Disaster Management

Te
le
gr
am
ID
-@
A
ge
nt
_U
PS
C
C
PS
_U
nt
DISASTER
ge
A
-@
ID
am
gr
le
MANAGEMENT
Te
COMPREHENSIVE LEARNING SERIES FOR

PRELIMS AND MAINS
EDITION: Update
Published By: Physicswallah Private Limited
Physics Wallah Publication

ISBN: 978-93-6034-609-6
Mobile App: Physics Wallah (Available on Play Store)
Website: www.pw.live
Youtube Channel: Physics Wallah - Alakh Pandey
UPSC Wallah
UPSC Wallah - Hindi Medium
PSC Wallah - UP Bihar
MPSC Wallah
Email:
C
[email protected]
PS
_U
nt
ge
Rights
A
-@
ID
All rights are reserved with the Publisher. No part of this book may be used or reproduced in any manner whatsoever without written
am
permission from the author or publisher.

gr
le
Te
In the interest of the student community:

Circulation of soft copy of Book(s) in PDF or other equivalent format(s) through any social media channels, emails, etc. or any other
channels through mobiles, laptops or desktop is a criminal offense. Anybody circulating, downloading, or storing, a soft copy of the
book on his device(s) is in breach of the Copyright Act. Further photocopying of this book or any of its material is also illegal. Do
not download or forward in case you come across any such soft copy material.
Disclaimer
A team of PW OnlyIAS experts and faculties with a deep understanding of the subject has worked hard for the creation and curation
of this book.
While the content creators, editors and publisher have used their best efforts in preparing these books. The content has been checked
for accuracy. As the book is intended for educational purposes, the author shall not be responsible for any errors contained in the
book.
The publication has designed the content to provide accurate and authoritative information with regard to the subject matter covered.
This book and the individual contribution contained in it are protected under Copyright Act by the publisher.
(This Book shall only be used for educational purposes.)
PREFACE
A highly skilled professional team of PW OnlyIAS works arduously to ensure that the students receive the best content
for the UPSC exams.
A plethora of UPSC Study Material is available in the market but PW ONLY IAS professionals are continuously working
to provide the supreme quality study material for our UPSC students.
From the beginning, the whole content team comprising Content Creators, Reviewers, DTP operators, Proofreaders and
others are involved in shaping the material to their best knowledge and experience to produce powerful content for the
students.
Faculties have adopted a new style of presenting the content in easy-to-understand language and have provided the team
with their guidance and supervision throughout the creation of this book.
PW ONLY IAS strongly believes in conceptual and fun-based learning. PW ONLY IAS provides highly exam-oriented
C
PS
content to bring quality and clarity to the students.

_U
nt
ge
This book adopts a multi-faceted approach to master and understanding the concepts by having a rich diversity of
A
-@
questions asked in the examination and equip the students with the knowledge for this competitive exam.
ID
am
gr
The main objective of the study material is to provide short, crisp, concise and high-quality content to our students.
le
Te
BOOK FEATURES
• Holistic coverage of topics, strictly as per exam syllabus
• One-stop solution for subject wise coverage
• Intensive use of Maps, Diagrams, Flowcharts and Timelines for quick understanding and
revision
• Thinking Points in and as ‘Ignite Your Mind’
• Updated with latest current affairs and data
Te
le
gr
am
ID
-@
A
ge
nt
_U
PS
C
CONTENTS
1. Understanding Disaster Risk ��1-6
2. Disaster Management Cycle ��7-10
3. Natural Hazards and Their Mitigation �� 11-51

PS
C
4. Anthropogenic Disasters and Their Mitigation �� 52-78

_U
nt
ge
A
-@
ID
am
5. Relief, Recovery and Rehabilitation �� 79-90

gr
le
Te
6. Disaster Management: Institutions and Policy Guidelines �� 91-102
7. Funding Framework and Capacity Building��103-110
8. International Cooperation ��111-122
9. Climate Change and Disaster ��123-130
10. Covid-19 and Disaster Management ��131-138

Te
le
gr
am
ID
-@
A
ge
nt
_U
PS
C
Understanding Disaster Risk 1
as geophysical events (earthquakes, landslides,
INTRODUCTION tsunamis, and volcanic activity), hydrological events
Disasters, whether natural or man-made, have been part (avalanches and floods), climatological events (extreme
of man’s evolution since time immemorial. A disaster is an temperatures, drought, and wildfires), meteorological
extreme disruption of the functioning of a society that causes events (cyclones and storms surge), or biological events
widespread human, material, or environmental losses that (disease, epidemics and insect/animal plagues).
exceed the ability of the affected society to cope with its own
Anthropogenic Hazards: In contrast, anthropogenic
resources. The Indian subcontinent is among the world’s most
disaster-prone areas. According to a report by the Geneva- hazards stem from human actions or inactions, distinctly
based Internal Displacement Monitoring Centre, natural different from natural hazards. These hazards can
disasters, especially heavy floods and cyclones, triggered adversely impact humans, other organisms, biomes,
around 2.5 million internal displacements in India in 2022. and ecosystems. Examples of anthropogenic hazards
Another report from the India Meteorological Department encompass pollution, deforestation, the use of herbicides
states that India recorded 2,227 human casualties due to and pesticides, and chemical spillages.
extreme weather events in 2022.
Difference between Hazard and Disaster
HAZARD If a hazard like a cyclone hits an unpopulated area, say
A hazard can be characterised as a difficult condition or event an unpopulated coast, it need not be considered as a
with the potential to cause harm to life, property, or the disaster. However, it will be considered a disaster if life and
C
PS
environment. It represents any source capable of inflicting property are seriously damaged. A hazard may be regarded
_U
damage, harm, or adverse health effects on individuals or as a pre-disaster situation, in which some risk of disaster
nt
ge
their surroundings. exists, because the human population has placed itself in
A
-@
Natural Hazards: Natural hazards arise from naturally a situation of risk. Thus mitigation becomes significant to
ID
occurring physical phenomena. These can manifest avoid converting Hazard into disaster.
am
gr
le
DISASTER
Te
Vulnerability Hazard
Underlying Causes Dynamic Pressure Trigger Event

Conditions Earthquake
Limited access to Lack of institutional Tsunami
resources training and Flood
skills. Cyclone
Illness and Volcanic Eruption
Disability Population expansion
Drought
Age/Sex Urbanization, Landslide
Environmental War
Poverty degradation. Environmental
Fig 1.1: Hazard and Vulnerability turning into Disaster

How Human Activities are Converting induced climate change has significantly increased both the
Hazards into Disasters? frequency and intensity of extreme weather events. While
The human-induced factors can greatly aggravate the adverse heavy rains, cyclones, or earthquakes are all natural, the
impacts of a natural disaster. The UN Intergovernmental impacts may, and are usually, worsened by many factors
Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) has shown that human- related to human activity. Extensive industrialization and
urbanisation increase both the probability of human-induced
Case Study: Structural Risks during a Hazard:
disasters and the extent of potential damage to life and
property from both natural and human-induced disasters. Earthquakes and Low-Strength Masonry in Nepal
Structural Risk: Low-strength masonry of stone or bricks
Case Study- Shimla Landslide 2023: From Hazard with mud mortar is the dominant building typology in
Nepal and has been used as a building material since
to Disaster
ancient times. It is still used in many parts of the country.
The tragic Shimla landslide of 2023 exemplifies how a
Construction of early monuments, temples and residential
natural hazard transformed into a devastating disaster
buildings was generally limited to materials that were
due to a series of avoidable missteps. While heavy rainfall
readily available and easily worked by local artisans. The
was the trigger, years of environmental disregard and
trend at present is to use cement-based construction,
reckless development set the stage for catastrophe.
especially in urbanising areas.
Unchecked deforestation stripped the slopes of their
protective cover, making them vulnerable to erosion and Disaster: In April 2015, an earthquake and its aftershocks
waterlogging. Unplanned urban sprawl encroached on killed more than 8,800 people and injured more than
fragile hillsides, adding unnecessary weight and altering 22,000 largely due to the damage to low strength
drainage patterns. Poorly built roads carved scars into masonry structures. Among other factors, the impact on
mountains, further destabilising the terrain. In essence, life depended on building vulnerability and the evolution
human actions turned a natural event into a preventable of construction methods. Indeed, fatalities from the
tragedy. earthquake indicated that, on average, there had been a
reduction in building vulnerability in urban areas, whereas
buildings in rural areas remained highly vulnerable.
VULNERABILITY
Low- Cement Reinforced Total
According to the United Nations Office for Disaster Risk strength masonry concrete
Reduction (UNDRR) Vulnerability is defined as conditions Partially 173 867 65 859 16 971 256 697
C
influenced by physical, social, economic, and environmental damaged

PS
_U
factors or processes that make a community more likely Fully 474 025 18 214 6 613 498 852
nt
ge
to be affected by hazards. Vulnerability relates to several damaged

A
-@
factors, including: Mitigation: The National Society for Earthquake Technology

ID
Physical factors: Poor design and construction of in Nepal started conducting training on earthquake
am
gr
buildings, unregulated land use planning, etc. resistant construction of vernacular buildings for masons
le
Te
Social factors: Inequality, marginalisation, social in the late 1990s, and the government has taken the lead
exclusion and discrimination by gender, social status, with national and international support, especially after
the 2015 earthquake. There remains a continuing need
disability and age. For example, Sagar Island, the
for the institutionalisation of a comprehensive, multi-tier
largest inhabited estuarine island of Sundarbans, is and hands-on training certification programme to teach
experiencing severe coastal erosion, frequent cyclones, further skills in improving the seismic performance of
flooding, storm surges, and breaching of embankments, buildings and delete developing nationwide capacities in
resulting in land, livelihood, and property loss, and the earthquake resistant reconstruction.
displacement of people at a huge scale. This is further
intensified by increased threats due to climate change
as a result of their higher exposure and lesser adaptive EXPOSURE
capacity. Definition: Exposure is the situation of people, infrastructure,
Economic factors: Poverty, the uninsured informal housing, production capacities and other tangible human
sector, vulnerable rural livelihoods, dependence on assets located in hazard-prone areas. If a hazard occurs in an
single industries, globalisation of business and supply area of no exposure, then there is no risk.
chains, etc. Lekima vs Yolanda: This can be exemplified by typhoons
Environmental factors: These include poor environmental (tropical cyclones that occur in the Pacific Ocean). In October
management, overconsumption of natural resources, 2013 a Category 5 super typhoon (known as Lekima) hit the
decline of risk regulating ecosystem services, climate North West Pacific Ocean. Its winds reached peaks of around
change, etc. Recent examples of severe air pollution 240 kilometres per hour, but caused no impact on people or
could have heightened Covid-19 risk in South Asia. assets. In November 2013 another Category 5 Super Typhoon
2 Disaster Management
Haiyan (Yolanda) hit the region, with winds peaking at 315 What Drives Exposure?
kilometres per hour. Haiyan affected 11 million people, People and economic assets become concentrated in
causing more than 6000 casualties and the loss of more than areas exposed to hazards through processes such as
1.5 billion US dollars. The difference in impact was because population growth, migration, urbanisation and economic
there were no people or property in the path of Lekima; in development. Many hazard-prone areas, such as coastlines,
other words, there was no exposure. volcanic slopes and floodplains, attract economic and urban
development, offer significant economic benefits or are of
cultural or religious significance to the people who live
there. As more people and assets are exposed, risk in these
areas becomes more concentrated. At the same time, risk
also spreads as cities expand and as economic and urban
development transform previously sparsely populated areas.
RISK
Risk is the probability of an outcome hurting people,
systems or assets. Risk looks at the chance of harmful
outcomes or expected losses, like deaths, injuries,
property damage, disruptions to livelihoods, economic
activity, and environmental harm. This depends on the
Fig 1.2: Path of Typhoon Haiyan and interplay between natural or human-made hazards and
Typhoon Lekima vulnerabilities. It’s calculated as:
C
PS
_U
nt
ge
A
-@
ID
am
gr
le
Te
Assets
Fig. 1.3: Risk Assessment
Different Approaches of Managing Risk
Approach Description Examples

Risk Acceptance Making informed decisions to accept the Two coastal villages in Odisha, Venkatraipur in
potential consequences and likelihood of a Ganjam district and Noliasahi in Jagatsingpur
specific risk. district earned the recognition of being ‘Tsunami
Ready’ from the UNESCO-Intergovernmental
Oceanographic Commission, making India the first
country in the Indian Ocean Region to establish
such high levels of disaster preparedness at the
community level.

Risk Avoidance Choosing not to engage in activities that Communities situated in areas susceptible to
might lead to a risk occurrence. wildfires or mudslides may opt to relocate to safer
zones entirely. While a drastic measure, it proves
effective in avoiding potential disasters.
Risk Reduction Utilising appropriate methods to decrease By enforcing stringent building codes and retrofitting
the likelihood of a risk and mitigate its existing structures in earthquake-prone zones, the
consequences. damage and casualties during earthquakes can be
significantly reduced.
Risk Transfer Shifting the risk burden to someone else is Homeowners in flood-prone regions can secure flood
often achieved through mechanisms like insurance to shift the financial risk of flooding to the
insurance. insurance company. This provides financial support
for repairs and reconstruction after a flood.
RISK
Hazard and Exposure Vulnerability Lack of Coping Capacity
Natural Anthropogenic Socio- Vulnerable

Institutional Infrastructure
Economic Groups
Earthquake Mine Physical

Uprooted
Disasters Infra-
Development people
Flood Governance structure
C
Dimensions &
PS
Railway Children
Deprivation
_U
Cyclone and surge Accidents Under Access

nt
to Water,
ge
Five
A
Categories Landslide Sanitation

-@
Air
Accidents Disaster & Hygiene
ID
Recent Risk
Salinity
am
Components Shocks Reduction Access

gr
Fire Inequality
le
Lighting to Health
Te
Disasters
Food Care
River Erosion Security
Dam Preparedness
Drought Safety & Access to
Economic Other
Dependency Response Communi
Vulnerable
Epidemic Stampede -cations
Groups
Fig. 1.4: Factors igniting Risk Probability

resource allocation and optimising interventions.
• For example, in contemporary times, cyclones are
IGNITE YOUR MIND
accurately forecasted in advance, enabling us to
Imagine forecasting based on animal behaviour, proactively implement suitable measures to mitigate
plant indicators, and ancient storytelling alongside potential disasters.
data analysis. Effective Mitigation Strategies: These assessments enable
tailored mitigation strategies (like community education,
Importance of Vulnerability Analysis and
early warning systems, infrastructure resilience, etc.),
Risk Assessment fostering community engagement and preparedness.
Vulnerability analysis and risk assessment are pivotal for pre- Early Warning Systems: By identifying hazards and
disaster management in the following ways: vulnerabilities, early warning systems are enhanced,
Informed Decision-Making: They empower decision- facilitating proactive measures and reducing disaster
makers with insights into potential threats, guiding impacts.
Policy Development and Planning: The data informs 3. Frequent and infrequent disasters: Depend on the
evidence-based policy development and planning, probability of occurrence and the return period of a
aligning strategies with specific risks. The aim is given hazard and its impacts. The impact of frequent
to minimise losses and casualties through timely disasters could be cumulative, or become chronic for
interventions. a community or a society.
• The NDMA has formulated guidelines addressing a 4. Slow-onset disaster: It is defined as one that emerges
spectrum of disasters for effective mitigation. gradually over time. Slow-onset disasters could be
Community Engagement: Engaged communities actively associated with, e.g., drought, desertification, sea-
participate in risk reduction, contributing to overall level rise, and epidemic disease.
resilience. Continuous monitoring and adaptation 5. Sudden-onset disaster: This one is triggered by a
ensure strategies remain effective and responsive. hazardous event that emerges quickly or unexpectedly.
Example: Amid the Kerala floods, successful community Sudden-onset disasters could be associated with,
engagement played a pivotal role in effectively managing e.g., earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, flash floods,
the extensive disaster. chemical explosions, critical infrastructure failures,
Reduced Losses and Casualties: By identifying and transport accidents.
vulnerabilities and assessing risks, disaster management
aims to reduce the potential impact on lives, property, GLOBAL DIMENSIONS OF DISASTERS
and the environment.
• Example: Vulnerability analysis allows timely Increasing Trend in Disaster Losses: In recent times, the
evacuations before cyclone Bipajoy, saving lives and world has witnessed a concerning escalation in disaster
protecting property. losses, attributed to the forces of urbanisation and a
growing global population as shown in the above figure.
Major Recorded Disasters (2000-2019): As per the
DISASTERS UNDRR report during the period 2000 to 2019, there
As per the 2005 Disaster Management Act “disaster” means were 7,348 major recorded disaster events, resulting
a catastrophe, mishap, calamity or grave occurrence in in 1.23 million fatalities, affecting 4.2 billion people,
C
and causing approximately US$2.97 trillion in global

PS
any area, arising from natural or man made causes, or by

_U
accident or negligence which results in substantial loss of economic losses. This signifies a substantial increase
nt
ge
life or human suffering or damage to, and destruction of, compared to the preceding two decades.
A
-@
property, or damage to, or degradation of, environment, and Rise in Climate-Related Disasters: The UNDRR report
ID
is of such a nature or magnitude as to be beyond the coping attributes much of the increase to climate-related
am
capacity of the community of the affected area. disasters, notably extreme weather events. The number
gr
le
of climate-related events surged from 3,656 (1980-1999)

Te
Etymology to 6,681 (2000-2019).

The term ‘Disaster’ has its origins in Middle French, Floods and Storms: Over the last two decades, major
désastre, and Old Italian, Disastro, both of which trace floods more than doubled from 1,389 to 3,254, and
back to the Greek pejorative prefix δυσ- (dus-), meaning storm incidences increased from 1,457 to 2,034. Floods
“bad,” and αστήρ (aster), meaning “star.” The fundamental and storms emerged as the most prevalent events.
meaning of the word disaster, which translates to “bad Heatwaves and Drought: Heatwaves contribute to
star” in Greek and Latin, stems from an astrological 148,000 of the 164,000 lives lost due to extreme
concept. In ancient times, this term was employed temperatures, with 92% of these deaths happening
to describe the ruin or downfall of a star, reflecting a in high-income countries, particularly Europe. Africa
catastrophic event. experiences the highest incidence of drought, with
the report advocating for improved data collection on
Classification of Disasters indirect deaths from drought.
As per the Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction
2015-2030, disasters can be classified in the following
2023 Turkey–Syria Earthquakes
manners:
The 2023 Turkey-Syria earthquakes were a devastating
1. Small-scale disaster: A type of disaster only affecting series of tremors that struck southern and central Turkey
local communities which require assistance beyond and northern and western Syria on February 6, 2023. The
the affected community. E.g. Landslides initial earthquake, with a magnitude of 7.8, was followed
2. Large-scale disaster: A type of disaster affecting a society by a second powerful earthquake of magnitude 7.5,
which requires national or international assistance. causing widespread destruction and loss of life.
For example 2011 Tohoku earthquake and tsunami.

