∨ax +b> p .
Example 4 Solving Absolute Value Problems
Solve each equation or inequality. For inequalities, write solutions in both inequality and
interval notation
1.|3 x+5|=4 2.|x|<5 3.|2 x−1|< 3 4.|7−3 x|≤ 2
Solutions:
1.|3 x+5|=4.
−5 ± 4 −1
3 x+ 5=± 4 ⟹ 3 x=−5 ± 4 ⟹ x= ⟹ x= , x =−3∨¿
3 3

{ 1
x= −3 ,− .
3 }
2.|x|<5.
−5< x <5∨(−5 ,5 ) .

3.|2 x−1|<3.
−3<2 x−1<3 ,−2<2 x < 4 ,−1< x< 2,∨(−1 ,2 ) .
4.|7−3 x| ≤2.
5 5 5
[ ]
−2 ≤7−3 x ≤ 2 ,−9≤−3 x ≤−5 , 3 ≥ x ≥ , ≤ x ≤3 ,∨ , 3 .
3 3 3
Example 5 Solving Absolute Value Inequalities
Solve, and write solutions in both inequality and interval notation.
1.|x|>3 2.|2 x−1|≥ 3 3.|7−3 x|>2
Solutions:
1.|x|>3 , x←3∨x> 3 , (−∞ ,−3 ) ∪ ( 3 , ∞ )
2.|2 x−1|≥3 , 2 x−1≤−3∨2 x−1 ≥3 ⟹ 2 x ≤−2∨2 x ≥ 4
x ≤−1∨x ≥2 , ( −∞ ,−1 ] ∪ [ 2 , ∞ )
3.|7−3 x|> 2, 7−3 x←2∨7−3 x >2 ⟹−3 x ←9∨−3 x >−5
5
3 (5
)
x >3∨x < , −∞ , ∪ ( 3 , ∞ )
3
7
 H.W
a) Simplify, and write without absolute value signs. Do not replace radicals with
decimal approximations.
1.|(−6 )−(−2 )|2.|(−2 )−(−6 )|
b) Write the statements as an absolute value equation or inequality.
y is 3 units from 1.
c) For what values of x does each hold?
|3 x +5|=2 x +6
x
d) What are the possible values of |x| ?

Complex Numbers
Definition 1 Complex Number
A complex number is a number of the forma+ ib, where a and b are real numbers, and i is
the imaginary unit (a square root of -1). A complex number written this way is said to be in
standard form. The real number a is called the real part, and bi is called the imaginary
part.
Definition 2 Special Terms
a+bi b ≠ 0 Imaginary Number
0+ib=bi b ≠ 0 Pure Imaginary Number
a+ 0 i=a Real Number
0=0+i0 Zero
a−biConjugate of a+bi
Example1 Complex Numbers
Identify the real part, the imaginary part, and the conjugate of each of the following
numbers:
1. 3−2 i. 2. 2+5 i. 3.7 i 4. 6

Solutions
1. Real part :3 ; imaginary part :−2 i; conjugate : 3+2i .
2. Real part :2 ; imaginary part :5 i; conjugate :2−5 i .
3. Real part :0 ; imaginary part :7 i ; conjugate :−7 i .
4. Real part : 6 ; imaginary part :0 ; conjugate : 6.
Definition 3 Equality and Basic Operations
1. Equality : a+bi=c +di if ∧only if a=c ∧b=d
2. Addition : ( a+bi ) + ( c +di ) =( a+c ) + ( b +d ) i
3. Multiplication: ( a+ bi )( c +di ) =( ac−bd ) + ( ad +bc ) i

Example2 Addition and Subtraction of Complex Numbers

Carry out each operation and express the answer in standard form
8
 1. ( 2−3 i )+ ( 6+2 i ) 2. (−5+ 4 i )+ ( 0+0 i )
3. ( 7−3 i )− (6 +2i ) 4. (−2+7 i ) + ( 2−7 i )

Solutions
1. ( 2−3 i )+ ( 6+2 i )=( 2+6 )+ (−3+2 ) i=8−i .

2. (−5+4 i )+ ( 0+0 i )=(−5+0 )+ ( 4+ 0 ) i=−5+4 i.

3. ( 7−3 i )− (6 +2i ) =7−3 i−6−2 i=1−5 i .

4. (−2+7 i ) + ( 2−7 i ) =(−2+2 ) + ( 7−7 ) i=0.

Example3 Multiplying Complex Numbers

Carry out each operation and express the answer in standard form
1. ( 2−3 i )( 6 +2i ) 2.1 ( 3−5i ) 3.i ( 1+i ) 4. ( 3+ 4 i ) ( 3−4 i )

Solutions
2
1. ( 2−3 i )( 6 +2i )=12+ 4 i−18 i−6 i =12+ 4 i−18 i−6 (−1 )=18−14 i .
2. 1 ( 3−5 i )=1⋅ 3−1 ⋅5 i=3−5 i .
2
3. i ( 1+i )=i ⋅1+ i⋅i=i+i =i+ (−1 )=−1+i .
4. ( 3+ 4 i ) (3−4 i )=( 9−(−16) ) + (−12+12 ) i=25.

Theorem 1 Product of a Complex Number and Its Conjugate

( a+ bi )( a−bi )=a2 +b2 A real number
Example 4 Reciprocals and Quotients
1 7−3 i
Write each expression in standard form: 1. 2.
2+3 i 1+ i
Solutions
1.Multiply numerator and denominator by the conjugate of the denominator:
1 1 2−3 i 2−3 i 2−3 i 2 3
= ⋅ = = = − i.
2+ 3i 2+3 i 2−3 i 4 +9 13 13 13
2
7−3 i 7−3 i 1−i 7−7 i−3 i+3 i 7−7 i−3 i−3 4−10 i
2. = ⋅ = = = =2−5 i
1+ i 1+i 1−i 1+1 1+1 2
Definition 4 Principal Square Root of a Negative Real Number
The principal square root of a negative real number, denoted by √−a where a is positive, is
defined by √−a=i √ a , √−9=i √ 9=3i .
The other square root of a , a> 0 , is −√−a=−i √a .
Example5 Combined Operations
9
Carry out the indicated operations and write each answer in standard form:
2−3i
( A ) ( 3−2i )2−6 ( 3−2i ) +13 ( B )
2i

Solutions
( A ) ( 3−2i )2−6 ( 3−2i ) +13=9−12i+4 i2 −18+12i+13=0
2
i 2 i+ 3 −3
( B ) 2−3i ⋅ i = 2 i−3 = = −i
2i i i
2
−2 2

Definition 4 Principal Square Root of a Negative Real Number

The principal square root of a negative real number, denoted by √−a, where
a is positive, is defined by
√−a=i √ a
The other square root of −a , a> 0 , is−√−a=−i √ a .
Example6 Complex Numbers and Radicals
Write in standard form:
−3− √−5 1
1. √−4 2. 4 + √ −53. 4.
2 1−√−9
Solutions
1. √−4=i √ 4=2 i .2. 4 + √ −5=4+i √ 5 .