America, contributing to the sub-zero temperatures in
Epicentre: The epicentre of the first earthquake was
Texas, during which the power grid froze up, and 210
near Gaziantep, Turkey, close to the border with Syria.
people died.
Intensity: The earthquakes had a maximum Mercalli
COVID and the Cyclone: Another example of the
intensity of XII (Extreme) in the epicentral region.
connections between disasters is Cyclone Amphan,
Aftershocks: Over 570 aftershocks were recorded
which struck the border region of India and Bangladesh.
within the first 24 hours of the main earthquake, and
In an area where almost 50 per cent of the population
over 30,000 by May 2023.
is living under the poverty line, the COVID-19 pandemic
Fatalities: Over 57,000 people were killed in the and subsequent lockdowns left many people without
earthquakes, with tens of thousands more injured. any way to make a living, including migrant workers who
were forced to return to their home areas and were
housed in cyclone shelters while under quarantine. When
IGNITE YOUR MIND the region was hit by Cyclone Amphan, many people,
concerned over social distancing, hygiene and privacy,
Can international cooperation and financial avoided the shelters and decided to weather the storm
aid create a more equitable system for disaster in unsecure locations. In the aftermath, there was a
preparedness and response, ensuring no spike in COVID-19 cases, compounding the 100 fatalities
community is left behind in the face of climate- directly caused by Amphan, which also caused damage in
driven catastrophes? excess of 13 billion USD and displaced 4.9 million people.
Why is it happening?: The new report identifies three
Concerted International Action: Disasters affect all root causes that affected most of the events in the
countries, but developing countries are more vulnerable analysis:
and bear a disproportionate burden of the impacts.
• Human-induced greenhouse gas emissions: GHG
Concerted action by the international community is
emission is identified as one of the reasons why
needed to address regional vulnerabilities.
Texas experienced freezing temperatures, but these
Disproportionate Impact on Developing Countries:
emissions also contribute to the formation of super
C
Since 1991, two-thirds of disaster victims have been from

PS
cyclones such as Cyclone Amphan, on the other side

_U
developing countries, contrasting with a mere 2% from

of the world.
nt
developed nations. This stark difference underscores the

ge
• Insufficient disaster risk management: It was one of

A
heightened vulnerability of developing nations to large-

-@
scale disaster events. the reasons why Texas experienced such high losses
ID
of life and excessive infrastructure damage during

am
Rising Challenge: According to the UNDRR, by 2030, with

gr
the cold snap, and also contributed to the high losses

le
current climate projections, the world will face some 560

Te
caused by the Central Vietnam floods.

disasters per year.
• Undervaluing environmental costs and benefits in
Linking Disasters around the World decision-making: The report also shows how the
A Study from the UN University: A UN study looked at 10 record rate of deforestation in the Amazon is linked
different disasters that occurred in 2020 and 2021, and to the high global demand for meat. This demand has
finds that, even though they occurred in very different led to an increase in the need for soy, which is used
locations and do not initially appear to have much in as animal feed for poultry. As a result, tracts of forest
common, they are, in fact, interconnected. Over the are being cut down.
2020-2021 period covered by the research organisation,
several record-breaking disasters took place, including CONCLUSION
the COVID-19 pandemic, a cold wave which crippled the
US state of Texas, wildfires which destroyed almost 5 While nature’s wrath may be inevitable, the human cost of
million acres of Amazon rainforest, and 9 heavy storms disasters is not. As the world grapples with the ever-present
in Vietnam - in the span of only 7 weeks. threat of floods, earthquakes, and droughts, the need for
Arctic-Texas link: An example of this is the recent effective preparedness measures becomes paramount.
heatwave in the Arctic and the cold wave in Texas, Investing in early warning systems, robust infrastructure,
USA. In 2020, the Arctic experienced unusually high and resilient communities can turn the tide against disaster,
air temperatures and the second-lowest amount of reducing casualties and minimising economic damage.
sea ice cover on record. This warm air destabilised the Embracing proactive risk management will be the key to
polar vortex, a spinning mass of cold air above the North unlocking a future where India not only coexists with hazards
Pole, allowing colder air to move southward into North but thrives despite them.
Disaster Management Cycle 2
even though the term recurs at several places in the Act.
INTRODUCTION In fact, the terms ‘prevention’ and ‘mitigation’ have
The Disaster Management Cycle, which has evolved since been used interchangeably as very often the complete
the Yokohama Conference in 1994, integrates both pre and prevention or avoidance of losses in hazardous situations
post-disaster activities within a comprehensive framework, may not be feasible and the task transforms to that of
fostering a systematic approach. It recognizes prevention, mitigation. Prevention or mitigation are essentially
mitigation, and preparedness as pre-disaster phases while ex-ante measures for reducing risks of disasters that
highlighting the importance of response in the post-disaster would save lives in the long run, livelihoods and assets
of rural and urban communities within the region/State
period. Effective risk reduction and overall impact hinge
on the optimal allocation of resources at each stage. This Preparedness: This entails activities and measures taken
chapter will delve into all facets of the Disaster Management in advance to ensure efficient response to the impact
Cycle, exploring its various dimensions and components. of the hazards, including the issuance of timely and
effective early warnings, preparation of emergency plans
and maintaining inventory.
STAGES IN DISASTER MANAGEMENT
The conventional disaster management approach prioritized During Crisis: Emergency Response
emergency relief and swift rehabilitation, reflecting a When a crisis hits, the priority is to quickly respond to those
compassionate state. The transition to a ‘Welfare State’ affected to ease their suffering and minimize losses. During
expands responsibilities, involving diverse entities in a this phase, certain critical activities become crucial. These
C
comprehensive response to disaster factors throughout include evacuating people from danger zones, conducting
PS
_U
pre-disaster, during the disaster, and post-disaster stages, search and rescue operations, and providing essential needs
nt
ensuring proactive and effective management.

ge
like food, clothing, shelter, medicines, and other necessities.

A
-@
The goal is to restore a sense of normalcy to the affected

ID
Pre-disaster community’s life as much as possible.

am
Mitigation Preparedness
reduction prevention Effective Evacuation: During the Kerala Floods in 2018,
gr
and planning
le
Disaster boats and helicopters played a crucial role in rescuing

Te
phase
impact
thousands of people. The key lesson learned is the
Post-disaster
recovery Response
importance of local knowledge and well-planned
phase
Rehabilitation/
reconstruction
evacuations based on early warnings and understanding
Relief flood patterns.
Search and Rescue Expertise: In the Bhuj Earthquake of
2001, the National Disaster Response Force (NDRF) and
Fig. 2.1: Disaster Management Cycle volunteers demonstrated dedication. This highlights the
Pre-Disaster: Prevention, Mitigation and need for investing in trained personnel and specialized
Preparedness equipment for effective rescue operations.
Prevention: Disaster prevention is the outright avoidance Providing Essential Needs: After the Odisha Rail Accident
of adverse impacts of hazards and related disaster in 2023, community kitchens and volunteers ensured the
prevention through action taken in advance. Examples quick mobilization of resources, minimizing suffering. The
include dams or embankments that eliminate flood risks, lesson here is the importance of community resilience in
land-use regulations that do not permit any settlement the aftermath of a disaster.
in high-risk zones, and seismic engineering designs that Swift and Coordinated Response: The response to
ensure the survival and function of a critical building in Cyclone Phailin in 2013 involved a coordinated effort
any likely earthquake. between the Navy, Air Force, and NDRF. This underscores
Mitigation: The Disaster Management Act 2005 has the critical need for collaboration among government
defined mitigation as ‘measures aimed at reducing agencies, the military, NGOs, and local communities.
the risk, impact, or effects of a disaster or threatening Restoring Normalcy: Following the Nepal Earthquake
disaster situation’, but the Act has not defined prevention in 2015, efforts focused on rebuilding villages and
providing skill development programs. This emphasizes Knowledge Development and Dissemination: Creating,
the importance of long-term recovery for a sustainable disseminating, and applying knowledge is crucial for
return to normalcy. enhancing overall effectiveness in crisis management
efforts.
Post Disaster
Integration of Traditional Knowledge: Incorporating
In this stage efforts shift towards rehabilitation and
traditional knowledge into crisis management efforts
reconstruction to restore normalcy and ensure sustainable enhances the overall resilience and adaptability of
recovery:
communities in facing crises.
Early Recovery and Risk Reduction: In immediate
disaster relief, focus on shelter, water, food, and medical A SHIFT TO DISASTER RISK REDUCTION
care. Rescue, damage assessment, and debris clearance
are key activities. Communication, institutional Historically, insufficient attention has been paid to disaster
improvements, and recognizing voluntary efforts are risk reduction (DRR) strategies, despite their potential to
critical for minimizing loss. Coordination across agencies significantly reduce loss of life through the implementation
is essential, akin to a war zone’s success depends on of simple preventative measures. Comprehensive reviews
effective communication.
of the global situation conducted in the aftermath of the
Rehabilitation: Rehabilitation restores normalcy for
1994 Yokohama Declaration revealed a concerning trend:
disaster victims through housing, infrastructure, and
economic support. Lessons stress long-term strategies economic losses attributable to natural disasters were
integrated into development. Personnel training is steadily escalating. A lack of cohesive DRR strategies and the
crucial, addressing specific concerns. In September 2022, absence of a pervasive “culture of prevention” were identified
Maharashtra approved a policy for flood-affected village as the primary drivers of this concerning phenomenon.
rehabilitation.
Reconstruction: Reconstruction enhances communities International Sendai Framework
by replacing structures, integrating safety measures, Decade for Natural International For Disaster
Disaster Reduction Strategy for Risk Reduction
and incorporating indigenous knowledge. Socially, it (IDNDR) Disaster Reduction 2015-2030
promotes differentiated housing and open spaces,
C
PS
fostering “social capital” for effective recovery. The

_U
1990-1999 1999 2015

nt
Sendai Framework emphasizes “build back better” in

ge
A
post-disaster reconstruction.
-@
ID
ELEMENTS OF DISASTER MANAGEMENT

am
1994 2005
gr
le
The three phases, encompassing preparedness and risk

Te
Yokohama
Hyogo Framework
management, emergency response, and recovery and Strategy and
for Action
Plans of Action
rehabilitation, can be further broken down into a variety of 2005-2015
detailed activities.
Legal and Organizational Framework: Establishing an United Nations
appropriate legal and organizational framework is crucial 1992
Framework
Convention on
for effective crisis management. Climate Change
Risk Awareness and Communication: Making government
organizations, local bodies, communities, and individuals
aware of potential hazards and vulnerabilities is essential
for effective crisis preparedness.
Fig. 2.2: Timeline of International Efforts towards DRR
Meticulous Planning and Implementation: Detailed
long and short-term planning, coupled with effective Post-Yokohama Focus: A paradigm shift occurred
implementation and enforcement measures, forms a post-Yokohama, integrating disaster mitigation into
critical aspect of crisis management strategy. development policies, with principles emphasizing
Community Resilience and Participation: Building resilience risk assessment, prevention, early warning, and
within communities to face crises and ensuring their active international cooperation.
participation are key elements in crisis management.
Total Disaster Risk Management (TDRM): The
Capability Building and Infrastructure Maintenance:
strategic objectives of the TDRM Approach, outlined
Developing and maintaining human and institutional
capabilities, infrastructure, and logistics are vital for a in the 2001 Regional Workshop in Kathmandu by the
robust crisis management system. Asian Disaster Reduction Centre (ADRC) and Office
for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs (OCHA), Preparedness Emergency
Response &
Kobe, include: in the community Disaster Recovery
helps everyone
• Holistic Disaster Management: Addressing provides timely
to be ready for
concerns and gaps throughout the disaster future disasters relief to survivors
management cycle by considering underlying
causes of disasters and contextual factors in risk
and its management. Rehabilitation &
Prevention & Reconstruction
• The Yokohama Conference acted as a catalyst for Mitigation efforts to help
the TDRM approach. While the Conference laid out activities help build affected communities
the broad principles, TDRM provided a more detailed resilience in the return to their normal
community daily lives
and systematic framework for operationalizing those
principles and putting them into practice. Fig. 2.3: Total Disaster Risk Management (TDRM)
SDG TARGETS RELATED TO DISASTER RISK REDUCTION

SDG Goal Description
Goal 1 By 2030, enhance the resilience of the poor and vulnerable to climate-related extreme events and
other economic, social, and environmental shocks and disasters.
Goal 2 By 2030, ensure sustainable food production systems and implement resilient agricultural practices
that increase productivity and production, that help maintain ecosystems, that strengthen capacity
C
PS
for adaptation to climate change, extreme weather, drought, flooding and other disasters that
_U
nt
progressively improve land and soil quality.

ge
A
-@
ID
Goal 3 Strengthen the capacity of all countries, particularly developing countries, for early warning, risk
am
gr
reduction, and management of national and global health risks.

le
Te
Goal 4 By 2030, ensure all learners acquire knowledge and skills for sustainable development, including
education for sustainable development, human rights, gender equality, and resilience to disasters.
Goal 6 By 2020, protect and restore water-related ecosystems, including mountains, forests, wetlands,
rivers, aquifers and lakes.
Goal 9 Develop quality, reliable infrastructure, including regional and transborder infrastructure, to support
economic development and human well-being, with a focus on affordable access for all.
Facilitate sustainable and resilient infrastructure development in developing countries
through enhanced financial, technological and technical support to African countries,
least developed countries, landlocked developing countries and small island development
states.
Disaster Management Cycle 9

Goal 11 By 2030, significantly reduce the number of deaths, people affected, and economic losses caused
by disasters, including water-related disasters, with a focus on protecting vulnerable populations.
By 2020, substantially increase the number of cities and human settlements adopting and
implementing integrated policies and plans towards inclusion, resource efficiency, mitigation and
adaptation to climate change, resilience to disasters, and develop and implement, in line with the
Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction 2015-2030, holistic disaster risk management at all
levels.
Goal 13 Strengthen resilience and adaptive capacity to climate-related hazards and natural disasters in all
countries
Improve education, awareness-raising and human and institutional capacity on climate change
mitigation, adaptation, impact reduction and early warning
Goal 14 By 2020, sustainably manage and protect marine and coastal ecosystems to avoid significant adverse
impacts, including strengthening their resilience, and taking action for their restoration in order to
achieve healthy and productive oceans
Goal 15 Includes conservation, restoration, and sustainable use of terrestrial ecosystems, promoting
sustainable forest management, combating desertification, restoring degraded land, and integrating
biodiversity values into planning and development processes.
C
Developments in India • Holistic Approach: The act emphasizes a proactive,

PS
_U
The Tenth Five-Year Plan (2002-2007): The plan integrated approach, shifting from relief-centric to
nt
ge
incorporates disaster preparedness, emphasizing the prevention-oriented strategies, aiming to conserve

A
-@
integration of disaster mitigation into sustainable developmental gains and minimize losses.
ID
development. It mandates each state to adopt a

am
gr
planning scheme for mitigation, institutionalizing it into

CONCLUSION
le
Te
developmental planning.
The Twelfth Finance Commission (2002): Terms of By navigating the Disaster Management Cycle, we transition
Reference of the 12th FC included mitigation and from proactive mitigation to swift response and ultimately,
prevention, expanding beyond its original focus on relief towards holistic recovery. This cyclical journey strengthens
and rehabilitation. preparedness, fosters community cohesion, and empowers
Regulatory Role of the State: The Disaster Management
long-term resilience. By embracing best practices and
Act of 2005, establishes National Disaster Management
nurturing global collaboration, we emerge from disaster
Authority (NDMA), State Disaster Management Authority
(SDMAs), and District Disaster Management Authority not merely repaired, but transformed, ready to rewrite
(DDMAs), signaling a paradigm shift toward prevention, the narrative of vulnerability into a testament to human
mitigation, and preparedness. ingenuity and unwavering hope.
Natural Hazards and
Their Mitigation 3
characterised by the sudden and violent shaking of the
INTRODUCTION ground and everything on it. Seismic activity in the Himalayan
India has been vulnerable, in varying degrees, to a large region stems from accumulated stress between the Indian
number of natural, as well as, human-made disasters on and Eurasian plates, underscoring the importance of
account of its unique geo-climatic and socio-economic understanding geological dynamics for effective earthquake
conditions. It is highly vulnerable to floods, droughts, risk assessment and preparedness.
cyclones, earthquakes, landslides, avalanches and forest Causes of Earthquake
fires. Out of 36 states and union territories in the country, 27 Plate Tectonics: The outermost layer of the earth is
of them are disaster-prone. not in one piece. It is fragmented. Each fragment is
According to the Ministry of Home Affairs (MoHA), the called a plate. The surface of the Earth is divided into 7
country’s susceptibility includes nearly 85% of the landmass major plates and several minor ones. They move a few
at risk of single or multiple disasters, 58.6% of the landmass centimetres a year, riding on semi-molten layers of rock
prone to earthquakes, 12% (over 40 million hectares) to underneath the crust. As the plates move, they pull apart
floods and river erosion, and 5,700 km of the coastline or collide, unleashing the powerful movements known
(nearly 8% of the total landmass) susceptible to cyclones as earthquakes.
and tsunamis. Additionally, 68% of cultivable areas are • There are three types of plate boundaries. These are
vulnerable to drought, while Approximately 15% of our convergent (plates coming together) divergent (plates
nation, spanning more than 0.49 million square kilometres, moving apart), transform (plates moving past each other)
is susceptible to landslides. The Himalayan region, alluvial Convergent boundaries: When plates collide, one
C
plains, hilly peninsula, and coastal zones each present may be pushed under the other, creating subduction
PS
specific challenges.
_U
zones and causing deep earthquakes. Alternatively,

nt
For instance, the Himalayan region is prone to disasters they may buckle and crumple, forming mountain
ge
A
like earthquakes and landslides; the Gangetic plains are ranges and shallow earthquakes.
-@
affected by floods almost every year. The desert part of Divergent boundaries: When plates move apart,
ID
the country is affected by droughts and famine while the

am
new crust forms at mid-ocean ridges, producing

gr
coastal zone is susceptible to cyclones and storms. shallow earthquakes and volcanic activity.
le
Te
Global Data: Transform boundaries: When plates grind past each

• UNICEF Assessment: According to UNICEF India other sideways, friction builds up, releasing stress in
is among the world’s most worst disaster-prone frequent, shallow earthquakes along fault lines.
countries, with risks stemming from adverse geo- Other Causes: Tremors on the earth can also be caused
climatic conditions, topography, environmental when a volcano erupts, a meteor hits the earth, or
degradation, population growth, urbanisation, and an underground nuclear explosion is carried out. For
non-scientific development. example, A 6.3 magnitude earthquake shook North
• UNDRR Report Findings: As per the UNDRR report Korea after the country launched its biggest nuclear test.
India recorded 3rd highest number of natural
disasters from 2000 to 2019. Earthquake Swarm
• Regional Disparities: The western part, including Definition: A swarm is a sequence of mostly small earthquakes
Rajasthan and Gujarat, frequently experiences with no identifiable mainshock. Swarms are usually short-lived,
droughts, and coastal regions are susceptible to but they can continue for days, weeks, or sometimes even
cyclones and tsunamis due to oceanic disturbances. months. They often recur at the same locations. Most swarms
are associated with geothermal activity.
VARIOUS NATURAL HAZARDS AND Palghar Swarm: In 2018, the first earthquake in the series,
with a rumbling sound, was detected near the village
THEIR MITIGATION Dhundhalwadi in the Palghar district of Maharashtra.
Since then more than 16,000 earthquakes of magnitude
Earthquake
0.5 to 3.8 have occurred till 2020. Palghar is non-tectonic
According to the National Disaster Management Authority and non-volcanic in nature and experts concluded that
(NDMA), an earthquake is an unpredictable phenomenon these tremors were caused by intense rainfall.
Earthquake Risk in India
Geographical Vulnerability:
Delhi’s Earthquake Susceptibility
• The Himalayas - the youngest among the mountain Delhi is located in zone IV which has fairly high seismicity
ranges - are still evolving and adjusting to tectonic where the general occurrence of earthquakes is of 5-6
movements; the existence of two major fault lines magnitude, a few of magnitude 6-7 and occasionally of
located on its west and east, has resulted in very 7-8 magnitude. Delhi thus lies among the high-risk areas.
severe earthquakes in several parts of the Himalayan Seismicity in North India, including the Himalayas, is due
and surrounding regions. This makes the entire to collision of the Indian plate with Eurasian plate. Two
region covering fourteen states (located in western major lineaments namely Delhi-Haridwar ridge and
and central Himalayas, northeast, and parts of the Delhi-Moradabad faults pass through the territory,
Indo-Gangetic basin) highly prone to earthquakes. which having the potential of generating earthquakes of
• The tectonic features and characteristics of magnitude upto MSK VIII.
the Himalayas are extended to the alluvial
plains of Indus, Ganga and Brahmaputra too, The Impact of Earthquakes
as the rocks lying below the alluvial plains Human Loss: According to a report compiled by UNDRR,
are just extensions of the Himalayan ranges between 1998 and 2017, approximately 56% of the total
only. deaths, accounting for 747,234 lives in the world, were
Seismic Zones In India As Per The Bureau of Indian Standards attributed to earthquakes and related tsunamis. As per
Zones Description data on NDMA Website during the last 15 years, India has
experienced 10 major earthquakes that have resulted in
Most seismically active, including the entire of
North-eastern India, parts of Jammu and Kashmir, over 20,000 deaths.
Zone V Himachal Pradesh, Uttaranchal, Rann-of-Kutch in Structural Damage: According to the World Bank
Gujarat, parts of North Bihar, and Andaman & Earthquakes contribute to about 18% of infrastructure
Nicobar Islands. damage globally.
C
Encompasses the remaining parts of Jammu

PS
and Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh, Delhi-NCR

_U
IGNITE YOUR MIND

nt
region, Sikkim, northern parts of Uttar Pradesh,

ge
Zone IV
A
Bihar, West Bengal, parts of Gujarat, and small

-@
Imagine an earthquake-proof city, not simply

portions of Maharashtra near the west coast and
ID
Rajasthan. shielded from tremors, but built to thrive and

am
even generate energy from seismic shocks. What

gr
Includes Goa, Kerala, Lakshadweep, remaining

le
innovative technologies and architectural marvels

Te
parts of Uttar Pradesh, Gujarat, West Bengal, parts would make this futuristic metropolis possible?
Zone III of Punjab, Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh, Bihar,
Jharkhand, Chhattisgarh, Maharashtra, Orissa,
Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, and Karnataka.
Economic Impact: The World Bank estimated the
The least active seismic zone, covering the total loss of public and private property from the
Zone II
remaining portion of the country. Gujarat earthquake of 2001 to be 4.97 billion USD,
There are no cities in India which fall under constituting approximately 1% of India’s GDP. In Latur
Zone I
Seismic Zone I earthquake (1993) and the Sikkim earthquake(2011) the
loss percentages are 0.13% and 0.13% of GDP of India
respectively.
Associated Hazards: Earthquakes may trigger landslides
and mudslides, particularly in areas with water-soaked
soils, exemplified by incidents like the Malin village
landslide in Maharashtra (2014) and the Kedarnath
landslide in Uttarakhand (2023). Along with this
Earthquakes, especially those originating on the ocean
floor, can generate large tsunamis, as witnessed in the
devastating 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake and tsunami.
Liquefaction: The shaking during an earthquake can
Fig. 3.1: Seismic Zones And Intensity Map of India transform loose soil into a liquid, posing additional hazards.
Fires: Displacement of electrical and gas lines during an Professional Training Gap: Inadequate formal training
earthquake can lead to fires, adding to the overall impact in earthquake-resistant construction practices, as per
on human health, property, and infrastructure. BIS guidelines, poses a hindrance to effective safety
Comparison with Other Countries: Unlike countries with measures among professionals.
robust structural mitigation measures, high-intensity Limited Preparedness: Poor preparedness and response
earthquakes in India lead to substantial loss of life due to capacity among various stakeholder groups pose
the fragile nature of structures. challenges in effectively addressing earthquakes.
Steps Taken by the Indian Government Low Awareness: Lack of awareness about seismic risks
Earthquake Hazard Zonation Map: This map divides India among stakeholders further impedes mitigation efforts.
into four seismic zones (II-V) depending on the severity of Licensing Gaps: The absence of well-implemented
ground shaking expected during earthquakes. Zone V is the licensing systems for engineers and masons contributes
most seismically active, whereas Zone II is the least active. to non-standardized practices in construction,
• Approximately 11% of the country is in zone V, 18% in compromising quality, safety, and efficiency in the
zone IV, 30% in zone III, and the remainder in zone II. industry.
The National Centre for Seismology, under the Ministry Way Forward
of Earth Sciences, is the Government of India’s (GoI)
Seismic safety techniques for buildings: Seismic safety
primary institution for monitoring earthquakes in and
aims to prevent casualties and injuries caused by buildings
around the country.
by establishing techniques that minimise damage to
• NCS operates a National Seismological Network
constructions. Example: Techniques like hydraulic wall
(NSN) comprising 153 observatories across the
country for this purpose. A seismic microzonation of and shaking table tests that measure compressive,
Indian cities with 5 Lakh or more population is also shear, and tensile strength, structural testing.
considered. Microzonation: Dividing earthquake-prone regions into
National Earthquake Risk Mitigation Project smaller zones with similar hazard levels can help tailor
(Preparatory Phase) building codes and mitigation strategies to specific risks
and vulnerabilities. This can lead to more cost-effective
C
• It is a Centrally Sponsored Plan Scheme of

PS
and targeted interventions.

_U
coordination with the State Governments which lie in

nt
seismic zones IV and V. Learning from past experiences: The mitigation plans
ge
A
• Major components of the project are adoption and developed by Maharashtra and Gujarat after the Latur
-@
updation of Techno - legal Regime in concerned and Bhuj earthquakes provide valuable lessons and best
ID
am
Cities/ States, institutional strengthening, capacity practices that can be adapted and implemented in other
gr
building of practising architects, engineers and vulnerable states. Sharing knowledge and expertise
le
Te
masons in earthquake resistant constructions and across different regions can strengthen India’s overall
public awareness and the sensitization at National preparedness.
level and all vulnerable States. Guidelines of NDMA on Earthquake Management
National Building Code (1970): NBC formulated by (2007)
BIS, provides extensive guidelines governing building • Earthquake Resistant Construction: Central
construction, encompassing materials, planning, and ministries, departments, and state governments are
design with the primary goal of ensuring public safety instructed to promote the implementation of relevant
by addressing structural sufficiency, fire hazards, and standards for seismically safe design and construction
health aspects in buildings. NBC plays a crucial role in of buildings, bridges, ports, flyovers, harbours, and
standardising construction practices to elevate safety other vital structures under their control.
standards.
• Structures and Lifeline Structures: Programs for
Challenges for Earthquake Mitigation in India seismic strengthening of priority structures, such
Inadequate Enforcement: Weak enforcement of as Raj Bhavans, legislatures, courts, academic
earthquake-resistant building codes and town planning institutions, reservoirs, dams, and multi-storeyed
by-laws contributes to structural vulnerabilities. Non- buildings, should be developed by central ministries
compliance with ductile design standards outlined in IS and state governments.
13920, 1993 for structures in high seismic regions is a • Regulation and Enforcement: State governments are
serious concern. responsible for specifying mechanisms to implement
Missing Resilient Features: Many constructions in both Building Codes and safety codes, ensuring compliance
urban and rural areas lack essential earthquake-resistant with seismic safety in all design and construction
features, exacerbating risks. activities. Modifications to town and country planning
Natural Hazards and Their Mitigation 13

Acts, land use regulations, zoning regulations, DCRs,
Transport: Trains are also made earthquake resistant
and building bylaws are recommended to align with with seismic sensors installed to trigger a nationwide
globally accepted norms. halt in the event of an earthquake, guaranteeing
• Awareness measures: Sensitization of stakeholders is passenger safety.
crucial for earthquake preparedness and mitigation. Two primary resilience levels: First aims to endure
The guidelines recommend the preparation of smaller earthquakes, typically experienced three or
handbooks on earthquake safety, homeowner’s four times during a building’s lifespan in Japan. At
seismic safety manuals, structural safety audit this level, any damage requiring repair is deemed
manuals, and video films for the general public. The unacceptable; the design should ensure the building
creation of vulnerability maps and streamlining of remains undamaged. The second resilience level
NGOs and volunteer groups is also emphasised. involves withstanding rare, extreme earthquakes.
• Capacity Development (Education, Training, R&D, Drill and Training: From a young age, every child
learns emergency procedures through drills and is
Capacity Building and Documentation): Target
aware of the protocol in emergency situations.
groups for capacity development include elected
Coastal safety: Given Japan’s susceptibility to
representatives, government officials, media
tsunamis triggered by earthquakes, the country has
professionals, urban planners, engineers, architects, implemented coastal barriers and warning systems to
builders, NGOs, community-based organisations, protect coastal areas. These systems include seawalls
social activists, social scientists, school teachers,, and and early warning systems to evacuate residents.
school children. Impact: Last year, a 7.8 magnitude earthquake hit south-
• Emergency Response: The Response activities are east Turkey near the Syrian border, killing over 50,000
coordinated through the Incident Command System, people and causing extensive destruction. In comparison,
led by local administration through the Emergency the death toll in Japan has been estimated to be 48 only.
Operations Centre network. It involves community Quake Smart System - Early Warning in San Francisco
participation, collaboration with the corporate San Francisco sits in the proximity to San Andreas Fault,
sector, and specialised teams. making it one of the most earthquake-prone cities in
the world. The Quake Smart System (aka ShakeAlert) is
C
PS
Case Study- Earthquake Mitigation: The Japan being piloted in San Francisco to assess its effectiveness in
_U
Way mitigating the impact of future earthquakes.

nt
ge
A
Japan was struck by a powerful 7.6 magnitude earthquake Deployment: Around 500 sensors were installed across the
-@
on 1 January 2024. Approximately 155 quakes have city in critical infrastructure locations (bridges, buildings,
ID
schools, hospitals) and strategic geodetic points along with

am
since shaken the country, resulting in damage to roads,

Real-time data transmission to a central processing unit
gr
le
buildings, and widespread power outages. The death toll located at a secure facility outside the city centre.
Te
has been estimated to be at least 48.

Functionality
Japan’s Proneness: Japan accounts for about 20 percent Early Warning Algorithm: Advanced algorithms analyze
of the world’s earthquakes of magnitude 6 or greater, and sensor data to detect early signs of seismic activity,
each year experiences up to 2,000 quakes that c an be felt including P-waves (faster seismic waves) preceding the
by people. Sitting amidst the “Pacific Ring of Fire,” Japan destructive S-waves (slower, shaking waves).
grapples with the interactions of three significant tectonic Warning Dissemination: Alerts are issued through
plates, including the Pacific Plate beneath the Pacific various channels such as Public loudspeakers and mobile
phone notifications. Integration with traffic light systems
Ocean and the Philippine Sea Plate. Positioned at this
to prioritise emergency vehicle movement.
geological crossroads, the country becomes a focal point
for the dynamic forces resulting from the continuous Potential Benefits
Saving Lives: Early warnings can enable people to
shifts in these substantial plates.
take protective actions like dropping, covering, and
Preparedness holding, potentially reducing injuries and fatalities.
Infrastructure: Japan’s strict building codes ensure Protecting Infrastructure: Critical infrastructure like
that every home is constructed to endure seismic hospitals, power plants, and transportation systems
can be shut down or secured in advance, minimising
activity and its sophisticated early warning system
damage and ensuring quicker recovery.
provides crucial seconds to minutes of advance notice
Emergency Response Coordination: Emergency
before strong shaking. Older buildings and critical responders can be mobilised and pre-positioned
infrastructure undergo retrofitting to meet current closer to affected areas, leading to faster and more
seismic standards. effective rescue efforts.
TSUNAMI
IGNITE YOUR MIND Tsunami are a series of waves usually generated by the
movement of the sea floor. These movements are caused
Imagine an earthquake-proof city, not simply
shielded from tremors, but built to thrive and even by different types of geophysical phenomena such as
generate energy from seismic shocks. Can you think earthquakes, landslides and volcanic eruptions. The name
of innovative technologies and architectural marvels tsunami was derived from the Japanese term meaning
that would make this futuristic metropolis possible? ‘harbour’ wave.
Causes of Tsunami
4. Approach 5. Impact
As the tsunami waves approach the Finally, with the wavelength compressed and
coastline of a landmass they are slowed heightened to large levels (often between five
dramatically by the friction of their and ten metres), the giant waves collide with the
collision with the rising seabed. As the shore causing massive damage. The succeeding
velocity lessens, however, the wavelengths outflow of water then continues the destruction,
become shortened and amplitude uprooting trees and washing away people and
increases. property.
1. Tectonic
Tectonic upthrust in the
C
form of earthquakes and 2. Build

PS
ocean floor volcanoes 3. Travel

The energy from the quake or
_U
cause vast quantities of The wavelengths of the tsunami continue to grow, with the
impulse causes a train of simple,
nt
waves’ periods (the lengths of time for successive crests or

ge
water to be displaced in a progressive oscillatory waves to

A
very short space of time, troughs to pass a single point) varying from five minutes to
-@
propagate over the ocean surface

generating a massive more than an hour.
in ever-widening circles at speeds
ID
amount of energy. as fast as 500 mph.

am
gr
Fig. 3.2: Formation of Tsunami

le
Te
Earthquakes: All earthquakes do not cause tsunamis.

There are four conditions necessary for an earthquake to
cause a tsunami:
• Must occur beneath the ocean or cause the material
to slide into the ocean.
• Must be strong, at least magnitude 6.5 on the Richter
Scale
• The earthquake must rupture the Earth’s surface and
it must occur at a shallow depth – less than 70 km
below the surface of the Earth.
• The earthquake must cause vertical movement of the
seafloor (up to several metres).
Landslide: A landslide that occurs along the coast can
force large amounts of water into the sea, disturbing the
water and generate a tsunami. Underwater landslides
can also result in tsunamis when the material loosened
by the landslide moves violently, pushing the water in
front of it. Fig. 3.3: Tsunami Affected Areas in India

Volcanic Eruption: Although relatively infrequent, violent Loss of Life: The 2004 Indian Ocean event led to the tragic
volcanic eruptions also represent impulsive disturbances, loss of over 230,000 lives across multiple countries.
which can displace a great volume of water and generate Environmental Impact: The 2011 Tōhoku event in Japan
extremely destructive tsunami waves in the immediate damaged ecosystems and led to the release of pollutants,
source area. According to this mechanism, waves may be affecting marine life and coastal environments.
generated by the sudden displacement of water caused by a Secondary Effects: Tsunamis, as well as other secondary
volcanic explosion, by a volcano’s slope failure, or more likely effects of natural disasters, can lead to subsequent
by a phreatomagmatic explosion and collapse/engulfment disasters, such as fires, landslides, and health crises,
of the volcanic magmatic chambers. compounding the overall impact.
Extraterrestrial collision (i.e. asteroids,
Steps taken by the Indian government
meteors):Although no meteor/asteroid induced tsunami
Indian Tsunami Early Warning System (ITEWS): It was
has been recorded in recent history, scientists claim that
if these celestial bodies should strike the ocean, a large established in 2007 and operated by INCOIS in Hyderabad.
volume of water would undoubtedly be displaced to ITEWS utilises a real-time network of seismic stations
cause a tsunami. and tide gauges, operating 24X7, to detect tsunamigenic
earthquakes, monitor tsunamis, and provide timely
Tsunami Risks in India advisories to vulnerable communities. It is Accredited
Vulnerability: Both the East and West coasts of India, by the Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission
with over 2200 km of heavily populated shoreline, are (IOC) of UNESCO, ITEWS has served as a Tsunami Service
susceptible to tsunami waves. Provider for 28 Indian Ocean Rim countries, along with
Climate Change: Rising sea levels not only make coastal Indonesia and Australia, since 2011, issuing regional
communities more vulnerable to flooding from storms warnings.
but also tsunamis. Even modest rises in sea level will Indian National Centre for Ocean Information Services
dramatically increase the frequency and intensity of (INCOIS): Established in 1999 under the Ministry of Earth
flooding when a tsunami occurs, as the tsunami can
C
Sciences, INCOIS operates as an autonomous body.

PS
travel further inland.

_U
Serving as the nodal agency through the Indian Tsunami

nt
Historical Incidents: According to the ICMAM-PD report Early Warning Centre (ITEWC), INCOIS provides tsunami
ge
A
2005, in the last 300 years, the Indian Ocean region

-@
advisories to India and collaborates with Disaster

ID
has experienced 13 tsunamis, with 3 occurring in the Management Officials for the Tsunami Ready program.
am
Andaman and Nicobar region. Additionally, it conducts biannual IOWave Tsunami mock
gr
le
exercises, enhancing preparedness and coordination

Te
2004 Tsunami with stakeholders for emergency situations.

On 26th December 2004, the Indian ocean was struck by
a massive earthquake and tsunami which killed 230,000
Post 2004 Development in Tsunami Mitigation
Better Prediction: By the 2000s, advances had been made
people and caused widespread destruction. Triggered by
in earth observations, computer modelling of hazards
the undersea earthquake activity offshore, the 100-feet-
and telecommunications. Electronic sensors were
high tsunami waves laid bare complete annihilation in
developed that could rapidly detect earthquake shaking
as many as 14 countries, making it one of the deadliest
on land and tsunami waves at sea. For instance, the
natural disasters in recorded history. According to United States developed the Deep-ocean assessment
geological estimates, the 2004 earthquake was the third- and Reporting of tsunamis system, known as DART II.
largest of its type to ever be recorded, and it managed to
Collaboration: In less than three months following the
even trigger aftershocks as far away as in Alaska. devastating Indian ocean tsunami, scientists worked
together with policymakers to form an international
Impact of Tsunami commitment to develop an Indian ocean tsunami
Coastal Devastation: The 2004 Indian Ocean event Warning System
caused widespread destruction along the coasts of Policy frameworks: Indonesia, Sri lanka and India
Indonesia, Thailand, Sri Lanka, and India, resulting in the developed new disaster management policy frameworks,
loss of human lives and damage to infrastructure. governance structures and plans to address tsunami and
Economic Loss: The 2011 Tōhoku event resulted in other natural disaster risks. For instance, the Indonesian
billions of dollars in economic losses, including damage Government developed the presidential tsunami
to industries, ports, and transportation networks. Master plan.
Enhancing public awareness programs: Continued
Regional Integrated Multi-Hazard Early Warning System
community engagement through drills, educational
(RIMES), established in 2009 after the 2004 Indian Ocean
tsunami, is an intergovernmental institution focused on campaigns, and localised advisories is essential to keep
building capacities for early warning systems. Operating tsunami safety at the forefront of public consciousness.
from Thailand, it supports member states in monitoring, Coastal protection infrastructure: Strategically
forecasting, and assessing risks from various hazards. developing seawalls, breakwaters, and mangrove
RIMES enhances data availability, improves modeling and restoration projects can offer valuable barriers against
forecasting, transforms data into actionable information, tsunami waves, protecting vulnerable communities and
and builds capacity for climate and disaster resilience. It critical infrastructure.
fosters partnerships for data sharing and research, aiming
to create tailored services for decision-making. Through NDMA Guidelines on Management of Tsunamis in
community engagement and capacity building, RIMES India
strives to create a more resilient region against natural Risk Assessment and Vulnerability Analysis
disasters
• Recommend vulnerability assessment and risk
mapping based on coastal land use and bathymetry.
Challenges in Tsunami Risk Management in India
• Develop models for estimating tsunami wave arrival
Limited Documentation and Paleo-Tsunami Studies:
and run-up height.
Lack of easily accessible tsunami documentation and
• Utilise the Indian Naval Hydrographic Department
paleo-tsunami studies impedes a comprehensive
understanding of past events for improved risk for bathymetry information.
assessment. Tsunami Preparedness
Insufficient Bathymetric (underwater topography) and • Establish a Real-Time Seismic Monitoring Network
Topographic Data: Inadequate high-resolution near- (RTSMN) and use Bottom Pressure Recorders (BPRs)
shore bathymetric and topographic data pose limitations for wave detection.
for developing accurate inundation models. • Implement the National Data Buoy Programme for
C
PS
Community Awareness Gap: Inadequate awareness buoy protection.