−3−√ −5 −3−i √5 −3 √ 5
3. = = − i.
2 2 2 2
1 1 1 1 1+ 3i 1+ 3i 1+3 i 1 3
4. = = = ⋅ = = = + i.
1−√ −9 1−i √ 9 1−3i 1−3 i 1+ 3i 1+9 10 10 10

Example7 Equations Involving Complex Numbers

1. Solve for real number x∧ y : ( 3 x+ 2 )+ ( 2 y −4 ) i=−4 +6 i
2. Solve for complex number ( 3+2 i ) z−3+ 6 i=8−4 i
Solutions
1. 3 x+ 2=−4∧2 y −4=6 , 3 x=−6∧2 y=10 , x=−2∧ y =5.
2. Solve for z, then write the answer in standard form.
( 3+2 i ) z−3+ 6 i=8−4 i , ( 3+2i ) z=11−10i ,
11−10 i 11−10 i 3−2 i 33−22 i−30 i−20 13−52 i
z= = ⋅ = = =1−4 i
3+2i 3+ 2i 3−2 i 9+ 4 13
H.W

10
a) Perform the indicated operations and write each answer in standard form.
i
1. ( 3+5 i )+ (2+ 4 i ) 2. ( 8−3 i )+ (−5+6 i ) 3. ( 5+2 i )( 3−3i ) 4.
3+i
b) Show that i 4 k =1, k a natural number
Distance in the Plane
Given two points P1∧P2 in a rectangular coordinate system, we denote the distance
between P1∧P2 by d (P1 , P2).
Example 1 Distance in the Plane
Find the distance between the points P1=( 1 , 2 )∧P2=(4 , 6).
Solution
Connecting the points P1 , P2 ,∧P 3=(4 , 2) with straight line segments forms a right triangle
(Fig. 1).
From the figure, we see that the lengths of the legs of the triangle are

d ( P1 , P3 ) =|4−1|=3∧d ( P 3 , P2 )=|6−4|=2
The length of the hypotenuse is d (P1 , P2), the distance
we are seeking. We get
2 2 2
[ d ( P1 , P 2) ] =[ d ( P1 , P3 ) ] + [ d ( P 3 , P2 ) ] =3 2+ 4 2
¿ 9+16=25 .
Therefore, d ( P P 1 , P2 )= √25=5
(Fig. 1)

Theorem 1 Distance Formula

The distance between P1=( x 1 , y 1) ∧P2=( x 2 , y2 ) is
d ( P1 , P2 ) =√ ( x2 −x1 ) + ( y2 − y 1 )
2 2

Example 2 Using Distance Formula

Find the distance between the points (−3 , 5)∧(−2 ,−8).
Solution
Let ( x 1 , y1 ) =(−3 , 5 )∧( x 2 , y 2) =(−2 ,−8 ) . Then

√
d= [ (−2 )−(−3 ) ] + [ (−8 ) −5 ] =√ [ −2+3 ] + [−8−5 ] = √ 1 + ( 13 )
2 2 2 2 2 2

¿ √ 1+169=√ 170

Midpoint of a Line Segment

Theorem 2 Midpoint Formula
11
The midpoint of the line segment joining P1=( x 1 , y 1) ∧P2=( x 2 , y2 ) is

M= ( x +2 x , y +2 y )
1 2 1 2

The point M is the unique point satisfying

1
d ( P1 , M ) =d ( M , P2 )= d ( P1 , P 2)
2

Example 3 Using Midpoint Formula

Find the midpoint M of the line segment joining A=(−3 , 2 )∧B=(4 ,−5). Plot A , B ,
1
¿ M and verify that d ( A , M )=d ( M , B )= d ( A , B).
2

Solution
We use the midpoint formula with ( x 1 , y 1 ) =(−3 ,2 )∧( x 2 , y 2 ) =(4 ,−5) to obtain the
coordinates of the midpoint M.

M= ( x +2 x , y +2 y )=( −3+2 4 , 2+(2−5) )=( 12 , −32 )=( .5 ,−1.5)

1 2 1 2

We plot the three points (Fig. 3) and compute the distances d ( A , M ), d ( M , B),∧d (A , B):

√ 2
d ( A , M )= (−3−.5 ) + [ 2−(−1.5 ) ] =√ 12.25+12.25
2

¿ √ 24.5
√
d ( M , B )= (−.5−4 ) + [ −1.5−(−5 ) ]
2 2

¿ √ 12.25+12.25= √ 24.5
√ 2
d ( A , B )= (−3−4 ) + [ 2− (−5 ) ] =√ 49+ 49= √ 98
2

1
2
1
d ( A , B ) = √ 98=
2
98
4 √
=√ 24.5=d ( A , M )=d ( M , B )
This verifies that M is the midpoint of the line segment joining A and B.

Example 4 Using the Midpoint Formula

If M =(1 ,1) is the midpoint of the line segment joining A=(−3 ,−1 ) ∧B=(x , y), find the
coordinates of B.
Solution
From the midpoint formula, we have

M =( 1 , 1 )=( −3+2 x , −1+2 y )

12
 −3+ x −1+ y
1= 1=
2 2
2=−3+ x 2=−1+ y
2+3=x 2+1= y
x=5 y=3
Therefore, B=(5 ,3).
Circles
Example 5 Equations and Graphs of Circles
Write an equation for the set of all points that are 5 units from the origin. Graph your
equation.
Solution
The distance between a point (x , y ) and the origin is
d= √ ( x−0 ) + ( y−0 ) =√ x 2 + y 2
2 2

So, an equation for the set of points that are 5 units from the origin is
√ x 2+ y2 =5
We square both sides of this equation to obtain an equation that does not contain any
radicals.
2 2
x + y =25
Because (−x )2=x 2∧(− y )2= y 2, the graph will be symmetric with respect to the x axis, y axis,
and origin. We make up a table of solutions, sketch the curve in the first quadrant, and use
symmetry properties to produce a familiar geometric object—a circle (Fig. 4).

Fig. 4

Definition 1 Circle
A circle is the set of all points in a plane equidistant from a fixed point. The fixed distance
is called the radius, and the fixed point is called the center.
Theorem 3 Standard Form of the Equation of a Circle
The standard form of a circle with radius r and center at (h , k ) is:
( x−h )2+ ( y−k )2=r 2 r > 0
Example 6 Equations and Graphs of Circles
13
Find the equation of a circle with radius 4 and center at C=(−3 ,6). Graph the equation.
Solution
C=( h , k ) =(−3 , 6 )∧r =4
2
( x−h )2+ ( y−k )2=r 2 , [ x−(−3 ) ] + ( y −6 )2=42 , ( x+ 3 )2+ ( y−6 )2 =16
To graph the equation, plot the center and a few points on the circle (the easiest points to
plot are those located 4 units from the center in either the horizontal or vertical direction),
then draw a circle of radius 4 (Fig. 8).