_U
among coastal communities about tsunami risk and • Set up Tsunami Bulletins, warning systems, and
nt
ge
A
vulnerability hinders effective preparedness. “Tsunami Escape” signboards in coastal areas.

-@
People’s Participation Deficiency: Lack of active • Conduct public awareness campaigns through visual
ID

am
involvement and participation from the public in and radio media.

gr
enhancing disaster preparedness, mitigation, and

le
Structural Mitigation Measures

Te
emergency response in coastal areas. • Construct cyclone shelters, submerged sand barriers,
Underutilization of Traditional Knowledge: The absence sand dunes with vegetation, and mangrove plantations.
of systematic documentation of traditional knowledge • Develop a network of local knowledge centres for
related to tsunami risk management prevents the
training and emergency communication.
incorporation of valuable insights from local communities.
• Build location-specific sea walls, coral reefs,
Way Forward breakwaters, and a “Bio-Shield” along the coastline.
Developing innovative mitigation technologies: • Retrofit vulnerable structures for tsunami and
Exploring new materials, construction techniques, cyclone resistance.
and early warning tools can further strengthen India’s Regulation and Enforcement
defences against tsunamis.
• Strictly enforce coastal zone regulations within 500
• Tree Plantation: One of the natural measures to
m of the high tide line.
reduce the impact of tsunamis is using shoreline tree
• Adopt a model techno-legal framework for
cover. For example, the village of Naluvedapathy in
compliance with tsunami-safe zoning and
Tamil Nadu region faced minimal damage and few
deaths because of the forest of 80, 244 trees planted construction practices.
along the shoreline in 2002. Emergency Tsunami Response
Expanding the reach of ITEWC: By establishing additional • Involve community groups in search and rescue
monitoring stations and bolstering data analysis operations.
capabilities, ITEWC can provide even more accurate and • Deploy boats, helicopters, and search & rescue
timely warnings to a wider range of coastal communities. equipment immediately after a tsunami.

Ensuring Implementation India’s Flood Prone Nature: India is among the most
• Focus on aggressive capacity building for local flood-prone countries globally, primarily due to its
communities and administration. natural ecological systems, including the monsoon,
• Conduct awareness and training programs for highly silted river systems, and erodible mountains,
fishermen, coast guards, fisheries officials, and port especially in the Himalayan ranges. Most floods coincide
authorities. with the monsoon period, associated with tropical
storms, active monsoons, and break monsoon situations.
• Regularly test the efficacy of disaster management
plans through drills.
Floods
Floods are the second-most widespread natural disaster on
Earth, after wildfires. It can develop in many ways. The most
common is when rivers or streams overflow their banks.
These floods are called riverine floods. Heavy rain, a broken
dam, rapid ice melt in the mountains, or even a beaver
dam in a vulnerable spot can overwhelm a river and send
it spreading over nearby land. The land surrounding a river
is called a floodplain. Coastal flooding, also called estuarine
flooding, happens when a large storm or tsunami causes the
sea to rush inland. Fig. 3.4: Major Flood Zones In India
India’s Flood-Prone Regions
Causes of Flood • Brahmaputra Region: Faces monsoon rainfall,
Heavy rainfall: This is the most common cause of erosion-prone hills, earthquakes, and flash floods.
flooding, especially in areas that can’t absorb the water • Ganga Region: Tributary floods, north-side damage,
quickly. Prolonged or intense rainfall can overwhelm increasing west to east and south-to-north,
drainage systems and rivers, causing them to overflow encroachment issues.
C
PS
their banks. • North-West Rivers: Indus, Sutlej, Beas, etc. - fewer

_U
nt
Rapid snowmelt: When snow melts quickly, due to warm flood issues, drainage inadequacies, water-logging
ge
A
temperatures or heavy rain, it can release a large amount from irrigation and development.
-@
of water that can overwhelm rivers and drainage systems. • Central and Deccan India: Stable rivers, occasional
ID
floods in Orissa, coastal concerns during monsoons

am
Storm surges: Coastal areas are vulnerable to flooding

gr
from storm surges, which are high waves caused by and cyclones.
le
Te
hurricanes and other storms. Storm surges can inundate Impact of Flood
low-lying areas, causing significant damage. Economic Damage: According to NDMA website the
Tsunamis: Tsunamis, which are large waves caused by average annual flood damage in the last 10 years period
underwater earthquakes or volcanic eruptions, can also from 1996 to 2005 was Rs. 4745 crore as compared to Rs.
cause flooding in coastal areas. 1805 crore, the corresponding average for the previous
Ice jams: When ice builds up in rivers and streams, it can 53 years. This can be attributed to many reasons including
create blockages that cause water to back up and flood a steep increase in population, rapid urbanisation,
surrounding areas. growing developmental and economic activities in flood
plains coupled with global warming.
Anthropogenic reasons: Forests act like sponges,
absorbing and slowly releasing rainwater. When trees are Loss of lives: On average every year, 75 lakh hectares of
cut down, the land becomes less able to absorb water, land is affected, 1600 lives are lost and the damage caused
to crops, houses and public utilities is Rs.1805 crores due
increasing the risk of flooding. Apart from this poor land
to floods. The maximum number of lives (11,316) was
management and Human induced Climate change also
lost in the year 1977. The frequency of major floods is
instigate floods.
more than once in five years (NDMA Website).
Risk of Floods in India Social impact: Floods can displace millions of people,
The extent of Flood Prone Areas: According to the forcing them to leave their homes and livelihoods
National Flood Commission, floods impact 25 out of 36 behind. They can also lead to the spread of waterborne
states and union territories in India, affecting around 40 diseases, such as cholera and typhoid. Floods can also
million hectares of land, which is roughly one-eighth of have a long-term impact on mental health, causing
the country’s geographical area. anxiety, depression, and post-traumatic stress disorder.
inception has undergone several changes as per demands
Constitutional Provisions Related to Floods in of states/UTs and also on account of various directions
India and policies of Govt. of India.
Flood control is not explicitly listed in the 7th Schedule iFLOWS: It is a collaboration for monitoring and flood
of the Indian Constitution, unlike irrigation. However, warning systems, between the Ministry of Earth Sciences
“Drainage and Embankments” are specifically mentioned (MoES) and the Brihanmumbai Municipal Corporation
in Entry 17 of List II (State List), highlighting water-related (BMC)). It will be able to send out warnings of potential
measures. The Union List (List I, Entry 56) emphasises flood-prone locations anywhere from 6 to 72 hours in
the Union government’s role in regulating inter-state advance.
rivers and valleys, but the primary responsibility for flood
control rests with the states. Way Forward
Geological Survey of India’s recommendation on flood
Sikkim Floods: A Case Study
Control: GSI studied the shape and material of the land
In October 2023, heavy rains triggered a glacial lake
outburst flood in Sikkim, India, as the South Lhonak getting inundated and generated data on area, shape, slope,
Lake breached its banks, destroying the Teesta III infiltration and permeability of soil of the basin, drainage
Dam at Chungthang and causing widespread damage pattern, landform and longitudinal and cross profiles of the
downstream. The event, the deadliest in the region since channels. On the basis of these studies, GSI produces flood
the 1968 Sikkim floods, resulted from increased lake size hazard maps indicating prohibitive, Restricted, Cautionary
due to glacial retreat. Despite ongoing relief efforts, the and Flood Free Zones.
flood impacted multiple districts, leading to evacuations, Significant Flood-Related Studies and
infrastructure damage, and the mobilisation of the Recommendations Made by GSI are as Follows
National Disaster Response Force and the Indian Army for
Brahmaputra Valley: A comprehensive geo-
rescue operations.
environmental database for environmental management
and flood control generated in the studies.
Steps Taken by the Government
Lower Banas sub-basin: Selective irrigation to prevent
Flood Hazard Zonation Map: Flood Plain Zoning is an
C
the rise of groundwater table is recommended.

PS
effective non-structural flood management tool. Flood-

_U
Kandi Basin West Bengal: GSI recommended the

nt
plain zoning measures demarcate regions likely to be

ge
construction of small weirs to reduce the impact of

A
affected by floods of varied magnitudes, frequency, and

-@
likelihood levels and prescribe the types of permissible floods.

ID
developments in these zones to reduce damage when Mokameh Tal area in the Ganga Flood Plain: Rejuvenation
am

gr
floods occur. of existing drainage channels to reduce flood problem

le
Te
• Central Water Commission (CWC): It provides short- Lower Damodar Basin: Diversion along artificial canals
term flood forecasting using a statistical methodology and re-excavation of old river channels.
(gauge-to-gauge correlation). CWC presently issues Landslide zonation map for Himalayan region.
flood forecasts for 338 forecasting stations (138
Inflow Forecast Stations & 200 Level Forecast NDMA Guidelines on Flood Management in India
Stations) which include 25 States and UTs. (2008)
National Flood Risk Mitigation Project (NFRMP): NFRMP Observation Networks and Early Warning
has been envisaged for mitigation or reduction in risk, • Preparation of flood vulnerability maps.
severity or consequences of floods. It aims to ensure • Assistance to states/UTs in identifying priority flood
that arrangements are in place to mobilise the resources protection and drainage improvement works.
and capability for relief, rehabilitation, reconstruction • Monitoring flood preparedness, river basin, and
and recovery from disasters besides creating awareness reservoir management plans.
among vulnerable communities. NDMA has been • Real-time collection of hydro-meteorological data on
entrusted to prepare a Detailed Project Report (DPR) on key rivers, including those from Nepal, Bhutan, and
the Flood Risk Mitigation Project. China.
Flood Management Program: Under the Programme, • Developing, improving, and updating flood forecasting
central assistance was provided to State Governments methods and models for inflow quantification and
for taking up works related to river management, flood dam storage.
control, anti-erosion, drainage development, flood Zoning, Mapping, and Classification
proofing, restoration of damaged flood management • Preparation of large-scale hazard maps to identify
works and anti-sea erosion. The scheme since its high-vulnerability zones.

• Enactment and enforcement of floodplain zoning in capacity development covering all aspects of disaster
regulations by state governments. management.
Research and Development Community-Based Disaster Management
• Scientific study by the Central Water Commission • Training for PRI, SHG, NCC, NSS, youth, and local
(CWC) and state governments on river bed rise and community organisations.
exploration of desilting/dredging viability. • Strengthening the community’s ability to manage
• Evolution of shelter designs in flood-prone areas. and cope with disasters based on a multi-hazard
• River basin studies and research on flood-related approach
problems.
• Hydrological and morphological studies before major Case Study- York, USA
flood control or prevention measures. Problem: York, a historic city situated at the confluence
Dissemination of Warnings and Information of the Rivers Ouse and Foss, has a long and complex
• Real-time data exchange and collaboration with relationship with flooding. Rising water levels have
threatened the city for centuries, with devastating
Nepal, Bhutan, and China for flood forecasting.
consequences such as the Boxing Day floods of 2015.
• Quick, clear, and effective dissemination among However, York’s response to flood management is a prime
central and state agencies. example of a dynamic and multifaceted approach that
• Distribution of necessary communication equipment prioritises protection, preparedness, and resilience.
and last-mile connectivity.
The Challenges
• Warning systems using various media.
Geography: York’s low-lying position and the
• Interface with mobile network service providers for
convergence of rivers make it naturally susceptible to
warnings. flooding.
Inter-Agency Coordination Climate Change: Increased rainfall and storm intensity
• Effective coordination and seamless communication due to climate change are predicted to exacerbate
among central and state agencies. flooding risks.
• Strengthening of Ganga Flood Control Board and Historic Infrastructure: The city’s mediaeval walls
C
PS
Brahmaputra Board. and narrow streets present unique challenges for

_U
nt
Structural Measures implementing flood defences.

ge

A
-@
• Implementing flood risk reduction measures involves The Solutions: York’s flood management strategy
ID
constructing embankments, flood walls, and levees combines traditional hard engineering with
am
based on hydrological studies. innovative methods and community engagement,

gr
le
• Coastal states and port authorities plan sea walls, and which includes:
Te
prioritising proper alignment of waterways, drainage Embankments: Raised embankments along the
systems, dam safety, desilting rivers, and hazard- riverbanks provide the first line of defence against
resistant infrastructure construction enhances overall rising water.
resilience to floods. Foss Barrier: A movable barrier across the River Foss
Awareness Generation prevents backflow into the city center.
• Mass media and community campaigns foster a Sluice Gates: These gates control the flow of water
culture of disaster risk management, promoting within the river system, diverting excess water during
attitude and behaviour change. floods.
• Strengthened civil society networks, insurance Clifton Ings: This designated floodplain allows
promotion, and counselling teams with diverse controlled flooding, storing excess water and reducing
expertise to enhance awareness and resilience in pressure on the city center.
disaster risk reduction and management. Floodplain Restoration: Projects are underway to
Mock Drills or Exercises: Promotion and execution of restore natural floodplains and wetlands, enhancing
their capacity to absorb floodwaters.
emergency drills by all ministries and States/UTs.
Flood Awareness Campaigns: Educational programs
Vocational Training/Skill Development: Promotion of help residents understand flood risks and prepare for
skill development for multi-hazard-resistant construction emergencies.
in flood-prone areas for different types of housing and
infrastructure.
Urban Floods
Empowering Women and Marginalised Communities: Urban flooding refers to flooding incidents that occur in urban
Incorporating gender-sensitive and equitable approaches areas, characterised by excessive runoff due to overloaded
drainage systems and unregulated construction. This conducted in St. Louis, USA, found that urbanisation
phenomenon has been on the rise in India in recent years, led to a 5-25 per cent increase in summer precipitation
posing challenges for urban planning and infrastructure within and 50- 75 km downwind of the city. In India,
management. urban heat islands over Pune and Chennai have been
reported. There has been an increase in the average
How Urban Flooding is Different From Riverine
annual rainfall of Hyderabad from 806 mm in 1988 to
Flooding? 840 mm in 2002.
Urban catchment development intensifies floods (1.8 to 8 Illegal Mining Activities: Illegal mining of river sand and
times) and volumes (up to 6 times) compared to rural areas. quartzite accelerates soil erosion, diminishes water retention
Rapid urban flooding occurs within minutes, exacerbated by capacity, and amplifies flood risks, as observed in Jaisamand
high population density, elevating vulnerability and infection Lake, Jodhpur, and the Cauvery River, Tamil Nadu.
exposure. The impact on critical infrastructure in urban zones
magnifies economic losses and disrupts essential services. Case Study-The Bangalore Failure
Causes of Urban Floods Reasons for Bangalore Flood 2022
Natural Factors Contributing to Urban Flooding Loss of interconnectivity among lakes in the region:
Meteorological Factors Hydrological Factors In 1800, Bangalore (740 sq km region) had 1,452 water
lakes which helped in optimally harvesting rainwater
Rainfall Soil moisture level and also mitigated flooding. Now only 193 lakes are
Cyclonic storms Groundwater Level Prior to left and most of them have lost connectivity due to
Small-scale storms storm blocking of rajakaluves (storm water drains) with
Temperature Natural surface infiltration solid waste or because of encroachment.
Snowfall and rate • The silt deposited in the lakes also reduces the
snowmelt Presence of impervious cover water-holding capacity of the lakes.
Channel cross-sectional shape Encroachment problem: There are more than 6,000
and roughness illegal layouts across the city. Over 22 layouts have
Presence Or Absence Of been constructed on lake beds across the city.
C
PS
Overbank flow, channel

• Encroachment into lakes and watersheds
_U
network
nt
destroyed wetlands, reduced greenery and

ge
Synchronisation of run-
A
concretization of lands.
-@
offs from various parts of

ID
watershed
Urban Flood Risk in India
am
High tide impeding drainage

gr
Increasing Frequency: There has been an increasing

le
Te
Anthropological Factors Also Contribute to Urban trend of urban flood disasters in India over the past
Flooding several years whereby major cities in India have been
Land Use Changes: Surface sealing and deforestation severely affected. The most notable amongst them
increase runoff and sedimentation in urban areas. For are Hyderabad in 2000, Ahmedabad in 2001, Delhi
example, Hyderabad in 1929 had 400 lakes and 48 flood- in 2002,2003, 2009 and 2019 Chennai in 2004, 2015,
absorbing tanks which are now reduced to only 169 lakes 2023, Mumbai in 2005, Surat in 2006, Kolkata in 2007,
due to land use changes. Jamshedpur in 2008, and Guwahati in 2010.
Unplanned Urban Settlements: According to NITI Ayog Heavy rainfall and less prevention: A special feature in
65% of urban settlements lack City Master Plan. India is that we have heavy rainfall during monsoons. There
are other weather systems also that bring in a lot of rain.
Occupation of Flood Plains: Unregulated growth of
Storm surges can also affect coastal cities/ towns. Sudden
infrastructure obstructs natural flows.
release or failure to release water from dams can also have
Water Release from Dams: Sudden release upstream of severe impacts. In addition, the urban heat island effect has
cities and towns increases flood peaks. Excessive release resulted in an increase in rainfall over urban areas.
from the Sardar Sarovar dam caused flooding in the
Climate Change: Global climate change is resulting
Bharuch district of Gujarat in 2023.
in changed weather patterns and increased episodes
Unplanned Tourism Activities: Unplanned tourism of high intensity rainfall events occurring in shorter
development and waste disposal degrade water bodies, periods of time. Then the threat of sea-level rise is also
exacerbating flood risks and health hazards, as seen in looming large, threatening all the coastal cities. Cities/
Ashtamudi Lake, Kollam, Kerala. towns located on the coast, on river banks, upstream/
Urban Heat Island Effect: Recent studies such as the downstream of dams, inland cities and in hilly areas can
Metropolitan Meteorological Experiment (METROMEX) all be affected.

Administrative Lapse: Stormwater drainage systems MoHUA issued Standard Operating Procedures (SoPs)
in the past were designed for rainfall intensity of on Urban Flooding in 2017 and published a manual
12–20 mm. These capacities have been getting very on Storm Water Drainage Systems, 2019 to assist the
easily overwhelmed whenever rainfall of higher intensity States/Union Territories (UTs), Urban Local Bodies (ULBs)
has been experienced. Further, the systems very often and other stakeholders in planning, designing, operation
do not work to the designed capacities because of very and maintenance of storm water drainage systems and
poor maintenance. to assist all States/ UTs to raise the level of preparedness
in the event of urban flooding, and for emergency
operations, including rescue and restoration of services.
Role of Watershed Measures and Groundwater
National Water Policy (2012):
Recharge in Urban Flooding Mitigation
• Integrated Water Management: The storage
By replenishing groundwater through recharge methods
capacities of water bodies, associated wetlands,
like rainwater harvesting and watershed development,
flood plains, ecological buffers and areas required
we essentially reduce surface runoff during heavy
for specific aesthetic recreational and/or social
rains. This lessened runoff translates to decreased
needs may be managed to the extent possible in
pressure on urban drainage systems, lowering the risk
an integrated manner to balance the flooding,
of overflows and subsequent flooding. Additionally,
environment and social issues as per prevalent laws
healthy watersheds with good vegetation cover act
through planned development of urban areas, in
like sponges, slowing down water flow and promoting
particular.
natural infiltration, further mitigating flood peaks in cities
downstream. • Protecting Water Resources: Urban settlements,
encroachments and any developmental activities in
the protected upstream areas of reservoirs/water,
Steps Taken by the Government key aquifer recharge areas that pose a potential
Master Plan for Artificial Recharge to Groundwater threat of contamination, pollution, reduced recharge
- 2020: It has been prepared by the Central Ground and those endanger wild and human life should be
Water Board (CGWB) in collaboration with States/UTs strictly regulated.
C
envisaging construction of about 1.42 crore rain water

PS
Challenges in Urban Flood Mitigation

_U
harvesting and artificial recharge structures in the

nt
country to harness 185 Billion Cubic Meters (BCM) of Inadequate Drainage Systems: Existing systems are
ge
A
water. often outdated, undersized, and poorly maintained.

-@
Encroachment on natural drainage channels further

ID
Jal Shakti Abhiyan: Focuses on rainwater harvesting,

exacerbates the problem.
am
groundwater recharge, watershed management, and

gr
Urbanisation and Impervious Surfaces: Rapid

le
afforestation.
Te
urbanisation leads to increased paved areas, reducing

The Amrit Sarovar Mission: It has been launched with an
water infiltration and causing surface runoff, and
aim to develop and rejuvenate 75 water bodies in each
overwhelming drainage systems.
district of the country as a part of celebration of Azadi ka
Amrit Mahotsav for rainwater harvesting/recharge. Solid Waste Management: Improper waste disposal
clogs drains, impeding water flow.
Atal Mission for Rejuvenation and Urban Transformation
(AMRUT) 2.0 Scheme: Under this scheme provisions Lack of Integrated Planning: Disjointed urban planning
have been made for Harvesting the rainwater through often neglects flood control measures, leading to
storm water drains into water bodies (which are not haphazard development in flood-prone areas.
receiving sewage/effluent) Climate Change: Increased rainfall intensity and more
Steps by Central Ground Water Board (CGWB) frequent extreme weather events pose growing threats.
• CGWB has implemented artificial recharge Financial Constraints: Implementing comprehensive
work in three Aspirational Districts, Osmanabad flood mitigation projects requires significant investment,
(Maharashtra), YSR Kadapa (Andhra Pradesh) and often a constraint for resource-strapped urban bodies.
Jangaon (Telangana). In these Districts, 176 structures Social and Political Issues: Land acquisition for drainage
have been constructed to harvest the runoff water in improvements and relocation of encroachers can be
stream to store at suitable locations for augmenting challenging due to complex social and political dynamics.
recharge to the ground water. Way Forward
• CGWB has also implemented Bridge cum Bandhara Investing in improved drainage infrastructure:
(BCB) for ground water recharge in the districts of Upgrading and expanding drainage systems to handle
Wardha and Amravati of Maharashtra State at five increased rainfall is crucial.
locations.
Restoring and protecting natural waterways: Sanitation
Encroachment on rivers, streams, and wetlands must • Implementation of adequate sanitation and
be stopped, and these areas should be restored to their disinfection measures to prevent the spread of
natural state. diseases like malaria, dengue, and cholera.
Improving solid waste management: Efficient waste Capacity Development, Awareness Generation, and
collection and disposal systems are essential to prevent Documentation
drains from clogging. • Participatory urban flood planning and management
Promoting sustainable urban planning: Urban planning involving local government and the community.
should prioritise green spaces, permeable surfaces, and • Capacity development initiatives, awareness
rainwater harvesting to reduce runoff and increase water campaigns, and documentation for effective flood
infiltration. management.
Raising awareness and community engagement:
Educating communities about flood risks and
Best Practices in Urban Flood Mitigation
preparedness measures can help to reduce the impact Copenhagen, Denmark: The city has incorporated
of floods. numerous green spaces and rain gardens into its
urban design, significantly reducing stormwater
NDMA Guidelines on Urban Flood (2010) runoff and improving water quality.
Early Warning System and Communication Sponge City initiative in China: This ambitious
• Integration of national hydro-meteorological network program aims to turn Chinese cities into “sponges”
and Doppler weather radar with urban planning. that can absorb and reuse rainwater, promoting water
• Automated rain gauges for real-time rainfall conservation and flood mitigation.
communication. Netherlands: Instead of merely trying to barricade
• Flood forecast characterization and implementation water out, the Dutch approach is to let it flow where
of associated flood management plans. it won’t do any damage. The country is dotted with
Design and Management of Urban Drainage ponds, lakes, seaside parking garages and city plazas
that double up as water storage ponds during flooding
C
• Inventory maintenance of the water supply system,

PS
events.
_U
especially minor drainage systems.

nt
ge
• Watershed delineation for drainage system design.

A
-@
• Accurate contours for determining watershed/

ID
catchment boundaries. IGNITE YOUR MIND

am
• Solid waste removal to prevent blockage and reduce

gr
The Mauryan Empire thrived by anticipating and

le
flow capacity.
Te
mitigating monsoons. Can we analyze their water

• Proper drain inlet connectivity to prevent water management systems and weather forecasting
logging on roads. methods, combining them with advanced technology,
Vulnerability Analysis and Risk Assessment to create proactive flood preparedness strategies for
• Identification of at-risk areas and classification of modern India?
structures based on function.
Glacial Lake Outburst Flood (GLOF)
• Estimation of risk for each structure and function
GLOF, or Glacial Lake Outburst Flood, refers to the sudden
using Hazard Risk Zoning.
release of water from glacial lakes, primarily confined by
Urban Flooding Cells loose moraine, creating a potential flood hazard. The Indian
• Creation of a separate Urban Flooding Cell (UFC) Himalayan Region (IHR), home to around 9,575 glaciers
within the Ministry of Urban Development (MoUD) to that serve as the perennial sources for the Indus, Ganga,
coordinate national-level urban flood management and Brahmaputra rivers, faces the recognition of GLOFs as
activities. a climatological disaster in India’s 2019 National Disaster
• Local Urban Bodies (ULBs) are responsible for Management Plan (NDMP).
managing urban flooding at the local level. Glacial Lakes and Its Types
Response A glacial lake is a body of water that originates from a glacier.
• Establishment of Emergency Operation Centres, These lakes are commonly found along the peripheries of
Incident Response systems, flood shelters, and search glaciers and ice sheets, transitioning from ice-contact to ice-
and rescue operations. distal lakes as glaciers recede. Glacial lakes develop primarily
• Emergency logistics as a key component of flood in two regions i.e. behind moraine dams and ice dams. It has
response mechanisms. been divided into the following types:

1. Moraine Dammed Lakes: Formed when a receding Kashmir having the highest number of vulnerable glacial
glacier leaves a depression that fills with water, lakes, emphasising the widespread threat of Glacial Lake
creating a lake, commonly known as a moraine. Outburst Floods (GLOFs) in the Himalayas.
These lakes are contained by unstable mounds of
debris and submerged ice. Moraines are typically Jammu and Kashmir
built during periods such as the Little Ice Age. Ladakh

2. Ice-Dammed Lakes: Created when advancing or
thicker glaciers block the drainage of meltwater,
Himachal Pradesh
resulting in lakes obstructed by ice. Anywhere a
• High priority lakes
glacier impedes the flow of meltwater, ice-dammed Uttrakhand
• All glacial lakes
lakes are formed.
Causes of Glacial Lake Outburst Flood Arunachal Pradesh
Sikkim
Dam Failure: The most common cause of GLOFs is the
failure of the natural dam that holds the glacial lake
in place. This dam can be made of ice, rock debris
Fig. 3.5: High Priority Lakes in Himalayas
(moraine), or a combination of both. The dam can fail
due to a variety of reasons, including Erosion, Melting High Population Exposure: According to a new study led
and external factors such as earthquakes, avalanches, or by scientists at Newcastle University, 3 million people in
volcanic eruptions. India face a significant risk of flooding caused by glacial
Rapid Water Input: In some cases, GLOFs can be triggered lakes, representing the highest exposed population
by a sudden influx of water into the glacial lake. This can globally.
happen due to: Loss of lives: The ICIMOD reports that the GLOF outburst
• Heavy rainfall or snowmelt: If a large amount of rain in South Lhonak Lake, Sikkim, in October 2023 caused
or snow falls in a short period of time, it can quickly 102 deaths, while a regional effort documents over 7,000
fill the lake and cause it to overflow. lives lost to GLOF outbursts since 1833 across the Hindu
• Subglacial meltwater: If meltwater from the glacier Kush Himalayan region.
C
PS
builds up under the ice, it can create a cavity that can Impact of GLOF
_U
suddenly collapse, releasing a large volume of water

nt
Loss of life: The rapid and powerful surge of water from a

ge
into the lake.

A
GLOF can sweep away people, homes, and infrastructure.

-@
The 2013 Uttarakhand floods, triggered by the Chorabari

ID
Datawise
am
Approximately 10% of the Himalayas are covered with Glacier Lake outburst, claimed over 5,000 lives, making
gr
it one of the deadliest natural disasters in India’s history.

le
glaciers and an additional 30 to 40% support snow

Te
cover. Infrastructure damage: GLOFs can cause widespread

The Indian Himalayan Region (IHR) comprises about damage to roads, bridges, power lines, and other
9,575 glaciers spread across 6 states and union critical infrastructure. This can disrupt essential services,
territories. The Himalayan glaciers cover a total area hamper rescue and relief efforts, and hinder economic
of 71,182.08 km², with 32,392 glaciers. activity in the affected areas.
The Indus basin has 16,049 glaciers, the Ganga basin has Environmental damage: The force of a GLOF can erode
6,237 glaciers, and the Brahmaputra basin has 10,106 riverbeds, alter river courses, and disrupt ecosystems.
glaciers. This can have long-term consequences for biodiversity
Researchers estimate that about 17% of the Himalayas and the delicate balance of the Himalayan environment.
and 37% of the Karakoram are covered by glacier ice. Steps Taken by the Government
Glacial Lake Outburst Flood (GLOF) Risk in India Meteorological observation stations: Central Water
Climate Impact in the Himalayas: Visible climate impact
Commission (CWC) has 46 existing meteorological
in the Himalayas, with 25 glacial lakes and water bodies observation stations in the Himalayan region, 1,000
witnessing an increase in water spread area since 2009, meters above mean sea level out of which 35 stations are
indicating a heightened risk of GLOFs in the region. telemetry-based stations. As many as 16 new telemetry-
Most Risk Prone States: In the Himalayan region, Sikkim’s based meteorological observation stations have been
State Disaster Management Authority identifies over proposed in the Himalayan region, which are under
300 glacial lakes, with 10 classified as vulnerable, while various stages of implementation.
NRSC’s assessment reveals 733; in Uttarakhand, 13 out of Defense Geo-informatics Research Establishment
486 glacial lakes are found vulnerable by the Geological (DGRE): DGRE has been working to enhance the
Survey of India; a 2021 study highlights Jammu and
number of Automatic Weather Stations for forecasting involved in glacial management and analysing the
avalanches and landslides in a phased manner to mountain hazards by sharing data with them which the
increase the coverage area in the states of Himachal ministry has agreed.
Pradesh, Uttarakhand, Sikkim, Arunachal Pradesh and in
NDMA Guidelines on GLOF (2020)
the union territories of Jammu & Kashmir, and Ladakh. It
Hazard and Risk Mapping
has already established three Mountain Meteorological
Centers in Ladakh, Jammu and Kashmir and Uttarakhand • Robust hazard and risk assessment is crucial for
for avalanche study. Disaster Risk Management in changing mountain
regions.
• Joint Initiative of DGRE and Swiss Federal Institute
for Snow and Avalanche Research (SFISAR): DGRE • National and location-specific evaluations are
has joined hands with the Swiss Federal Institute for essential for effective risk management.
Snow and Avalanche Research (SFISAR) to develop a • Regular satellite monitoring is key for GLOF risk
model for forecasting. assessment, requiring standardised approaches.
Automatic Weather Stations: A network of 35 Automatic • Regional cooperation is needed for high-priority lakes
Weather Stations is to be built soon in the border state of in the Indian Himalayan Region (IHR).
Sikkim to generate avalanche forecast data for the armed • Field studies and hazard modelling inform detailed
forces. assessments of GLOF scenarios.
Monitoring by Government Agencies: There are other Monitoring, Risk Reduction And Mitigation Measures
government agencies to monitor, predict and undertake • Structural and organisational measures, including
research on GLOF, landslide lake outburst flood (LLOF), spatial planning with hazard maps.
cloudburst flood, and so on, such as the Geological • Local community involvement, considering risk
Survey of India, Department of Science and Technology, perceptions, enhances effectiveness.
Defense Research and Development Organization and Awareness and Preparedness
the ministries of Environment, Forests and Climate • Short-term strategies include local initiatives with
Change and Earth Sciences. signage, toll-free numbers, web platforms, and apps.
C
PS
• Medium-term involves mainstreaming GLOF risks

_U
Challenges in Mitigation of GLOF

through media and local capacity development.
nt
ge
Diverse Hazards: The Himalayan Region faces various

A
• Long-term plans include national campaigns, a GLOF

-@
hydro-meteorological, tectonic, climate, and human- data centre, and school involvement.
ID
induced hazards, requiring comprehensive mitigation

am
Capacity Development
strategies.
gr
• Incorporating GLOF education into the curriculum,

le
Te
Monitoring Complexity: Monitoring is challenging due organising professional courses and workshops, and
to the multitude of glaciers, varying glacial recessions, establishing a database of past incidents is essential
and the dynamic nature of risk estimation. for capacity development.
Transboundary Complexity: The transboundary nature • Continuous learning and adaptation to evolving
of glacial lakes demands international cooperation for tools and techniques are crucial for the effective
effective risk management. management of the increasing GLOF hazards due to
State and UT Variability: Managing glacial lakes in India climate change.
involves addressing regional variability across states and Disaster Response
Union Territories, requiring tailored strategies. • Local community training through an Incident
Response System (IRS) for effective disaster response.
Way Forward • The SOP outlines three stages for agencies to monitor
Parliamentary Standing Committee recommendation on weather, plan evacuations, and conduct post-event
GLOF Mitigation assessments.
Modernising Monitoring: It is recommended to set up Research and Development
and widen the network of high-altitude meteorological • Use of local knowledge for community-based risk
and discharge stations equipped with modern management.
technology including Synthetic Aperture Radar imagery • Future-oriented risk management must address human
to automatically detect changes in water bodies and lake infrastructure expansion into high mountain areas.
formations in the Indian Himalayan region. Regulation and Enforcement
Capacity Building: It has told the Jal Shakti ministry • Form a committee to draft regulations addressing
to work in “close collaboration” with other agencies increased GLOF/LLOF risks within a year.

• Establish a unified legislation controlling development the ground, reducing its stability and making it more
and building activities. prone to sliding. Think of it like adding too much water to
• Mandate buildings, especially critical infrastructure, a sponge – eventually, it overflows.
to adhere to the latest safety codes. Earthquakes: The shaking and ground displacement
• Raise awareness at all levels, starting with decision- caused by earthquakes can destabilise slopes and trigger
makers, on safety against natural hazards and the landslides, especially in areas with already loose or
legal framework. fractured soil.
Action Plan and Implementation Erosion: Natural processes like wind and water can erode
• Designate the Ministry of Jal Shakti and CWC as soil and rock, weakening slopes and increasing the risk of
the Nodal Ministry and Agency for glacial studies, landslides.
including GLOF. Changes in groundwater levels: Fluctuations in
• Allocate specific funds in annual plans for disaster groundwater levels, such as those caused by heavy rain
awareness, preparedness, and mitigation. or snowmelt, can alter the pressure within soil and rock,
• Establish a fully autonomous Centre for Glacial leading to instability and landslides.
Research, Studies, and Management under MoJS for Volcanic activity: Volcanic eruptions can trigger
glacial research, studies, and management. landslides through seismic activity,mudflows, and lahars
• Form a high-level scientific Technical Advisory (hot, fast-moving mudflows).
Committee for guidance. Deforestation: Trees and their roots help bind soil
together and anchor it to slopes. Removing trees weakens
Landslides
the soil and makes it more susceptible to landslides,
Landslides are gravitational movements of rocks, earth masses, especially during heavy rain.
or debris down mountain slopes, often triggered by factors such
Mining and quarrying: Removing large amounts of soil
as groundwater pressure, earthquakes, erosion, and volcanic
and rock for mining or quarrying can create unstable
eruptions, leading to the instability of hilly slopes.
slopes and trigger landslides.
Risk of Landslides in India
C
PS
Geographical Distribution of Landslides: According

_U
to the Geological Survey Of India (GSI), about 0.42

nt
ge
million square kilometres, or 12.6% of the country’s

A
-@
land area, is susceptible to landslide hazards. Landslides

ID
predominantly occur in India’s hilly regions, including the

am
Himalayas, North-East India, Nilgiris, Eastern Ghats, and

gr
le
Western Ghats.
Te
Most Prone Area: Approximately 30% of the world’s

landslides occur in the Himalayan ranges, characterised
by a unique structure of seven curvilinear parallel folds
spanning 3,400 kilometres.
Trigger Points: Unprecedented rainfall saturated soil,
increasing landslide risks. In 1978, extensive rains
Fig. 3.6: Landslide Prone Areas In India
triggered around one hundred landslides in the Nilgiris,
Causes of Landslides causing severe damage to communication lines, tea
Heavy Rainfall: Intense or prolonged rainfall saturates gardens, and cultivated crops.
Landslide Zones in India

Moderate-Low Vulnerable
High Vulnerable Zones Very High Vulnerable Zones
Landslide Zones
Trans Himalayan region Northeastern region Andaman and Nicobar Island
Spiti of Himachal Pradesh the Eastern Ghats Western Ghats
Aravalli mountains Konkan Hills Darjeeling
Deccan Plateau Nilgiris Sikkim
Chhattisgarh Uttarakhand
Jharkhand
Odisha
Impacts of Landslides in India • Early Warning Systems: Utilising various
Traffic Disruption: Mud, debris, and rocks sliding from communication channels like sirens, mobile apps, and
slopes during landslides can restrict human movement, SMS to ensure effective dissemination of warnings.
creating barriers on highways and railway lines. For • Awareness and Capacity Building: Educating
communities living in landslide-prone areas about
instance, in 2021, a landslide blocked National Highway-5
the risks, preparedness measures, and evacuation
in the Badhal district. procedures. It also advised training government
Loss of Human Lives: Landslides lead to a severe loss of officials, disaster response teams, and volunteers
human lives. An example is the landslide in the Kinnaur in landslide risk management and mitigation
district of Himachal Pradesh in August 2021, which techniques.
resulted in the tragic death of approximately 28 people. • Mitigation and Stabilization: This will be done
Infrastructure Damage: Landslides cause significant through measures such as afforestation,
bioengineering slopes, and drainage improvements
damage to houses, roads, and buildings, imposing a
to reduce landslide susceptibility.
financial burden for the reconstruction of infrastructure • Regulations and Policies: Strengthening building
and the rehabilitation of affected communities. codes and land-use regulations to prevent
Water Supply Disruption: Debris sliding down from construction in high-risk zones and ensure safe
slopes during landslides can fully or partially block river construction practices. It further emphasised
channels, making it challenging for locals to access water enforcing zoning regulations and environmental laws
supply. to prevent deforestation and unsustainable land-use
practices.
Increased Flood Risk: Landslides contribute to an
• Research and Development: Promoting research
increased risk of floods by adding debris to river and development activities in landslide forecasting,
sediment. This alteration in river courses can lead to monitoring, and mitigation technologies.
irregularities, causing frequent floods. Collaborating with academic institutions and
Environmental Crisis: Landslides are considered a chief international experts to share knowledge and
factor behind environmental crises, as seen in the develop innovative solutions.
case of the Joshimath sinking crisis in January 2023,
C
PS
leading to mass evacuations and posing a threat to the

_U
environment.
nt
ge
A
Case Study-Himachal Pradesh

-@
ID
Increasing Incidence: Himachal Pradesh has witnessed a

am
six-time increase in major landslides in the past two years

gr
le
with 117 occurring in 2022 as compared to 16 in 2020.