Fig. 8

Example 7 Finding the Center and Radius of a Circle

Find the center and radius of the circle with equation x 2+ y 2+ 6 x−4 y=23.
Solution
( x 2 +6 x+ 9 ) + ( y 2 −4 y + 4 ) =23+9+ 4
2
( x +3 )2 + ( y−2 )2=36 , [ x− (−3 ) ] + ( y−2 )2=6 2
Center ( h , k ) =(−3 , 2 ) & Radius r =√ 36=6

Homework
a) Find the distance between each pair of points and the midpoint of
the line segment joining the points. Leave distance in radical form,
if applicable.
( 1 , 0 ) , ( 4.4 )
b) Write the equation of a circle with the indicated center and radius.
C=( 0 , 0 ) , R=7
c) Write an equation for the given set of points. Graph your equation.
1) The set of all points that are two units from the origin.
2) Find y such that (2 , y) is 3 units from (−1 , 4).
d) Find the center and radius of the circle with the given equation. Graph the equation.
2 2
x + ( y+ 2 ) =9

14
Functions
Example1 Functions Specified as Sets of Ordered Pairs
Determine whether each set specifies a function. If it does, then state the domain and range.
1. S= {( 1 , 4 ) , ( 2 , 3 ) , ( 3 ,2 ) , ( 4 ,3 ) , ( 5 , 4 ) } .

2. T ={ ( 1 , 4 ) , ( 2 ,3 ) , ( 3 , 2 ) , ( 2 , 4 ) , (5 , 4 ) } .

Solution:
1. Because all the ordered pairs in S have distinct first components, this set specifies a
function. The domain and range are
Domain={ 1 , 2, 3 , 4 ,5 }∧Range= {2 , 3 , 4 }
2. Because there are ordered pairs in T with the same first component, this set does not
specify a function

Functions defined by equations

In an equation with two variables, if to each value of the independent variable there
corresponds exactly one value of the dependent variable, then the equation defines a
function.
If there is any value of the independent variable to which there corresponds more than one
value of the dependent variable, then the equation does not define a function.
Example2 Determining if an Equation Defines a Function
Determine if each equation defines a function with independent variable x.
2 2 2
1. y=x −4.2. x + y =16.

Solutions:
1. For any real number x, the square of x is a unique real number. When you subtract 4,
the result is again unique. So for any input x, there is exactly one output y, and the
equation defines a function.
2. In this case, it will be helpful to solve the equation for the dependent variable.
x 2+ y 2=16 , y 2=16−x 2 , y=± √ 16−x 2
There are two choices for y, one positive and one negative. The equation has more
than one output for some inputs, so does not define a function.
Example3 Finding the Domain of a Function
Find the domain of the function defined by the equation y= √ x−3 assuming x is the
independent variable.
Solution:
x−3 ≥ 0 ,∨x ≥3
The domain is { x| x ≥3 }∨[ 3 , ∞ ¿ .

15
Definition 3 The Symbol f (x)
The symbol f ( x ) , read “f of x,” represents the real number in the range of the function f
corresponding to the domain value x. The symbol f (x) is also called the value of the
function f at x. The ordered pair (x, f (x)) belongs to the function f. If x is a real number that
is not in the domain of f, then f is undefined at x and f (x) does not exist.
Example4 Evaluating Functions
15
1. Find f ( 6 ) , f ( a ) ,∧f ( 6+ a ) for f ( x ) = .
x−3
2
2. Find g ( 7 ) , g ( h ) ,∧g ( 7+h ) for g ( x )=16+3 x−x .
2
3. Find k ( 9 ) , 4 k ( a ) ,∧k ( 4 a ) for k ( x ) = .
√ x−2
Solutions:
15 15 15 15 15
1. f ( 6 )= = =5 , f ( a )= ∧f ( 6+ a )= =
6−3 3 a−3 (6 +a)−3 3+ a
2 2
2. g (7 )=16+ 3 ( 7 )−( 7 ) =16+21−49=−12 , g ( h )=16 +3 h−h ∧¿
2
g ( 7+h )=16+3 ( 7+ h )−( 7+ h ) .
2 2
3. k ( 9 )= = =2.
√ 9−2 3−2
2 8
4 k ( a ) =4 = .
√ a−2 √ a−2
2 2 1
k ( 4 a)= = = .
√ 4 a−2 2 √ a−2 √ a−1
Example 5 Finding Domains of Functions
Find the domain of each of the following functions. Express the answer in both set notation
and inequality notation.
15 2 2
1. f ( x )= . 2. g ( x )=16+3 x−x . 3. k ( x ) = .
x−3 √ x−2
Solution:
15
1. The rational expression x−3 represents a real number for all replacements of x by
real numbers except x=3, since division by 0 is not defined. So f (3) does not exist,
and the domain of f is
{ x| x ≠ 3 }∨ (−∞ ,3 ) ∪ ( 3 , ∞ )
2. Since 16+3 x−x represents a real number for all replacements of x by real numbers,
2

the domain of g is
R∨(−∞ , ∞ )

16
 3. Since √ x is not a real number for negative real numbers x, x must be a nonnegative
real number. Because division by 0 is not defined, we must exclude any values of x
that make the denominator 0. Set the denominator equal to zero and solve:
√ x−2=0 , √ x=2 , x=4
The domain of f is all nonnegative real numbers except 4. This can be written as
{ x| x ≥ 0 x ≠ 4 }∨ [ 0 , 4 ¿ ∪ ( 4 , ∞ )
Homework
a) Indicate whether each table in Problems 1–2 defines a function

b) Indicate whether each set in Problems 13–18 defines a function. Find the domain and
range
of each function.
1. { ( 2 , 4 ) , ( 3 , 6 ) , ( 4 , 8 ) , ( 5 ,10 ) } .2. { (−1 , 4 ) , ( 0 , 3 ) , ( 1 ,2 ) , ( 2 ,1 ) } .
c) Indicate whether each graph in Problems 1–2 is the graph of a function.

Graphing Functions
Example1 Finding the Domain and Intercepts of a Function
4−3 x
Find the domain, x intercept, and y intercept of f ( x )= 2 x +5
Solution
−5
The domain 2 x+5=0 , 2 x =−5 , x= 2
−5 5 −5
The domain of f is all x values except x= 2 ∨ −∞ ,− 2 ∪ 2 , ∞ ( ) ( )
The x intercept of f (x)
4−3 x 4
f ( x )= =0 , 4−3 x=0 , x=
2 x +5 3

17
The y intercept of f (x)
4−3(0) 4
f ( 0 )= = .
2( 0)+5 5
Example 2 Finding the Domain and Range from a Graph
1. Find the domain and range of the function f whose graph is shown in Figure1.
2. Find f ( 1 ) , f (3),∧f (5).

Solutions
1. The graph continues infinitely for (−3 , 4 ) and
Domain is −3< x <∞ ∨(−3 , ∞ )
Range is −5 ≤ y< ∞∨[ −5 , ∞ ¿
2. The point 1 in x coordinate is ( 1 ,−4 )
So f ( 1 ) =−4 , f ( 3 )=−5 ,∧f ( 5 )=−4
Definition1 Increasing, Decreasing, and Constant Functions
Let I be an interval in the domain of function f . Then,
1. f (x) is increasing on I and the graph of f is rising on I if f ( x 1 ) < f ( x 2) whenever
x 1< x2 ∈ I .
2. f (x) is decreasing on I and the graph of f is falling on I if f ( x 1 ) > f ( x 2) whenever
x 1> x2 ∈ I .
3. f (x) is constant on I and the graph of f is horizontal on I if f ( x 1 ) =f ( x 2 ) whenever
x 1=x 2∈ I .
Example 3 Analyzing a Piecewise-Defined Function
The function f is defined by

{
4 x+ 11ifx←2
f (x)= 3if −2 ≤ x ≤ 1
−1 7
x + if x >1
2 2
1. Find f (−3 ) , f (−2 ) , f ( 1 ) ,∧f ( 3 ) .
2. Graph of f ( x ) .
3. Find the domain, Range, and intervals where f ( x ) is increasing, decreasing or
constant.
Solutions:
1. Use formula 4 x+11 to find f (−3 ) : f (−3 )=4 (−3 ) +11=−12+11=−1.