Te
Reason for the Rise

Cutting Hill slopes: Extensive cutting of hill slopes for
construction and widening of roads, blasting for tunnels,
hydro projects and mining are cited as reasons behind the
increase in landslides.
Climate Change: Though the time span of rains has been
reduced, their intensity has increased. High temperatures
coupled with heavy rains lead to landslides due to
loosening of the strata in places which have undergone
cutting downstream on the foothills.
Government Measures
National Landslide Risk Management Strategy 2019: It
highlights the six pillars of the NLRMS: Hazard mapping,
early warning systems, awareness and capacity
building, mitigation and stabilisation, regulations and
policies, and research and development. Fig. 3.7: Landslide Hazard Zonation Map
• Hazard Mapping and Monitoring: Creating detailed Landslide Risk Mitigation Scheme (LRMS): The under
landslide hazard maps using advanced technologies preparation scheme envisages financial support for site
like Light Detection and Ranging (LiDAR) and remote specific Landslide Mitigation Projects recommended by
sensing. landslide prone States, covering “disaster prevention

strategy, disaster mitigation and R&D in monitoring of Landslide Hazard Mitigation Guidelines by NDMA
critical Landslides” thereby leading to the development Identification of Hazard Zones and Hazard Mapping:
of an Early Warning System and Capacity Building Specific hazard zones must be identified, and measures
initiatives. for stabilising and managing particular slides should be
Landslide Hazard Zonation Map: The Indian Space implemented. Monitoring systems and early warning
Research Organisation (ISRO) has carried out landslide systems should be established at selected sites.
susceptibility zonation mapping in the Northwest and Conducting hazard mapping to pinpoint areas prone to
Northeast Himalayas. landslides is essential for targeted mitigation efforts.
• ISRO has also constructed a network of 30 Global Area-Specific Measures: It is recommended to adopt
Navigation Satellite System-based Continuously area-specific measures to effectively deal with the
Operating Reference Stations across the Himalayan unique characteristics of landslides in different regions.
belt to monitor the process of crustal deformation.
Restrictions on Development Activities: Enforcing
The Geological Survey of India (GSI) has conducted
restrictions on construction and other developmental
research and development studies with field validation
activities, such as roads and dams, with limitations on
across the country’s landslide-prone areas. GSI has
agriculture in valleys and areas with moderate slopes.
constructed a Seismo-Geodetic Data Receiving and
Controlling the development of large settlements in
Processing Centre, which receives and analyses real-
high-vulnerability zones is crucial.
time Seismo-Geodetic Data from Remote Broadband
Seismic Observatories placed around the country. Afforestation and Bund Construction: Encouraging large-
• GSI has already developed and implemented a macro- scale afforestation programs and constructing bunds to
scale National Landslide Susceptibility Mapping reduce the flow of water, thereby mitigating landslide risks.
(NLSM) Programme. Promotion of Terrace Farming: Promoting terrace
farming, particularly in the northeastern hill states, as an
Way Forward alternative to Jhumming or shifting cultivation practices.
The main mitigation measures adopted for landslide prone
Construction of Retaining Walls: Building retaining walls
areas are proper land use; drainage correction, reforestation
on mountain slopes to prevent land slippage and treating
of the areas occupied by degraded vegetation; and above
vulnerable slopes and existing hazardous landslide areas
C
all, creation of awareness among local people.

PS
accordingly.
_U
Reduce damage: Locate development activities on stable

nt
Development of Codes: Developing codes for excavation,

ge
ground and utilise the landslide susceptible areas as

A
construction, and grading to ensure safe practices in

-@
open space as parks, grazing or afforestation.

landslide-prone areas.
ID
The afforestation programme should be properly

am
Landslide Insurance and Compensation: Establishing

planned so that there is very little slope modification in
gr
arrangements for landslide insurance and compensation

le
this process.
Te
for losses to facilitate recovery and encourage risk

Improve slope stability: Water infiltrates the overburden
mitigation practices.
(layers above the bedrock), increasing pore pressure and
reducing the soil’s internal friction. This weakens the The Great Himalayan Blunder: The Shimla Story
slope, particularly on steep terrain, potentially triggering
Nestled in the Himalayas, Shimla, once a quaint hill station, now
mass movements like landslides. The best natural
faces a precarious future due to urbanisation, environmental
method is reducing infiltration and allowing excess
degradation, and vulnerable construction practices.
water to move down without hindrance. As a result,
drainage correction is an important mitigation measure Issues
that involves maintenance of natural drainage channels Population Explosion: Built for 25,000, Shimla now
in vulnerable slopes. houses nearly 2,50,000, exceeding recommended
States like Uttarakhand and Himachal should take great
density limits by tenfold. This has strained the fragile
caution in pursuing disruptive projects. There should ecosystem and increased potential landslide triggers.
be proper implementation of Environmental impact Environmental Imbalance: Deforestation, road
assessment norms before initiating mining or dam cutting, and altered agricultural practices have
construction. disrupted the natural equilibrium of the hills,
weakening slopes and increasing waterlogging.
There should be the adoption of landslide micro zoning
procedures for mountainous and other highly vulnerable Structural Vulnerability: With 90% of central Shimla
regions. built on a 60-degree slope, the densely packed, multi-
story buildings pose a grave danger in an earthquake.
There should be involvement of locally available trained
Construction shortcuts, like shallow foundations resting
manpower to intensify the hazard reduction and public
on loose soil, further exacerbate the risk of collapse.
awareness programs.
the rainwater, leading to localised flooding even with
Potential Consequences relatively small amounts of rainfall.
A landslide or earthquake could trigger a domino
effect, with collapsing buildings cascading down the Cloudburst Risks in India
steep slopes, causing catastrophic loss of life and Greater Probability in Mountainous Zones: In India,
property. cloudbursts mostly occur during the monsoon season in
• For example, In the event of an earth tremor, the the mountainous regions at elevations between 1,000-
devastation could be enormous, with buildings 2,500 metres above sea level, when moisture-carrying air
on slopes steeper than 45 degrees collapsing in a moves up a hilly terrain, then forming a vertical column
chain. of ‘cumulonimbus’ clouds.
Possible Solutions • These clouds are unstable in nature thus, causing an
No construction should be ordinarily undertaken in intense rainstorm over a small area on getting locked
areas having slopes above 30 degrees or areas which between the ridges and valleys after becoming very
fall in landslide hazard zones or areas falling on the heavy.
spring lines and first order streams. Geographically prone areas: Cloudbursts in India are
The NLRMS 2019 report also emphasised the prevalent in orographically dominant regions such as the
necessity of load bearing tests, hazard zonation and Himalayan region, north-eastern states, and the Western
slope and land-use maps to guide urban planners in
Ghats.
clearing constructions.
Extreme Precipitation and Global Warming: Events of
Cloudburst extreme precipitation, including cloudbursts, have shown
A cloudburst is a catastrophic weather phenomenon an increasing trend in the last few decades, attributed in
characterised by intense and rapid rainfall occurring over a part to global warming. The changing climate patterns
localised area. The defining criteria for a cloudburst include contribute to more intense and frequent rainfall events.
rainfall of 10 cm or more per hour over an approximate area Impact of Cloudbursts
of 20-30 square kilometres. This extreme precipitation event
Flash Floods and Landslides: Cloudbursts frequently
can lead to flash floods, landslides, and significant damage
C
trigger flash floods and landslides, posing immediate and

PS
to infrastructure and communities within the affected

_U
severe threats to life and property.

nt
region.
ge
Danger in Compact Spaces: The suddenness of

A

-@
Causes of Cloudburst cloudbursts can be especially dangerous in compact and

ID
Orographic Uplift: Cloudbursts are more frequent enclosed spaces on slopes, making timely rescue and
am
in mountainous regions due to the phenomenon

gr
relief challenging.
le
of orographic uplift. As moist air masses rise over

Te
Infrastructure Damage: The force of flash floods

mountains, they cool down and condense, forming and landslides can result in extensive damage to
clouds. The rising air current also strengthens the infrastructure, including roads, bridges, buildings,
updrafts within the clouds, causing water droplets to and utilities. The destruction hampers normal life and
collide and grow in size. requires substantial resources for reconstruction.
Atmospheric Instability: Cloudbursts often occur Disruption of Communication: The impact of cloudbursts
when conditions within the atmosphere are highly often includes the disruption of communication
unstable. This means that warm, moist air rises rapidly networks, making it challenging for authorities to
and encounters colder air above, intensifying the coordinate rescue and relief efforts. This exacerbates the
condensation process and leading to a sudden release challenges of responding to the disaster.
of precipitation. Factors like high humidity, low pressure,
Environmental Consequences: Cloudbursts contribute
and strong updrafts contribute to this instability.
to environmental degradation by causing soil erosion,
Convergence of Air Masses: When air masses with
altering landscapes, and depositing debris in water
different temperatures and moisture content converge,
bodies. This can lead to long-term ecological imbalances
the resulting pressure difference can trigger the
in affected areas.
rapid ascent of air, creating conditions conducive to
cloudbursts. This is particularly relevant in monsoon Steps Taken by the Government
seasons, where warm, moist air from the ocean meets Expansion of doppler radar footprints: To prevent
cooler air masses over land. damage to life and property caused by extreme rainfall
Local Topography: The specific topography of an area events, the India Meteorological Department (IMD)
can also play a role in triggering cloudbursts. Steep has planned a massive expansion of its doppler radar
slopes and narrow valleys can channel and concentrate footprints to improve forecast of the cloudbursts.

Automatic weather stations: IMD has come up with to predict cloudbursts with greater accuracy and lead
a plan to set up automatic weather stations in every time. Japan’s dense network of radars and advanced
block and automatic rain gauge in each panchayat of the forecasting models provide early warnings with lead
country. times of up to several hours, allowing for timely
Augmented weather observation systems: States like evacuation and mitigation efforts.
Odisha are augmenting their weather observation Natural Drainage Restoration: Restore and protect
systems. The plan is to have an integrated observation natural drainage channels like streams and wetlands
system which IMD will monitor and provide the forecasts. to improve water infiltration and reduce surface
runoff. Austria has implemented comprehensive
Challenges in Cloudburst Mitigation
flood protection measures, including retention basins,
Prediction: Anticipating cloudbursts poses challenges diversion channels, and dikes, significantly reducing
due to their rapid onset over a short period, requiring an flood damage in high-risk areas.
expensive and extensive radar network. While identifying Floodplain Zoning: Designating floodplain zones to
areas prone to heavy rainfall is feasible, precise prediction limit construction, thus minimising damage to human
of cloudbursts remains difficult, emphasising the need for settlements and infrastructure.
enhanced meteorological understanding and community
Strengthening of Infrastructure: Reinforcing critical
preparedness to mitigate potential damage. Efforts to
infrastructure such as roads, bridges, and water supply
proactively address the dynamic nature of cloudbursts systems to enhance resilience against natural disasters.
through advanced technologies and strategic planning
Development and Regular Updating of Emergency
are crucial.
Response Plans: Formulating and regularly revising
Expensive Technology: Cloudburst is one such emergency response plans to ensure prompt and
phenomenon which is unpredictable. Even with the effective disaster response.
development in technology, ‘DOPPLER RADARS’ are Regular Training and Drills: Conducting frequent
being used to help in predicting the possibility of the training sessions and drills for disaster response teams,
occurrence of cloudbursts, but such radars are extremely community volunteers, and the general public to
expensive and installation is not always feasible. enhance preparedness and response capabilities.
C
PS
• Himalayan region has only seven doppler radars —

Cloudburst Mitigation Guidelines by NDMA
_U
two in Jammu and Kashmir (Sonmarg and Srinagar),

nt
ge
one each in Uttarakhand (Kufri), Mukteshwar Early Warning Systems: This system should include
A
-@
(Uttarakhand), Mohanbari (Assam), Meghalaya state-of-the-art weather monitoring technologies,

ID
such as Doppler radars and satellite imagery, to detect

(Sohri) and Tripura (Agartala). There are only 39
am
and predict cloudburst events accurately. The NDMA

gr
Doppler Weather Radars (DWRs) radars present in

guidelines emphasise the need for timely dissemination
le
Te
the country as of December 2023. The number has

of warnings to vulnerable communities through various
increased by just 6 in the last 5 years. communication channels, including mobile alerts, sirens,
• Satellites fail to detect the cloudburst systems as the and community-based mechanisms.
resolution of the precipitation radars is much smaller Infrastructure Development: The NDMA guidelines
than the area of individual cloudburst events. advocate the construction of well-designed drainage
Underreporting: Due to their highly localised and short systems, retaining walls, and embankments in high-risk
occurrence, most of these events go unreported due to areas prone to cloudbursts. These structures should
the lack of monitoring mechanisms. Thus, cloudburst be designed to effectively channelize the excess water
forecasts still remain elusive and prevent flash floods, thereby protecting human
Climate Change boost frequency: Even though the settlements and critical infrastructure such as roads,
meteorological data states that the amount of rainfall in bridges, and buildings.
India did not change much, there has been a significant Land-Use Planning: The NDMA guidelines stress the
increase in the proportion of rainfall in a short span of need for identifying and mapping vulnerable areas
time over a particular area. As emissions continue to prone to cloudbursts and restricting construction in
increase and global commitment to reduce emissions is these regions. Strict adherence to zoning regulations and
gradually proving to be insufficient, these temperatures building codes can help reduce the exposure of human
are set to hit 1.5°C during 2020-2040 and 2°C during 2040- settlements to the risks associated with cloudbursts.
2060. This will double the occurrence of cloudbursts. Reforestation and Soil Conservation: The NDMA
guidelines highlight the importance of reforestation
Way Forward initiatives to enhance the natural water-holding capacity
Advanced Forecasting Models: Invest in developing and of the soil and reduce soil erosion. Planting indigenous
adopting high-resolution weather forecasting models tree species and implementing soil conservation
measures such as contour ploughing and terracing can formation and intensification of tropical storms are
effectively stabilise slopes, minimise landslides, and • Large sea surface with temperature higher than 27° C
improve water absorption. • Presence of the Coriolis force
Capacity Building and Training: The guidelines emphasise • Small variations in the vertical wind speed
the need to train and equip local communities, disaster • A pre-existing weak- low-pressure area or low-level-
response teams, and relevant stakeholders with the cyclonic circulation;
necessary skills and knowledge to handle cloudburst • Upper divergence above the sea level system.
situations. Training should include aspects such as early
• Landfall: The energy that intensifies the storm, comes
warning system operation, search and rescue techniques,
from the condensation process in the towering
first aid, and community-based disaster management.
cumulonimbus clouds, surrounding the centre of
Public Awareness and Education: These initiatives should
the storm. With a continuous supply of moisture
focus on promoting safety practices, such as the creation of
from the sea, the storm is further strengthened.
emergency kits, evacuation plans, and the establishment of
On reaching the land the moisture supply is cut off
community-based early warning systems.
and the storm dissipates. The place where a tropical
Cyclone cyclone crosses the coast is called the landfall of the
Cyclones, atmospheric phenomena characterised by rapid cyclone.
air circulation around a low-pressure centre, lead to violent Extra Tropical Cyclones: The systems developing in the
storms and adverse weather conditions. India’s extensive mid and high latitudes, beyond the tropics are called the
coastline of approximately 7,500 km, including the mainland, middle latitude or extra tropical cyclones. The passage
Lakshadweep, and the Andaman and Nicobar Islands, of the front causes abrupt changes in the weather
experiences nearly 10% of the world’s tropical cyclones. conditions over the area in the middle and high
The Bay of Bengal is a primary genesis area for cyclones, and latitudes.
the east coast of India is frequently impacted. On average,
five to six tropical cyclones form each year, with two or three Risk of Cyclone in India
potentially reaching severe intensity. India’s Extensive Coastline: With a coastline of around 7500
km on the east and west, India is exposed to the hazards of
C
tropical cyclones, storm surges, and heavy rainfall.

PS
_U
• According to the National Cyclone Risk Mitigation

nt
ge
Project (NCRMP) data, around 58 percent of the

A
-@
cyclones formed in the Bay of Bengal make landfall

ID
on the eastern coast and 25 per cent in the case of

am
the Arabian Sea.

gr
le
Major Risk prone regions: According to the 2021 study by

Te
the National Institute of Disaster Management (NIDM),

nearly 320 million people in India are vulnerable to the
impact of cyclones. The primary states and union territories
prone to the cyclones include Andhra Pradesh, Odisha,
Tamil Nadu and West Bengal on the east coast, while Kerala,
Karnataka, Maharashtra, Goa and Gujarat are vulnerable on
the west coast, along with some Union territories.
Population Density: Most coastal cities in these regions
have high population densities, amplifying the potential
impact of cyclonic events.
Impact of Cyclone
Economic: Cyclone affects a local economy, which
further affects the national economy – disruptions to
infrastructure, road networks, communication systems,
and public properties. Fisheries are also severely affected
as the fish ponds are filled with silt and saline water, and
Fig. 3.8: Cyclone Prone Areas their recovery takes time. People primarily dependent
Causes of Cyclone on agriculture, fishing, and aquaculture including crab,
Tropical Cyclone: These originate and intensify over prawn, shrimp seeds collection and honey collection for
warm tropical oceans. The conditions favourable for the food and livelihood get severely hampered.

Loss of lives: According to a report by scientists of Earth human health. Due to the increase in saline water, the
Sciences Ministry as many as 117 cyclones hit India in 50 mangroves which primarily grow in the freshwater are
years from 1970-2019 claiming over 40,000 lives. depleting, further affecting the birth of the species to
Environmental: Sundarbans, Known as the cyclone live around and affecting livelihood.
capital of India, has battered several cyclones, including Health: Heavy rainfall also leads to drainage damage,
Aila, Amphan, Fani, Yaas, etc. in the span of 15 years. which hampers the water supply and increases water
This has led to an increase in the salinity of water in sanitation problems. Drainage damage leads to an
most of the rivers and ponds in almost all areas of the increase in the number of water-borne and vector
Sundarbans. These ponds filled with saline water have diseases, such as Malaria, Dengue, Filaria and Kala-
become the primary source of water for the people living azar, among others, and the people who have been
in the area in the absence of fresh water. This further displaced and moved are unfortunately vulnerable to
leads to all kinds of infections and other challenges to these diseases.
Major Cyclones hitting Indian Coast
Cyclone Peak Wind Speed Human Loss Lives Loss of Property (Millions Rupees) Month & Year
Chirala 260 8574 3500 November 1977
Machilipatnam 210 700 1700 May 1979
Sriharikota 210 604 4000 November 1984
Machilipatnam 235 967 22480 May 1990
Paradip 260 9887 – October 1999
Government Initiatives for Cyclone Preparedness includes components like mangrove conservation and
Moderate
coastline mapping.
High Coastal Regulation Zones (CRZ): Coastal Regulation
Very High Zones (CRZ) were declared in 1991, encompassing areas
influenced by tides up to 500 metres from the high tide line.
C
PS
The Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change

_U
declares CRZ under the Environment Protection Act 1986.

nt
ge
Colour Coding of Cyclones: The India Meteorological

A
-@
North Gujarat
South Gujarat Department (IMD) issues a weather warning system
ID
West Bengal
North Odisha using four colours (Green, Yellow, Orange, and Red)
am
North Maharashtra
South Odisha
gr
South Maharashtra to indicate varying levels of cyclonic intensity and

le
North Andhra Pradesh

Te
Goa associated risks.

Karnataka South Andhra
Pradesh STORM SURGE
North Kerala WARNING LEVEL ACTION TO BE TAKEN
North Tamil Nadu
South Kerala South Tamil Nadu Storm surge is CATASTROPHIC.

RED
TAKE ACTION There is significant threat to life.
Degree of Vulnerability Mandatory evacuation is enforced.
Fig. 3.9: Cyclone Hazard Zonation Map
Storm surge is EXPECTED.
ORANGE Conditions could become life threatening. All
Cyclone Hazard Zonation Map: Based on wind speed and ALARM marine activities must be cancelled. Follow
storm surge potential, this map identifies places at risk of evacuation guidelines from local authorities.
cyclones. It divides the country into cyclone hazard zones.

YELLOW Storm surge is POSSIBLE.
• The national cyclone risk mitigation project ALERT Stay away from the coast or beach,
intends to improve cyclone forecasting, tracking, Preparation measures must be carried out.
and warning technologies, increase capacity in GREEN

multi-hazard risk management, and create key NO ALERT No action required.
infrastructure such as multi-purpose cyclone

shelters and embankments. Fig. 3.10: Color-Coded Early Warning System For Cyclones
Integrated Coastal Zone Management (ICZM) Project:
The Integrated Coastal Zone Management (ICZM) project Challenges of Cyclone Preparedness in India
aims to enhance coastal communities’ livelihoods Inadequate Response to Warnings: Lack of planning and
and preserve the coastal ecosystem. It identifies coordination at the national and local levels, leading to
infrastructure needs and livelihood improvements and inadequate responses to cyclone warnings.
Lack of Grassroots Participation: Limited grassroots Management of coastal zones: Mapping and
participation in disaster management, hinders the delineation of coastal wetlands, patches of mangroves
effective building of resilience. and shelterbelts and identification of potential zones for
Infrastructure Gaps at NDMA and MHA: The absence of
expanding bio-shield spread based on remote sensing
tools.
a fully automated and state-of-the-art operation centre
at NDMA and MHA, with facilities for routine activities Setting up an exclusive eco-system monitoring network
and disaster situations. to study the impact of climate change.

Setting up of a ‘National Cyclone Disaster Management
Need for Network Integration: The necessity to
integrate networks established by various agencies for Institute’ in one of the coastal states to address all issues
comprehensive disaster management. related to cyclone risks.
Evacuation and Shelter: Ensuring the timely evacuation Aircraft Probing of Cyclone (APC) facility: Commissioning
of people from high-risk areas to cyclone shelters is of APC facility to fill the critical observational data gaps
crucial but often faces logistical challenges, especially in and significantly reduce the margin of error in predicting
densely populated regions. cyclone track, intensity and landfall.
Way Forward Best Practices in Cyclone Mitigation Around the
Nature based measures: The administration must
World
widen the cover under shelterbelt plantations and help
Cuba: Renowned for its community-based
regenerate mangroves in coastal regions to lessen the
impact of cyclones. preparedness system, Cuba actively engages citizens
in disaster risk reduction, leading to remarkably low
Building cyclone-resilient infrastructure: Constructing
death tolls despite frequent hurricanes.
storm surge-resilient embankments, canals and improving
river connectivity to prevent waterlogging in low-lying Netherlands: This country’s innovative coastal
areas are important. Installing disaster-resilient power management system, including the Delta Works,
infrastructure in the coastal districts, providing concrete protects its land from storm surges and high tides,
C
houses to poor and vulnerable households, and creating serving as a model for other coastal nations.
PS
_U
massive community awareness campaigns are essential. Bangladesh: Facing a double threat from cyclones
nt
ge
Training Programs: Training programmes for the and storm surges, Bangladesh has developed
A
-@
disaster management officials and Non-Government innovative solutions like cyclone-proof housing
ID
Organisations (NGOs)should be arranged by the disaster made from bamboo and earthen materials. They also
am
management faculties of several management and utilize a network of cyclone towers as storm shelters
gr
le
and communication hubs, ensuring timely alerts and

Te
public administration institutions in India.

rescue efforts reach vulnerable areas.
NDMA Guidelines on Cyclones (2008)
Early warning System: Establishing a state-of-the- Drought
art cyclone early warning system (EWS) involving
Droughts are characterised by a significant deficiency in
observations, predictions, warnings and user friendly
water availability, primarily resulting from a lack of rainfall.
advisories. Expanding the warning dissemination
outreach by introducing ‘Last Mile Connectivity’, which These include traditional factors such as precipitation,
will include providing a public address system along the evaporation, and evapotranspiration, as well as agricultural
entire coast line, using VHF technology. elements like groundwater levels, soil moisture, storage,
National Disaster Communication Infrastructure: surface runoff, and the types of crops grown.
Commissioning of the NDCI to provide dedicated and Causes of Drought in India
failsafe communications to the National, State and District
Insufficient Rainfall and Dry Weather: According to
Disaster Management Authorities and officials concerned.
the Ministry of Home Affairs, 68% of India is prone to
National Cyclone Risk Mitigation Project: Implementing
varying degrees of drought. This includes 35% with
the NCRMP in all the 13 coastal states and UTs.
rainfall between 750 mm and 1125 mm (considered
Structural mitigation measures: Improving structural
drought-prone) and 33% with less than 750 mm (deemed
lifeline infrastructure; construction of multi-purpose
cyclone shelters and cattle mounds, ensuring cyclone chronically drought-prone).
resistant design standards in rural and urban housing Natural Factors: Natural causes, such as variations in
schemes, building all-weather road links, bridges, climate patterns, atmospheric conditions, and cyclic climate
culverts and saline embankments etc. phenomena contribute to the occurrence of drought.

4. Drought Year: Designated when the annual rainfall
for the entire year falls short by 20 percent or more
compared to the established normal levels.
5. Severe Drought Year: Designated when annual rainfall
experiences a deficiency of 50% or more compared to
normal levels.
Drought-Prone Areas of India by Hydrology and Water
Resources Information System
Arid Area Semi-arid Area

Sr. No. State
(sq km) (sq km)
196,150 121,020
1 Rajasthan
(57.31) (35.396)
62,180 90,520
2 Gujarat
(31.72) (46.18)
Fig. 3.11: Drought Prone Areas In India 1,290 189,580

3 Maharashtra
Human-induced Factors: Anthropogenic activities, (0.42) (61.61)
including deforestation, urbanisation, and changes in
59,470
land use, can disrupt natural water cycles and contribute 4 Madhya Pradesh -
(13.41)
to drought.
Supply-Demand Imbalances: Increasingly, imbalances Impacts of Drought in India
between water supply and demand, driven by population Human Impact: The NITI Aayog’s Composite Water
growth, agricultural practices, and industrial activities, Management Index (2018) report reveals that around
C
PS
play a significant role in causing drought. two lakh people in India die annually due to inadequate
_U
nt
Geographic Variability: Geographic disparities in rainfall water and sanitation, emphasising the severe
ge

A
consequences of water scarcity.

-@
distribution, with some regions receiving inadequate

Economic Impact: The NITI Aayog’s report also projects a
ID
precipitation, contribute to the development of drought

am
conditions. potential loss of 6% of India’s GDP by 2050 as a result of

gr
a water crisis, highlighting the economic ramifications of

le
Monsoonal Patterns: In regions dependent on monsoonal

Te

insufficient water management.
rainfall, variations in the timing, intensity, and duration
of monsoons can lead to drought conditions. Agricultural Productivity: Drought has a direct and
severe impact on agricultural production, affecting crop
Cultivation of Water-Intensive Crops: Farmers,
yields and leading to significant reductions in output. As
compelled by circumstances, engage in the production
of water-intensive cash crops, such as the example of per NIDM, drought-prone districts account for 42% of
cultivating ‘Mentha’ in the drought-prone Bundelkhand the country’s cultivable lands, impacting the livelihoods
region of Uttar Pradesh. of millions of farmers.
Small Farmers and Suicides: Small and marginal farmers
Classifications of Drought Situations are particularly affected, threatening their food and
The Indian Meteorological Department (IMD) recognises and livelihood security. Approximately 78% of farmers who
categorises drought situations into five distinct classifications: committed suicide in the last decade were small farmers,
1. Drought Week: Defined as a period when the weekly with 76% dependent on rain-fed agriculture.
rainfall is less than half of the normal expected amount. Agricultural Practices and Crop Patterns: Drought
2. Agricultural Drought: This occurs when four influences changes in agricultural practices, including
consecutive drought weeks are observed during the shifts in crop patterns, land use, and the adoption of
critical period from mid-June to September, impacting more drought-resistant vegetation. Farmers may face
agricultural activities. challenges in choosing suitable crops during water
shortages.
3. Seasonal Drought: Declared when the cumulative
seasonal rainfall deviates significantly from the Migration and Displacement: Prolonged drought
normal, exceeding the standard deviation. conditions may lead to rural-to-urban migration as
farmers seek alternative livelihoods. This can result
in urbanisation challenges and increased pressure on and management of the country’s dryland and rainfed
already strained urban resources. agriculture.
The Ministry of Agriculture & Cooperation has also
Regional Classification Of Drought Severity In India
undertaken some other measures to address the drought
Extreme Drought Geographical Coverage: Most management including:
Affected Areas parts of Rajasthan, specifically • Implementation of water harvesting conservation,
areas west of the Aravali hills, artificial recharge of ground water.
including Marusthali and • Traditional water harvesting and conservation, water
Kachchh regions of Gujarat. saving technologies like drip and sprinkler irrigation
Notable Districts: Jaisalmer and systems, improved water saving farm practices, long
Barmer in the Indian desert, term irrigation management etc.
characterised by an average • Working towards convergence of lessons learnt
annual rainfall of less than 90 from studies carried out by multiple institutions
mm. working in related fields such as the Central
Severe Drought Geographical Coverage: Parts Research Institute for Dryland Agriculture (CRIDA),
Affected Areas of eastern Rajasthan, major International Crop Research for Semi-arid Tropics
sections of Madhya Pradesh, (ICRISAT), India Meteorological Department (IMD),
eastern regions of Maharashtra, National Remote Sensing Centre (NRSC) and Indian
interior areas of Andhra Council for Agricultural Research (ICAR), etc.
Pradesh, Karnataka Plateau, • Exploring practices such as harvesting cereal crops
northern parts of interior Tamil for fodder, supplemental irrigation if feasible, and
Nadu, and southern regions of ensuring availability of seeds when alternative crops
Jharkhand and interior Odisha. are beneficial with logistic support from state and
district machinery.
Moderate Drought Geographical Coverage:
• Maximising efficient use of available surface and
Affected Areas Northern parts of Rajasthan,
groundwater in drought prone areas i.e. resorting
Haryana, southern districts
to drip and sprinkler practices wherever possible,
C
of Uttar Pradesh, remaining

PS
particularly for commercial crops including fruit

_U
areas of Gujarat, Maharashtra

orchards.
nt
excluding Konkan, Jharkhand,

ge
• Undertaking construction of watershed structures

A
and the Coimbatore plateau

-@
at the right place to enhance water recharge for life

of Tamil Nadu, and interior
ID
saving irrigation at critical stages of crop growth and

am
Karnataka.
during drought situations, and
gr
le
Steps Taken by the Government • Using optimally the services of Village Resources
Te
Manual on Drought Management: The Ministry of Centre established by Indian Space Research
Agriculture released the manual in November, 2009. Organisation, ICAR, State Agriculture University and
The manual suggests looking beyond the traditional other organisations towards management of drought.
drought management through famine codes for dealing Some Successful Initiatives in Drought
with situations of mass hunger and collective penury. It Management by State Governments
focuses on plans which take into account all capabilities
Mission Kakatiya in Telangana (2015): Mission Kakatiya
of the state to address the impact of drought i.e., focus is a comprehensive program in Telangana focusing on the
on mitigation measures, tapping newer technologies, restoration of minor irrigation tanks. This initiative has
enabling the systems to adapt to the new legal framework successfully restored nearly 17,000 tanks, supplying collected
and including improvement and area development rainwater to 19 lakh acres of agricultural land.
programmes in drought mitigation. Sujalam Sufalam in Gujarat (2023): Sujalam Sufalam is
Drought Prone Areas Programme(1973-74) and an initiative in Gujarat that contributes to effective water
Desert Development Programme(1977-78): They aim management. The program aims to positively impact
at drought proofing and minimising desertification of drought-prone areas in the state.
fragile areas in the arid, semi-arid and dry-sub humid Property Tax Rebate for Rainwater Harvesting in Madhya
regions often affected by severe drought conditions and Pradesh: Municipal corporations in Jabalpur, Indore, and
desertification. Gwalior in Madhya Pradesh have granted a rebate on property
National Rainfed Area Authority: Set up in the Ministry tax for facilities implementing rainwater harvesting. This
of Agriculture to address the issue of drought mitigation incentivizes the adoption of rainwater harvesting systems.
on a long term basis. It comprises experts who provide Mukhya Mantri Jal Swavalamban Abhiyan Of Rajasthan
knowledge inputs regarding systematic upgradation (2016): The “Mukhyamantri Jal Swavalamban Abhiyan,”

launched in January 2016, in Rajasthan, aims to achieve stored riverside water, ploughing in the afternoon for
water sustainability by benefiting 21,000 villages by 2020 dew absorption, maintaining soil moisture, and enabling
through the Four-waters Concept (rainwater, groundwater, sugarcane cultivation
under-ground water & in situ soil moisture), emphasising
community participation, water conservation, and creating Kerala’s Water Budget: Kerala became the first state to
self-sufficient drinking water units. implement a water budget in April 2023, addressing water
Indigenous Solution To Drought/Water Management scarcity. Led by the Centre for Water Resources Development,
In West Bengal: Farmers use a traditional method with the budget focuses on managing water resources efficiently,
water-filled vessels (Kalsi) and tiny holes near plants. This involving local bodies for equitable distribution. Despite
technique, sustaining a 7-8 foot plant with just one litre of abundant water sources, regions face scarcity due to
water, prevents drying up during summer by maintaining management issues, prompting the government’s proactive
nearby soil moisture. In Arsha (Shirkabad), farmers use measures.
Evaluate and revise policy Appoint a national drought

10 and supporting plans. 1 management policy commission.
Develop education State or define the goals and

9 programmes for all ages 2 objectives of a risk-based national
and stakeholder groups. Drought drought management policy.
Publicize the policy and

Policy and Seek stakeholder
participation; define and
8
preparedness plans; build
public awareness and
Preparedness 3 resolve conflicts between
key water using sectors.
consensus.
Process
Integrate science and
7 policy aspects of drought
10 STEPS Inventory data and financial
4 resources available and broadly
management. identify groups at risk.
C
Prepare/write the key tenets of the national

PS
Identify research needs

6 and fill institutional gaps. 5 drought management policy and preparedness
_U
nt
plans, following the three-pillar approach.

ge
A
Fig. 3.12: Drought Policy And Preparedness Process Under IDMP

-@
ID
am
Existing Challenges in Drought Management in Groundwater Crisis and Legal Framework: The legal
gr
le
India framework tying water rights to land rights contributes to

Te
India’s groundwater crisis. Maharashtra has taken steps

Disparity in Data Collection and Efficiency: According to
to control groundwater extraction through legislation,
NITI Ayog’s CWMI-2019 report, groundwater estimates
requiring new wells to have accompanying recharge
are primarily based on observation data from a limited
structures.
number of wells (15,640 wells), whereas there are
approximately 30 million groundwater structures in Pricing Water: The absence of a rational and pragmatic
the country. This data disparity affects the accuracy of policy for pricing water is identified as a challenge.
assessments. Implementing a well-structured pricing system can
encourage adequate investment in water infrastructure
Lack of Technology Utilisation: Underutilization of
and ensure sustainable water management.
remote sensing and geographic information systems
(GIS) for real-time water data. Geo-tagging of every Way Forward
water asset, including borewells, and online monitoring Strengthening weather forecasting: Improved weather
of groundwater levels can significantly enhance water prediction models and effective communication of
resource management. drought risks to farmers and communities are crucial for
Agricultural Water Efficiency: According to the National early preparation.
Water Development Agency, India’s farm water efficiency Investing in drought monitoring: Real-time data collection
is among the lowest globally, with farmers using 3-5 times through remote sensing and ground sensors can provide
more water than their counterparts in China, Israel, and critical information for proactive intervention.
the United States for the same crop. States are urged Promoting micro-irrigation: Shifting from traditional
to segregate agricultural power feeders for monitoring flood irrigation to drip irrigation and sprinkler systems can
electricity consumption. significantly reduce water wastage and improve crop yields.
Revitalising traditional water harvesting systems: Watershed Development Approach: Recommendation
Reviving and upgradation of age-old rainwater harvesting for the Government of India to undertake a watershed
techniques like tankas and bunds can boost groundwater development approach through various programs.
recharge and local water availability. Weather Stations and Cloud Seeding: NDMA advises
Promoting efficient water use in urban areas: using moisture sensors in IMD’s weather stations for soil
Implementing leak detection systems, rainwater moisture monitoring, leveraging ISRO’s Village Resources
harvesting in buildings, and greywater reuse can enhance Centers for drought management, and proposing a
water security in cities. national cloud seeding policy for water scarcity.
Adopting drought-resistant crops: Encouraging farmers Comprehensive Damage Assessment: Assessment of
to diversify crops(Shree Anna/Millets) and cultivate damage in terms of agricultural production, depletion of
varieties with lower water requirements can minimise water resources, livestock population, land degradation,
agricultural losses during droughts. deforestation, and human health.
Promoting agroforestry and soil conservation: Planting Financial Support and Insurance: Guidelines stress
trees and shrubs along with crops helps retain moisture timely credit provision, including consumption loans,
in the soil, reduces erosion, and improves resilience to for income support during drought. The focus includes
climate change. developing region-specific insurance products to mitigate
Strengthening social safety nets: Providing financial the economic impact of drought.
assistance, employment opportunities under schemes like
Afforestation Measures: Promote afforestation with
MGNREGS, and insurance options can protect vulnerable
specified plant species like Subabul, Casuarina and
communities from the economic impact of droughts.
Eucalyptus and encourage bio-diesel plants like Jatropha
Integrated water management: Establishing a holistic and Pongamia.
framework for water resource management across
Capacity Building and Training Program: Promote
sectors, including agriculture, industry, and domestic
national drought training, build capacity in PRIs/ULBs,
use, is crucial for efficient utilisation.
and encourage awareness.
NDMA Guidelines on Drought Management (2010) Early Agriculture Measures: Provide subsidised seeds,
State-level Drought Monitoring Cells (DMCs): promote short-duration varieties, and advocate inter-
C
PS
Establish state-level DMCs under Disaster Management cropping, mulching and weeding for drought resilience.
_U
Authorities to collaborate on vulnerability maps with the

nt
Animal Welfare Measures: Establish fodder banks, use

ge

National Remote Sensing Centre.
A
tank bunds, and implement market interventions for

-@
Drought Management Control Room: Set up a drought

stable fodder prices and resilient animal husbandry
ID
management control room, incorporating ICT for real-

am
during droughts.
time information on droughts.
gr
le
Te
Reviving the Odi River in Bundelkhand
Fig. 3.13
The Problem
Odi River originates from Madansagarat, which is • Depleting groundwater: Over Reliance on
located in Katal area of Madanpur village of Mandwara groundwater for irrigation and domestic use
development block in Lalitpur District. further stressed the already fragile water
Decades of neglect and unsustainable water resources.
management practices led to: • Drought and poverty: Water scarcity crippled
• Reduced water flow: Silting, encroachment, and agriculture, leading to unemployment, migration,
deforestation choked the riverbed, hindering and food insecurity.
water flow.