18
 Use formula 3 to find f (−2 ) : f (−2 )=3.
Use formula 3 to find f ( 1 ) : f ( 1 ) =3.
−1 7
Use formula 2 x+ 2 to find f ( 3 ) :
−1 7 −1 7 −3 7 −3+7 4
f ( 3 )= x+ = ( 3 )+ = + = = =2.
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
2. To graph f, we graph each expression in the definition of f over the appropriate
interval. That is, we graph
y =4 x +11 for x ←2
y =3 for−2 ≤ x ≤1
−1 7
y= x + for x >1
2 2

We used a solid dot at the point (−2 , 3 ) to indicate that y=4 x +11 and y=3 agree at
−1 7
x=−2. The solid dot at the point ( 1 , 3 ) indicates that y=3∧ y= x + agree at x=1.
2 2
3. The domain of f ( x ) : (−∞ ,−2 ) ∪ [ −2 ,1 ] ∪ ( 1 , ∞ ) =(−∞ , ∞ )
The range: ¿
f (x) is increasing on (−∞ ,−2 )
f (x) is decreasing on ( 1 , ∞ )
f (x) is constant on [ −2 ,1 ]
H.W

a) Find the domain, x intercept, and y intercept.

3 x−12
f ( x )=
2x+4
b) find the indicated values of f ; (B) graph f and label the points from part A, if they exist;
and (C) find the domain, range, and the values of x in the domain of f at which f is
discontinuous.
f (−2 ) , f ( 1 ) , f ( 2 )

{
f ( x )= x if −2≤ x <1
−x +2 if 1≤ x ≤ 2
Even and Odd Functions
Definition:
If f ( x )=f (−x ) for all x in the domain of f, then f is an even function.
If f (−x ) =−f (x ) for all x in the domain of f, then f is an odd function.
19
The graph of an even function is symmetric with respect to the y axis and the graph of an
odd function is symmetric with respect to the origin (Fig. 1).

Figure 1 Even and odd functions.

Example 1: Testing for Even and Odd Functions
Determine whether the functions f, g, and h are even, odd, or neither
1. f ( x )=x 4+ 1.
2. g ( x )=x 3+ 1.
3. h ( x )=x 5 + x .
Solutions
1. f ( x )=x 4+ 1, f (−x ) =(−x )4 +1=x 4 +1=f ( x ) ,then f ( x )=f (−x )
This shows that f ( x ) iseven function .
2. g ( x )=x 3+ 1, g (−x )=(−x )3 +1=−x 3 +1 ,−g ( x )=−( x 3 +1 )=−x3 −1
The function g ( x ) is neither g(x) nor −g ( x ) so g is neither even nor odd.
3. h ( x )=x 5 + x , h (−x )=(−x )5−x =−x 5−x ,−h ( x )=−( x 5 + x )=−x 5−x ,
then h (−x )=−h ( x )
This shows that g ( x ) is odd function .
Example 2
Indicate whether each function is even, odd, or neither.
5 4 2 5
1. f ( x )=x −x 2.h ( x )=x −x 3. f ( x )=x −3
4
4. p ( x )=x −4 5. n ( x )=2 x−3
Solutions

1. f ( x )=x 5−x , f (−x )=(−x ) −(−x )=−x 5 + x ,−f ( x ) =−( x 5−x )=−x 5 + x ,
5

Then f (−x ) =−f ( x ) . This shows that f (x) is odd function.

4 2 4 2 4 2
2. h ( x )=x −x , h (−x ) =(−x ) − (−x ) =x −x , ⟹ h ( x )=h (−x )
This shows that g(x ) is even function.
3. f ( x )=x 5−3 , f (−x )= (−x ) −3=−x 5−3 ,−f ( x )=−( x 5−3 )=−x 5 +3
5

The function f is neither even nor odd.

4 4 4
4. p ( x )=x −4 , p (−x )=(−x ) −4=x −4 , ⟹ p ( x ) =p (−x )
The function p is even function.
5. n ( x )=2 x −3 ,n (−x )=2 (−x )−3=−2 x−3 ,−n ( x )=−( 2 x−3 )−2 x+3
20
The function n is neither even nor odd.

Homework
Indicate whether each function is even, odd, or neither.
3 4 2 5
1. g ( x )=x + x 2.m ( x )=x +3 x 3. F ( x )=x +1

4 2
4. G ( x )=x +2 5. q ( x )=x + x −3

Quadratic Functions
Definition 1 Quadratic Functions
If a , b ,∧c are real numbers with a ≠ 0 , then the function
2
f ( x )=a x +bx + c .

is called a quadratic function and its graph is called a parabola. This is known as the
general form of a quadratic function.
Properties of Quadratic Function and its Graph:
Given a quadratic function in vertex form f ( x )=a ( x−h )2 +k , a ≠ 0.
We summarize general properties as follows:
1. The graph of f is a parabola:

2. Vertex: (h , k ) (parabola rises on one side of the vertex and falls on the other).
3. Axis (of symmetry): x=h (parallel to y axis).
4. f ( h )=k is the minimum if a> 0 and the maximum ifa< 0.
5. Domain: all real numbers; range:¿ if a< 0∨ [ k , ∞ ¿ if a> 0.
6. The graph of f is the graph of g ( x )=a x 2 translated horizontally h units and vertically
k units.
Example 2 Finding the Vertex Form of a Parabola

21
Find the vertex form of f ( x )=2 x 2−8 x +4 by completing the square, then write the vertex and
the axis.
Solution
We will begin by separating the first two terms with parentheses; then we will complete the
square to factor part of f as a perfect square.
f ( x )=2 x 2−8 x +4=( 2 x 2−8 x ) + 4=2 ( x 2−4 x ) +4=2 ( x 2−4 x+ 4 ) +4−8
2
¿ 2 ( x−2 ) −4

Vertex: (2 ,−4) and the axis is x=2.

Finding the vertex of a parabola
When a quadratic function is written in the form f ( x )=a x2 +bx + c , the first coordinate of the
vertex can be found using the formula
−b
x= .
2a
The second coordinate can then be found by evaluating f at the first coordinate.
Example 4 Graphing a Quadratic Function
2
Let f ( x ) =x −6 x+ 4.

(A) Use the vertex formula to find the vertex and the axis of symmetry of f .
(B) Graph f and find the maximum or minimum of f (x), the domain, the range, and the
intervals where f is increasing or decreasing.
Solutions
(A) Using a=1∧b=−6 in the vertex formula,
−b −−6 2
x= = =3; f ( 3 )=3 −6 ( 3 ) +4=−5
2a 2
The vertex is (3 ,−5) and the axis of symmetry is x=3.
(B) Locate the axis of symmetry, the vertex, and several points on either side of the axis
of symmetry, and graph f .

The minimum of f ( x ) is−5 , the domain is (−∞ , ∞ )

the range is ¿ , f is decreasing on ¿ and increasing
on

¿.

22
Example 5 Finding the Equation of a Parabola
Find the equation of the parabola with vertex (3 ,−2) and x intercept 4.
Solution
Since the vertex is (3 ,−2), the vertex form for the equation is
2
f ( x )=a ( x−3 ) −2

Since 4 is an x intercept, f ( 4 )=0. Substituting x=4∧f ( x )=0 into the vertex formula, we have
2
f ( 4 )=a ( 4−3 ) −2=0 ⟹ a=2
The equation of this parabola is f ( x )=2 ( x−3 )2−2=2 x 2−12 x +16.
Solving a quadratic inequality
1. Write the inequality in standard form (a form where one side of the inequality defines
a quadratic function f and the other side is 0).
2. Find the zeros of f .
3. Graph f and plot its zeros.
4. Use the graph to identify the intervals on the x axis that satisfy the original inequality.
Example 8 Solving a Quadratic Inequality
Solve x 2−4 x ≥ 14.
Solution
Step 1. Write in standard form
2
x −4 x ≥14
2
x −4 x−14 ≥ 0
2
f ( x )=x −4 x−14 ≥ 0.

Step 2. Solve f ( x )=x 2−4 x−14=0.

Use the quadratic formula with a=1 , b=−4 , c=−14.
−b ± √ b2−4 ac 4 ± √ 16+72 4 ± 6 √ 2 4 6 √ 2
x= = = = ± =2± 3 √ 2
2a 2 2 2 2
The zero of f are 2 ±3 √ 2=≈−2.24 and 2 ±3 √ 2 ≈ 6.24
Step 3. Plot these zeros, along with a few other points, and graph f (Figure below).

23
Step 4. We need to identify intervals where f (x)≥ 0. From the graph we see that
f (x)≥ 0 for x ≤ 2−3 √ 2and for x ≥ 2+3 √ 2 . Returning to the original inequality, the solution to
x −4 x ≥ 14 is ¿
2

H.W
a) Complete the square and find the vertex form of each quadratic function, then write
the vertex and the axis and draw the graph.
2 2
1. f ( x )=x −4 x+5 2. h ( x )=−x −2 x−3
−b
b) Use the formula x= 2 a to find the vertex. Then write a description of the graph using
all of the following words: axis, increases, decreases, range, and maximum or
minimum. Finally, draw the graph.
2 2
1. f ( x )=x +8 x+ 82. x <10−3 x
Operations on Functions; Composition
Definition 1 Operations on Functions
The sum, difference, product, and quotient of the functions f and g are the functions
defined by
( f + g )( x )=f ( x )+ g ( x ) ∑ function
( f −g ) ( x )=f ( x )−g ( x ) Difference function
( fg )( x )=f ( x ) g ( x ) Product function

() f
g
( x )=
f (x )
g (x)
, g ( x ) ≠ 0 Quotient function

Example1 Finding the Sum, Difference, Product, and Quotient Functions

,∧f
Let f ( x ) =√ 4−x∧g ( x )=√ 3+ x . Find the function f +g , fg ,∧¿find their domains.
g
Solution:
( f +g ) ( x ) =f ( x )+ g ( x ) =√ 4−x+ √3+ x
( f −g ) ( x )=f ( x )−g ( x )= √ 4−x −√ 3+ x
( fg )( x )=f ( x ) g ( x )=√ 4−x √3+ x= √( 4−x )( 3+ x )= √12+ x−x 2
24
The domains of f and g are
()f
g
( x )=
f (x ) √ 4−x
=
g (x) √ 3+ x
=
4−x
3+ x √
Domain of f : x ≤ 4 0 r (−∞ , 4 ]
Domain of g : x ≥−3 0 r [−3 , ∞ )
The intersection of these domains is (−∞ , 4 ] ∩ [−3 , ∞ ) =[ −3 , 4 ]
This is the domain of the functions f +g , f −g ,∧fg . Since g (−3 )=0 , x=−3 must
be excluded from the domain of the quotient function, and
f
Domain of : (−3 , 4 ]
g
Example2 Finding the Quotient of Two Functions
x x−4 f
Let f ( x )= x−1 ∧g ( x )= x +3 . Find the function g and find its domain.
Solutions:
x

()
f
g
( x )=
f (x ) x−1
= =
x
⋅
x +3
=
x (x +3)
g (x) x−4 x−1 x−4 ( x−1 )( x−4 )
x+ 3
f
The domain of g to avoid division by 0.
f
The domain of g is all real numbers x except −3 , 1 ,∧4 .
Definition 2 Composition of Functions
The composition of a function f with another function g is denoted by f ∘ g (read
“f composed with g”) and is defined by
( f ∘ g ) (x)=f ( g(x ) )
Example3 Computing Composition From a Table
Functions f ∧g are defined by Table 2. Find (f ∘ g)(2),(f ∘ g)(5),∧(f ∘ g)(−3).
Solution:
We will use the formula provided by Definition 2.

( f ∘ g ) ( 2 )=f ( g ( 2 ) ) =f (−3 ) =−6

( f ∘ g ) (5 )=f ( g ( 5 )) =f ( 0 )=−1
( f ∘ g ) (−3 )=f ( g (−3 ) )=f ( 2 )=5Example4: Finding the Composition
of Two Functions
Find ( f ∘ g ) ( x ) for f ( x )=x 2−x∧g ( x )=3+2 x .
Solution:
We use the formula in Definition 2.
( f ∘ g ) ( x ) =f ( g ( x ) )=f (3+ 2 x )= ( 3+ 2 x )2−( 3+ 2 x )=9+12 x + 4 x 2−3−2 x
2
¿ 4 x +10 x +6.

Example5:
Find ( f ∘ g ) (x) for f ( x )= √ 4−x2 ∧g (x)=√3−x , then find the domain of f ∘ g.

25
Solution:
√ 2
( f ∘ g ) ( x ) =f ( g ( x ) )=f ( √3−x )= 4−( √3−x ) =√ 4−( 3− x ) =√1+ x

Domain of f: −2 ≤ x ≤ 2∨[ −2 ,2 ]
Domain of g: x ≤ 3∨(−∞ ,3¿
√ 2
( f ∘ g ) ( x ) =f ( g ( x ) )=f ( √3−x )= 4−( √3−x ) =√ 4−( 3− x ) =√1+ x

Domain of f ∘ g: x ≥−1∧x ≤3∨[ −1 ,3 ] .

H. W
a) Find the indicated function value, if it exists, given f ( x )=2−x∧g ( x )=√ 3−x .
( g+ f ) (−3 )
b) For the indicated functions f ∧g , find the functions f +g , f −g , fg∧f /g and find their
domains.
1. f ( x )=4 x , g ( x )=x+ 1.2. f ( x )= √ 2−x , g ( x ) =√ 3−x .
1 1
3. f ( x )=x + , g ( x )=x− .
x x

Inverse Functions
Definition 1 One-to-One Function
A function is one-to-one if no two ordered pairs in the function have the same second
component and different first components.
Example1 Determining Whether a Function Is One-to-One
Determine whether f is a one-to-one function for
2
1. f ( x )=x . 2. f ( x )=2 x−1.
Solutions
1. To show that a function is not one-to-one, all we have to do is find two different ordered
pairs in the function with the same second component and different first components.
Because
2 2
f ( 2 )=2 =4∧f (−2 )=(−2 ) =4.
2. To show that a function is one-to-one, we have to show that no two ordered pairs have
the same second component and different first components. To do this, we’ll show that if
any two ordered pairs (a , f (a))∧(b , f (b)) in f have the same second components, then the
first components must also be the same.

26
 2 a−1=2 b−1
f ( a )=f ( b ) Assume second components are equal .¿ (a)∧f (b)¿
2a=2 b Simplify .
f
a=b Conclusion: f is one−¿−one
By Definition 1, f is a one-to-one function.

Theorem 1 One – to – one function

1. If f ( a )=f (b) for at least one pair of domain values a∧b , a ≠ b then f is not one-to-one.
2. If the assumption f ( a )=f (b) always implies that the domain values a∧b are equal,
then f is one-to-one.

Theorem 2 Horizontal Line Test

A function is one-to-one if and only if every horizontal line intersects the graph of the
function in at most one point.

Theorem 3 Increasing and Decreasing Functions

If a function f is increasing throughout its domain or decreasing throughout its domain, then
f is a one-to-one function.

27
Definition 2 Inverse of a Function
If f is a one-to-one function, then the inverse of f , denoted f −1 , is the function formed by
reversing all the ordered pairs in f . That is,
f ={ ( y , x )| ( x , y ) is∈ f }
−1

If f is not one-to-one, then f does not have an inverse and f −1 does not exist.
Theorem4 Properties of Inverse Functions
For a given function f , if f −1exists, then
1. f −1is a one-to-one function.
2. The domain of f −1is the range of f .
3. The range of f −1 is the domain of f .
Theorem5 Inverse Functions and Composition
If f −1 exists, then
1. f ( f −1(x ) )=x for all x in the domain of f −1.
2. f −1 ( f (x ) )=x for all x in the domain of f .
If f ∧g are one-to-one functions satisfying:
f ( g (x) )=x for all x in the domain of g∧¿
g ( f (x) )=x for all x in the domain of f
Then f ∧g are inverses of one another.
Example 2 Deciding If Two Functions Are Inverses
Use Theorem 5 to decide if these two functions are inverses.
x+7
f ( x )=3 x−7∧g ( x )=
3
Solution
The domain of both functions is all real numbers. For any x,
f ( g (x) )=f ( x +73 )=3( x+3 7 )−7=x +7−7=x
3 x−7+7 3 x
g ( f (x) )=g ( 3 x−7 )= = =x
3 3
28
By Theorem 5, f and g are inverses.
Finding the inverse of a function
Step 1. Find the domain of f and verify that f is one-to-one. If f is not one-to-one, then stop,
because does not exist.
Step 2. If the function is written with function notation, like f (x), replace the function
symbol with the letter y. Then interchange x∧ y .
Step 3. Solve the resulting equation for y. The result is f −1 ( x ) .
Step 4. Find the domain of f −1. Remember, the domain of f −1 must be the same as the range
of f .
Example 3 Finding the Inverse of a Function
Find f −1 for f ( x )= √ x−1 .
Solution
Step 1. The f ( x )= √ x−1 is defined only for x−1 ≥ 0. The domain of f is [ 1 , ∞¿. The graph of f
in figure below shows that f is one-to-one, so f −1 exists.

Step 2. Replace f (x) with y , then interchange x and y.

f ( x )= y=√ x−1 ,then x=√ y−1
Step 3. Solve the equation for y.
x=√ y−1 ⟹ x = y−1 ⟹ y=x + 1. The inverse is f =x +1
2 2 −1 2

Step 4. Find the domain of f −1

The range of f is [ 0 , ∞ ¿ so that is the domain of f −1 .
Therefore, f −1=x 2 +1 , x ≥0.

H.W
a) For each set of ordered pairs, determine if the set is a function, a one-to-one function, or
neither. Reverse all the ordered pairs in each set and determine if this new set is a
function, a one-to-one function, or neither.
7. {(1, 2),(2 ,1),(3 , 4),( 4 , 3)}
8. {(−1 ,0),(0 , 1), (1 ,−1),(2, 1)}
b) Determine if the functions is one-to-one.

29
 1
25. f ( x )= x +2
2

−1
26. g ( x ) = x +1
3

5-1 Exponential Functions

Definition 1 Exponential Function
x
The equation f ( x )=b , b>0 ,b ≠ 1 , defines an exponential function for each different
constant b , called the base. The independent variable x can assume any real value.
Theorem1: Properties of Graphs of Exponential Function
Let f ( x )=b xbe an exponential function, b> 0 , b ≠1.Then the graph of f (x):
1. Is continuous for all real numbers
2. Has no sharp corners
3. Passes through the point (0, 1)
4. Lies above the x axis, which is a horizontal asymptote either as as x ⟶ ∞∨x ⟶ ∞ ,but
not both
5. Increases as x increases if b> 0 decreases as x increases if 0< b<1.
6. Intersects any horizontal line at most once (that is, f is one-to-one)

Exponential function properties:

For a∧b positive, a ≠ 1 , b≠ 1 ,∧x ∧ y real
1. Exponent laws:
x y
, ( a ) =a , ( ab ) =a b
x y x+y xy x x x
a a =a
30
 ()
x x x
a a a x− y
= x , y =a
b b a
2. a x =a y if and only if x= y .
3. For x ≠ 0 , a x =b x if and only ifa=b .
Example 1 Using Exponential Function Properties
Solve 4 x−3 =8 for x.
Solution:
Express both sides in terms of the same base, and use property 2 to equate exponents.
2 x−3 9
=8 , ( 2 )
x−3 3 2 x−6 3
4 =2 , ( 2 ) =2 , 2 x−6=3 , 2 x=9 , x=
2

Example 2
Simplify.
4−3 x
z e
1. ( 2 3 ) 2. 2−5 x .
x y

Solutions:
y z x z y z
1. ( 2 3 ) =( 2 ) ( 3 ) =2 3
x xz yz

4 −3 x 4 −3 x
e e e 4 −2 −3 x +5 x 2 2x 2+2 x 2 (1+ x)
2. 2−5 x = 2 −5 x =e e =e e =e =e
e e e

Example 3
Solve for x .
2
5 5
1. 4 5 x−x =4−6 2. ( 1−x ) = (2 x−1 ) .

Solutions:
2

1. 4 5 x−x =4−6 ⟹ 5 x−x 2=−6 ⟹ x 2−5 x−6=0=( x−6 ) ( x +1 ) =0

⟹ ( x−6 )=0 ⟹ x =6∧ ( x +1 ) =0 ⟹ x=−1

5 5 3
2. ( 1−x ) =( 2 x−1 ) ⟹ 1−x=2 x −1⟹ 3 x=2 ⟹ x=
2

H.W
a) Simplify

31
 ( )
x x 3z
3 4
1. 1− x 2. y
3 5

b) Solve for x
2 2

1. 7 x =72 x+3 . 2. 4 x =2 x+3 .3. 1002 x+ 3=1,000 x+5 .

5-3 Logarithmic Functions

Definition1 Logarithmic Functions
For b> 0 , b ≠1 , the inverse of f ( x )=b x , denoted f −1 ( x )=log b x , is the logarithmic function with
base b.
Logarithmic form Exponential form x=b y ¿
y =log b x is equivalent ¿

Remember: A logarithm is an exponent.

Example 1 Logarithmic–Exponential Conversions
Change each logarithmic form to an equivalent exponential form.
1
1. log 2 8=3 2. log 25 5= 3. log 2
2
1
4 ()
=−2

Solutions
1 1
1. log 2 8=3 is equivalent ¿ 3 2. log 25 5= is equivalent
8
=2 ¿ 2
¿
5=25 2 ¿ 3. log 2
1
4 () 1 −2
=−2 is equivalent ¿ =2 ¿ ¿
4

Example2:
Change each logarithmic form to an equivalent exponential form.
1 −1
1. 49=7 2.3=√ 93. =5
2
5

Solutions
1. 49=72 is equivalent ¿ 49=2 ¿ 2. 3=√ 9is equivalent log 3= 1 ¿ 3. 1 =5−1 is equivalent ¿ log 1 =−1 ¿ ¿
9 5
log 7 ¿ 2 5 5

Example3 Solutions of the Equation y=log b x

Find x ,b ,∨ y as indicated .
1. Find y : y=log 4 8 2. Find x : log 3 x =−23. Find b :log b 81=4

Solutions
32
 1. Write y=log 4 8 in equivalent exponential form

2 y 3
8=4 ⟶ 2 = ( 2 ) ⟶ 2 =2 ⟶ 3=2 y ⟶ y=
y 3 3 2y
2

2. Write log3 x=−2 in equivalent exponential form.

−2 1 1
x=3 = =
3 9
2

3. Write log b 81=4 in equivalent exponential form:

4 4 4
81=b ⟶ 3 =b ⟶ b=3

Theorem 2 Properties of Logarithmic Functions

If b , M ,∧N are positive real numbers, b ≠ 1 and P and x are real numbers, then
1. log b 1=0 5. log b M =log b n if ∧only if M =N
2. log b b=16. log b MN =log b M +log b N
x M
3. log b b =x 7. log b =log b M −log b N
N
4.b =x , x > 08. log b M P=P log b M
log x
b

Example 4 Using Logarithmic Properties

Simplify, using the properties in Theorem 2.
2 x+1
1. log e 1 2. log 10 10 3. log e e
2

4. log 10 0.01 5.10 log 7 6. elog x

10 e

Solutions
2 x+1
1 . log e 1=02. log 10 10=1 3. log e e =2 x+1
2

4. log 10 0.01=log 10 10−2=−2 5.10 log 7=7 6. e log x =x 2

10 e

Logarithmic – Exponential Relations

log x= y is equivalent ¿ =10 y ¿ ln x= y is equivalent ¿ x=e y ¿
x

Example 5 Solving log b x= y for x

Find x to three significant digits, given the indicated logarithms.
1. log x=−9.315 2. ln x=2.386

Solutions
−9.315 −10
1. log x=−9.315 , x=10 =4.84 × 10
33
 2.368
2. ln x=2.386 , x=e =10.9

H.W
a) Rewrite Problems in equivalent exponential form.
log 10 0.001=−3

b) Rewrite Problems in equivalent logarithmic form.

3
8=x 2

c) Simplify each expression using Theorem 2.

log 16

d) Find x, y, or b, as indicated in Problems 55–72

1. log 2 x =22. log b 16=2

e) Rewrite the expression as a single log.

log a−2 log b+3 log c

f) Given that log x=−2∧log y=3 , and find:

1. log ( xy ) 2. log ( x 5 y 3 )

6-2 Trigonometric Functions

On the unit circle, the radian measure of a positive angle is equal to the length of the
intercepted arc; similarly, on the unit circle, the radian measure of a negative angle is equal
to the negative of the length of the intercepted arc. Because θ=x ,we may consider the real
number x to be the name of the angle θ ,when convenient. The function W that associates
with each real number x the point W ( x )=P is called the wrapping function. The point P is
called a circular point.
π
Consider, for example, the angle in standard position that has radian measure 2 . Its

()
π
terminal side intersects the unit circle at the point (0 , 1). Therefore, W 2 =(0 , 1). Similarly,
π
we can find the circular point associated with any angle that is an integer multiple of 2 (Fig.
2).

34
 W ( 0 )= (1 , 0 )
W ()
π
2
= ( 0 ,1 )

W ( π )=(−1 , 0 ) Given a real number x, it is difficult, in general, to find the coordinates

W ( )
3π
2
= ( 0 ,−1 )

W ( 2 π )=( 1 , 0 )
(a, b) of the
circular point W(x) that is associated with x. (It is trigonometry that overcomes this
difficulty.) For certain real numbers x, however, we can find the coordinates (a, b) of W(x)
π
by using simple geometric facts. For example, consider x= 6 and let P denote the circular
point W(x) = (a, b) that is associated with x. Let P ' be the reflection of P through the u= axis
(Fig. 4).
π
Then triangle 0 PP' is equiangular (each angle has measure 3 radians or 60°) and
1
therefore equilateral. So b= 2 . Because (a, b) lies on the unit circle, we solve for a:

a2 +b2=1
a2 + ()
1 2
2
=1
1 3
a 2=1− =
4 4
a=± √
3
2
Therefore,
W ( π6 )=( √23 , 12 )
Example 1 Coordinates of Circular Points
Find the coordinates of the following circular points:

A¿W ( −π2 ) B¿ W ( 52π ) C ¿ W ( π3 ) D ¿ W ( 76π ) E ¿ W ( π4 )

Solutions
π
A. Because the circumference of the unit circle is 2 π .− 2 is the radian measure of a
1
( −π )
negative angle that is 4 of a complete clockwise rotation. So W 2 =( 0 ,−1 ) (Fig. 5).
B. Starting at (1, 0) and proceeding counterclockwise, we count quarter-circle steps,
π 2π 3π 4π 5π
, , , ∧end at . So the circular point is on the positive vertical axis, and
2 2 2 2 2
W ( )
5π
2
= ( 0 ,1 ) (see Fig. 5).

35
 π
()
C. The circular point W 3 is the reflection of the point W
π
6 ()( )
= √ ,
3 1
2 2
through the line

u=v . So W ( )=( , √ ) (Fig. 6).

π 1 3
3 2 2

D. The circular point W ( 6 ) is the reflection of the point W ( )=( √ , ) through the
7π π 3 1
6 2 2

origin. So W ( )=( √ ,− ) (see Fig. 6).

7π − 3 1
6 2 2

E. The circular point W ( 4 ) lies on the line u=v , so a=b .

π

2 2 2 2 1 1
a + b =1 , 2 a =1 , a = , a=
2 √2
π
()(
So W 4 =
1 1
,
√ 2 √2 )
(Fig. 7).

Definition 1 Trigonometric Functions

Let x be a real number and let (a ,b) be the coordinates of the circular point W ( x) that lies on
the terminal side of the angle with radian measure x. Then:

Remarks:
1. Note that sin x∧cos x are the second and first coordinates, respectively, of the point
(a ,b)on the unit circle.
2. We assume in Definition 1 that (a ,b) is the point on the unit circle that lies on the
terminal side of the angle with radian measure x. More generally, however, if (a ,b) is
the point on that terminal side that lies on the circle of radius then:
36
 2 2 2
a + b =r

()() ( )
2 2
a b a b
+ =1 So , lies on the unit circle
r r r r

Example 2 Evaluating Trigonometric Functions

Find the values of all six trigonometric functions of the angle x if
(
3 4
A. W ( x )= 5 ,− 5 . )
B. The terminal side of x contains the point (−60 ,−11).
Solutions
A. Note that W ( x) is indeed on the unit circle because

√( )
5
3
( )
3 2 −4 2
+
5
−4
=
√
9 16
+ =
25 25
25
25
=1
√
Using Definition 1, with a= 5 ∧b= 5 ,
−4 1 −5
sin x=b= cscx= =
5 b 4
3 1 5
cos x=a= secx= =
5 a 3
−4 3
b 5 −4 a 5 −3
tan x= = = cotx= = =
a 3 3 b −4 4
5 5
B. The distance r from (−60 ,−11) .¿ ( 0 ,0 ) is
√ (−60 ) +(−11 ) =√3600+ 121=√ 3721=61
2 2

Using Remark 2 following Definition 1, with a=−60 , b=−11 and r =61:

b −11 r −61
sin x= = cscx= =
r 61 b 11
a −60 −61
cos x= = secx=
r 61 60
b 11 a 60
tan x= = cotx= =
a 60 b 11
Reciprocal Identities
For x any real number:
1
cscx= sinx ≠ 0
sinx
1
secx= cosx ≠ 0
cosx
1
cotx= tanx ≠ 0
tanx
Example 3
Evaluate to four significant digits.
A ¿ tan1.5 B ¿ sec (−6.27 )

37
C ¿ sec ( 11π
12 )
D ¿ The coordinates ( a , b ) of W (1)

Solutions
A ¿ tan1.5=14.10
1
B ¿ sec (−6.27 ) = =75.84
sin (−6.27 )
C ¿ sec ( )
11π
=
1
=−1.035
12
cos ( )
11 π
12
D ¿ W ( 1 )=( cos 1 , sin 1 )=(0.5403 , 0.8415)

Homework

Find the coordinates of each circular point.

7. W ( π ) 8. W ( 2 π ) 15. W ( 116π ) 18. W ( −92 π )
6-3 Solving Right Triangles
Trigonometric Ratios

Right triangle Ratios

Example 1 Right Triangle Solution

Solve the right triangle with c=6.25 feet∧ β=32.2° .
Solution
First draw a figure and label the parts (Fig. below):

38
 ∘ ∘
Solve for α :α =90 −32.2°=57.8
b b
Solve for b :sinβ= , sin32.2 °= ,b=6.25 sin 32.2 °=3.33 feet
c 6.25 Example 2 Right Triangle
a a
Solve for a : cosβ= ,cos 32.2°= , a=6.25 cos 32.2°=5.29 feet
c 6.25
Solution
Solve the right triangle with a=4.32 centimeters and b=2.62 centimeters. Compute the angle
measures to the nearest 10' .
Solution
Draw a figure and label the known parts (Fig. below).

2.62 −1 2.62 '

Solve for β : tanβ= , β=tan =31.2° ∨31° 10
4.32 4.32
Solve for α :90 °−31 °10' =89 ° 60' −31 ° 10 ' =58° 50'
2.62 2.62
Solve for c :sinβ= , c= =5.06 centimeters
c 31.2 °
¿ , using the Pythagorean theorem ,
c= √ 4.32 + 2.62 =5.05 centimeters
2 2

Homework

Find each acute angle θ in degree measure to two decimal places using a calculator.
∘ ∘ '
25. β=17.8 ,c =3.4529. α =23 0 , a=54.0 33. a=6.00 , b=8.46

6-4 Properties of Trigonometric Functions

Definition 1 Trigonometric Functions
Let x be a real number and let (a ,b) be the coordinates of the circular point W ( x) that lies on
the terminal side of the angle with radian measure x . Then:

39
Theorem 1 Basic Trigonometric Identities
For x any real number (in all cases restricted so that both sides of an equation are defined),
Reciprocal identities
( 1 )( 2 ) (3)
1 1 1
cscx= secx= cotx=
sinx cosx tanx
Quo tien t identities
( 4 )( 5 )
sinx cosx
tanx= cotx=
cosx sinx
Identities for negatives
( 6 )( 7 ) (8)
sin (−x )=−sinx cos (−x ) =cosx tan (−x )=−tanx
Pythagorean identity
(9)
2 2
s ¿ x +cos x=1
Example 1 Using Basic Identities
Use the basic identities to find the values of the other five trigonometric functions given
−1
sin x= ∧tan x >0.
2
Solution
( )
2
2 2 −1 2 2 1 3
s ¿ x+ cos x=1 , + cos x=1 ,cos x =1− =
2 4 4
− √3
cosx = ,
2
Now, because we have values for sinx∧cosx , we can find values for the other four
trigonometric functions using identities (1), (2), (4), and (5):

40
 1 1 1 1 −2
cscx= = =−2 , secx= = =
sinx −1 cosx −√ 3 √ 3
2 2
−1 − √3
sinx 2 1 cosx 2
tanx= = = , cotx= = =√ 3
cosx −√ 3 √ 3 sinx −1
2 2
Example 2 Symmetry
sinx
Determine whether the function f ( x )= x is even, odd, or neither.
Solution
sin (−x ) sinx
f (−x ) = = =f (x )
−x x
Then f ( x ) is even function.
Homework
Determine whether each function is even, odd, or neither.

tanx secx
19. y= 20. y=
x x

7-1 Basic Identities

Basic Trigonometric Identities
Reciprocal identities
1 1 1
cscx= secx= cotx=
sinx cosx tanx
Quo tien t identities
sinx cosx
tanx= cotx=
cosx sinx
Identities for negatives
sin (−x )=−sinx cos (−x ) =cosx tan (−x )=−tanx
Pythagorean identity
s ¿ x+ cos x=1 tan2 x +1=sec 2 x 1+cot 2 x=csc 2 x
2 2

Example 1 Identity Verification

Verify the identity cos x tan x=sin x .
Solution
Here we start with the left-hand side and use a quotient identity to rewrite tan x:
sin x
cos x tan x=cos x =sin x
cosx
Example 2 Identity Verification
Verify the identity sec (−x )=sec x .
Solution
We start with the left-hand side and use a reciprocal identity:
41
 1 1
sec (−x )= = =secx
cos (−x ) cos ( x )

Example 3 Identity Verification

Verify the identity cot x cos x+ sin x=csc x .
Solution
We start with the left-hand side and rewrite cotx in terms of sinx and cosx :
2 2 2
cosx cos x cos x +sin x
cot x cos x+ sin x= cosx + sinx= + sinx=
sinx sinx sinx
1
¿ =cscx
sinx
Homework
Verify that the equations are identities.
1. sinθ secθ=tanθ 2. tanθ cscθ cosθ=1

tanα cotα cosα secα

3. sinα = 4. tanα=
cscα cotα

42