Causes of Heatwaves
The Solution: A three-pronged approach funded by
MGNREGA was implemented: Atmospheric Pressure Systems: High pressure at ground
level, most common in the summer months, creates heat
Desilting and Check Dams: Villagers, along with an
waves. When high pressure accumulates over an area it
NGO, manually removed silt from the riverbed and
results in the sinking of air through the atmosphere. The
constructed check dams to trap rainwater and slow
air compresses and heats up as it sinks. For every 100
down the flow, promoting groundwater recharge.
metres the air is pushed downward, and the temperature
Streambed Deepening and Bank Stabilization: increases by 1°C.
Deepening the streambed increased the water
• Heat Domes: High pressure can also result in a heat
holding capacity, while planting native trees and
dome, exacerbating the heatwave. A heat dome is
grasses along the banks prevented soil erosion and
created when an area of high pressure stays over
stabilised the riverbed.
the same area for several days, trapping very warm
Community Engagement and Livelihood Promotion: air underneath. The dome traps air that would
Villagers actively participated in the revival efforts, otherwise rise and cool before circulating back to the
fostering ownership and a sense of responsibility. surface, resulting in the continual build-up of heat
Additionally, initiatives like beekeeping and fish and reducing the chance of precipitation.
farming were introduced to generate income and
Lack of Cloud Cover: Clouds act like a blanket, reflecting
diversify livelihoods.
sunlight back into space and helping to keep the Earth
Impact: Increased water flow, Improved groundwater cool. During heatwaves, there is often a lack of cloud
levels, Agricultural boost: Environmental revival, cover, allowing more sunlight to reach the Earth’s surface
Empowered communities: and contribute to the rising temperatures.
Dry Soil and Vegetation: Dry soil and vegetation absorb
less heat than moist areas. This means that during
heatwaves, dry regions tend to experience even higher
IGNITE YOUR MIND
temperatures as the available sunlight is converted
Urbanisation intensifies the impact of droughts. directly into heat.
Can we redesign cities to embrace nature-based Urban Heat Island Effect: Cities are often warmer than
C
surrounding rural areas due to the urban heat island

PS
solutions like green roofs, rainwater harvesting

_U
effect. This phenomenon occurs because concrete,

systems, and permeable pavements?
nt
asphalt, and other materials in urban areas absorb and

ge
A
retain heat more effectively than vegetation. The trapped

-@
Heat Wave heat can then radiate outwards, further elevating

ID
A Heat Wave is a prolonged period characterised by

am
temperatures in the city.

gr
significantly higher-than-normal temperatures, inducing Climate Change: Climate change is making heat waves
le
Te
physiological stress and potentially causing adverse health more frequent, intense, and long-lasting. The planet’s
effects, including fatalities. The World Meteorological average temperature has been rising due to the increased
Organization (WMO) defines a heat wave as a period of five greenhouse gas emissions from human activities. This
or more consecutive days during which the daily maximum warming trend is contributing to more extreme weather
temperature exceeds the average maximum temperature by events, including heatwaves.
at least five degrees Celsius. IMD Criteria For Declaring Heat Wave In India
Temperature For Plains: Heat wave conditions are
Marine Heatwave Thresholds acknowledged only when the maximum
India has recently experienced an intense Marine temperature hits a minimum threshold
Heatwave (MHW) in the northern Bay of Bengal since of 40°C.
June 28, 2023. MHWs are prolonged periods of unusually Hilly Regions: The criteria for recognizing
high Sea Surface Temperature (SST). In this case, the MHW heat wave conditions involve a minimum
led to higher evaporation rates, increased moisture in the maximum temperature of at least 30°C.
atmosphere, and above-average rainfall in northwest Departure Heat Wave: Departure from normal is
India. The elevated sea surface temperatures influenced from Normal 4.5°C to 6.4°C.
Criteria Severe Heat Wave: Departure from
the formation and behaviour of depressions in the Bay of
normal is greater than 6.4°C.
Bengal, impacting the trajectory of weather systems. This
Actual Heat Wave: Declared when the actual
resulted in a concentration of rainfall in northwest India,
Maximum maximum temperature is equal to or
deviating from the typical north-central pattern. MHWs Temperature exceeds 45°C.
not only affect rainfall patterns but also have broader Criteria Severe Heat Wave: Declared when the
ecological impacts, including coral bleaching, seagrass actual maximum temperature is equal to
destruction, and fisheries disruptions. or exceeds 47°C.
Heat Wave Risks in India is set to be harder hit by hotter temperatures,
Increased Frequency: The State of India’s Environment pushing workers, crops and livestock past their
In Figures report revealed that India experienced 280 physiological heat and drought tolerances. In parts
heatwave days from March 11 to May 18, 2022, marking of India, changes to weather patterns and the resulting
the highest number in 12 years. impacts on agriculture and other sectors are expected
to translate into a 9% decrease in standards of living
Seasonal Vulnerability: The typical heat wave season in
by 2050 assuming no adaptation. A World Bank report
India spans from April to June. During this period, states
suggests that by 2050, about 600 million Indians will live
across northwest India, the Gangetic Plains, Central
in places that could experience loss of living standards,
India, and the east coast are particularly susceptible to
which could cost 2.8% of the GDP, stalling efforts to pull
heat wave conditions.
large parts of the population out of poverty.
Cover Most Parts of the Country: According to the study
Ecological impacts: Heatwaves, without concomitant
conducted by Ramit Debnath and colleagues at the
increases in precipitation, can lead to water shortages
University of Cambridge, Over 90 percent of India’s total
and increased stress for plants, particularly in arid
area is in the “extremely cautious” or “danger zone” regions. This has the effect of reducing plant growth, the
of being hit by heat waves which are becoming more basis of energy production and the food chain, with an
frequent due to climate change. overall drying-out of the landscape.
Human Toll: According to the National Disaster
Management Authority (NDMA), heatwaves have been
responsible for 24,223 deaths from 1992 to 2015 in IGNITE YOUR MIND
various states. However, the actual death toll might be
higher due to underreporting of heat-related illnesses, How will the escalating frequency and intensity of
especially in rural areas. heatwaves reshape the landscape of mental health,
Urban Heat Island Effect: Urban areas, characterised requiring not just heat mitigation strategies but also
by higher population density, industrial activities, and robust mental healthcare systems equipped to deal
a concentration of buildings, tend to experience more with the “psychosis of the sun”?
intense heat. Cities often become heat islands, with
temperatures rising higher than in rural areas. Steps Taken by the Government
C
PS
_U
Vulnerability of Weaker Sections: Weaker sections of

nt
society, including those engaged in outdoor labour for COOL ROOF

ge
A
livelihood, are at significant risk during heatwaves. Their

-@
vulnerability to adverse impacts such as dehydration,

ID
WALLS COOL
am
heatstroke, and sunstroke is heightened.

gr
Urban-Rural Disparities: Rural areas may face difficulties

le

Te
in accessing healthcare and resources during heatwaves,

exacerbating the disparities in health impacts between
urban and rural populations. Fig. 3.14: NDMA’s Cooling Solutions
Impact of Heat Waves India Cooling Action Plan (ICAP): The ICAP echoes
Heat Waves and Health: Rapid rises in heat gain due to India’s goal of providing sustainable cooling and thermal
exposure to hotter than average conditions compromises comfort for all while securing environmental and socio-
the body’s ability to regulate temperature and can result economic benefits for society. It includes in its priority
in a cascade of illnesses, including heat cramps, heat list the allocation of funds and support for a targeted
exhaustion, heatstroke, and hyperthermia. program to enable cooling for economically challenged
Social impacts: Extreme heat can lead to heat-related segments, such as cool roofs programs and localised heat
illness and death, particularly in elderly populations, action plans.
the poor, outdoor workers, and in urban areas. For NDMA’s Rulebook on Roof Cooling: This handbook aims
example, during the 2003 European heat waves an to guide homeowners with roof cooling solutions using
estimated 70,000 additional people died due to the techniques and materials that are affordable and easy to
heatwaves, and in the United Kingdom alone, the use in existing homes.
impact of this heat wave was estimated at £41M in Heat Index (2023): It is an IMD initiative, combining
health-related costs and productivity. temperature and humidity to calculate the apparent or
Economic impacts: Globally, 2% of total working “feel like” temperature for human comfort. The Heat
hours is projected to be lost every year, either Index categorises apparent temperatures into colour-
because it is too hot to work or because workers coded levels: Green (less than 35°C), Yellow (36-45°C),
have to work at a slower pace. The agricultural sector, Orange (46-55°C), and Red (greater than 55°C). Launched
where 940 million people earn their livelihood, experimentally, it serves as a vital tool for public health,

guiding proactive measures during heatwaves and Way Forward
informing decision-making for community well-being. Increasing Green Cover: As suggested by NDMA,
NDMA’s Cooling Solutions For Existing Homes promoting afforestation and increasing urban green
Bamboo/Thatch Screening spaces can mitigate heat waves by providing shade and
Green Net Shading cooling effects.
Roof Paint • For Example: Increasing the presence of natural
Gravel Roof vegetation in streets with low ventilation helps cool
Heat Insulation Tiles and improve air quality in urban areas.
Hollow Concrete Tiles Wetlands Expansion: Ramsar Convention acknowledged
Broken China Mosaic that expanding and restoring wetlands helps regulate
Cool Roof Mud Phuska
local temperatures and contributes to overall climate
Lime Concrete
resilience.
Inverted Earthen Pots Extruded
Polystyrene (XPS sheets) Restoring Water Bodies: Prioritising the restoration of
Modified Bitumen ponds and lakes helps cool urban areas and provides
Cellulose Fibre additional green spaces.
Thermocrete Addressing Urban Heat Islands: Reducing the urban
Mist Cooling System heat island effect involves minimising heat-absorbing
Cool Walls Paints and Finishes materials in infrastructure and construction, coupled
with enhancing natural landscapes in urban areas.
National Heat Action Plan (NHAP): Launched in
Upgrading Building Standards: Implementing standards
2015, NHAP provides a framework for state and local
governments to develop specific action plans tailored to that discourage the use of heat-absorbent materials in
their region’s vulnerabilities. These plans include early construction, such as galvanised iron and metal roof
warning systems, public awareness campaigns, heat sheets, contributes to heat mitigation.
shelters, and medical emergency response protocols. • For example, Rajkumari Ratnavati Girl’s School in
Urban greening: Initiatives like the Smart Cities Mission Samalkha, Jaisalmer, employs innovative cooling
C
PS
promote planting trees and creating green spaces in techniques with an oval shape, strategic windows,
_U
cities to reduce the urban heat island effect. and a solar canopy, ensuring cooling comfort in the
nt
ge
Indian Institute of Tropical Meteorology (IITM): This institute desert heat.

A
-@
provides heat wave forecasts and monitors heatwave trends, Public Transportation Promotion: Encouraging the use
ID
aiding in preparedness and response efforts. of public transportation reduces pollution and minimises
am
gr
Challenges in Heat Wave Management heat emissions from individual vehicles, contributing to
le
Te
Insufficient Research at Sub-District Level: Lack of

heat mitigation.
research using sub-district level data hinders the Effective Landfill Management: Implementing waste
development of separate indices for urban and rural segregation and solid waste management at the source
areas, limiting targeted geographical interventions. reduces landfill fires, which can release methane and
Limited Urban Ward-Level Analysis: Narrow analysis of contribute to heat.
urban ward-level data restricts the identification of intra- NDMA Guidelines For Heat Wave Management
city vulnerability patterns, impeding effective localised Government Mandate participation from state and
interventions. Engagement district government leaders, municipal
Lack of Public Awareness: Insufficient public awareness health agencies, disaster management
campaigns, including the promotion of traditional authorities, and local partners for
adaptation practices like staying indoors and wearing effective collaboration.
comfortable clothes, contribute to a lack of preparedness.
Appointment of Appoint a State Nodal Agency and
Inadequate Popularization of Design Features: Half-
State Nodal Agency Officer to conduct tabletop exercises,
hearted attempts to popularise simple design features,
and Officer simulations, and drills before the
such as shaded windows, underground water storage
heating season, ensuring coordination
tanks, and insulating housing materials, hinder broader
among stakeholders.
adoption of heat-resistant measures.
Provisional Shortcomings for Drinking Water and Vulnerability Conduct vulnerability assessment
Toilets: Unavailability of provisions for drinking water Assessment and establish Health threshold
within housing premises and indoor toilets exacerbates and Threshold temperatures in coordination with
challenges during heat waves, impacting the well-being Temperatures IMD to set priorities and minimum
of individuals. thresholds for heat alerts and activities.
Development of Coordinate with the local IMD office to Cold Wave
Heat Action Plan receive summer season forecasts and A cold wave is a weather phenomenon characterised by a
implement an early warning and daily significant cooling of the air or the influx of very cold air over
alert system with colour codes. a large region. It may entail a prolonged period of extremely
Team Preparation Ensure state officials and agencies are cold weather, often accompanied by high winds leading to
and Coordination well-trained and informed for pre-, severe wind chills. Cold waves can be associated with notable
during, and post-heat season activities, winter weather events like blizzards or ice storms.
establishing a clearly defined inter-
agency emergency response plan. Causes of Cold Waves
Implementation Use Information, Education, and High-Pressure Systems and Subsidence: High-pressure
and Monitoring Communication to disseminate key systems trap cold air near the ground, preventing it
messages in advance, including from rising and warming up. Additionally, subsidence,
Do’s and Don’ts during a heat wave, the downward movement of cool, dense air, further
through various media channels, reinforces the cold temperatures.
including social media. Lack of Cloud Cover: Clouds act like a cozy blanket for
Evaluation and After each heat season, assess the the Earth, trapping heat and preventing it from escaping
Plan Updating efficacy of the heat action plan, into space. However, during cold waves, cloud cover is
evaluating processes, outcomes, and often scarce. This allows precious heat to radiate out,
impacts to refine and improve the plan leaving the Earth feeling exposed and vulnerable to the
for subsequent years. bitter cold.
Long-Term Consider long-term mitigation Snow and Ice Cover: Snow and ice reflect sunlight back
Strategies for strategies such as increasing green into space, preventing it from warming the ground. This
Climate Change cover in cities to reduce the Urban Heat cooling effect can contribute to colder temperatures,
Adaptation Island (UHI) effect and implementing especially in regions with extensive snow cover.
cool roofs to adapt to climate change.
Ocean Currents: The ocean plays a crucial role in
regulating Earth’s climate. However, certain ocean
C
PS
currents can also influence cold waves. For example,

_U
Case Study: Singapore’s District Underground the La Nina phenomenon, characterised by cooler-than-
nt
ge
Cooling System (DUCS) average sea surface temperatures in the equatorial

A
-@
Singapore, a densely populated island nation with a Pacific Ocean, can lead to colder winters in some parts
ID
tropical climate, faces immense challenges in managing of the world.

am
energy consumption and ensuring thermal comfort. To

gr
Deforestation: While not a direct cause, deforestation

le
address these issues, Singapore implemented the DUCS,

Te
can exacerbate the effects of cold waves. Trees act like

a pioneering network of chilled water pipes supplying natural windbreaks, sheltering areas from harsh winds
air conditioning to buildings. This case study explores and helping to retain heat. When forests are cleared,
the DUCS, its impact, and its potential as a model for
these protective barriers are removed, making regions
sustainable urban cooling.
more susceptible to the biting chill of cold waves.
About: The DUCS is a centralised cooling system that
produces chilled water at central plants and distributes it Cold Wave Risk in India
through underground pipes to connected buildings. These Time of Occurrence: In India, the cold wave (CW)
buildings use the chilled water to cool their air conditioning conditions are generally experienced during the period
systems. from November to March However, the disaster data
shows that the damages and casualties are associated
Impact
with CWs during the months of December to March.
Energy Savings: Compared to conventional systems,
Absence of Cloud Cover: Lack of clouds leads to reduced
DUCS in Marina Bay saves an estimated 30% of energy
trapping of outgoing infrared radiation, resulting in
annually, equivalent to the electricity consumption of
24,000 Singaporean households. colder ground temperatures.
Reduced Emissions: CO2 emissions are reduced by
Snowfall in the Himalayas: Cold winds from snowfall in
an estimated 25,000 tons annually, contributing to the upper Himalayas contribute to the cold wave.
Singapore’s climate change goals. Subsidence of Cold Air: Downward movement of cold
Economic Benefits: Building owners in Marina Bay and dry air close to the surface.
benefit from lower operational costs and increased La Nina: In the winter months, the La Nina causes a very
efficiency. cold wave-like jet stream to flow across Afghanistan,

Iran and the Hindu Kush mountains. These strong and over 800 people loses their lives every year due to
cold winds impact the degree of cold in India. exposure to the cold
Western Disturbances: Weather systems originating Energy Consumption Surge: During cold waves, there
in the Mediterranean Sea, bring cold winds and is a surge in energy consumption for heating purposes.
precipitation, leading to cold wave conditions in In January 2021, North India experienced a cold wave,
northwest India. leading to increased demand for electricity and fuel for
Wind Chill Factor: The wind chill factor, influenced by heating appliances.
wind speed, gauges how cold the air feels by accelerating Transportation Disruptions: Cold waves can impact
heat loss from the human body, often making the transportation. Cold waves in winter disrupt travel in
temperature seem lower than the actual reading. northern India, leading to the cancellation and delay of
IMD Criteria for Cold Wave numerous flights and trains. Icy roads can also pose risks
Criteria Temperature Conditions to commuters.
Social and Economic Disruptions: Closure of schools and
Cold Wave Criteria Plains: Minimum temperature 10°C
businesses is not uncommon during severe cold waves.
or less
The January 2023 cold wave in North India resulted in the
Hilly regions: Minimum temperature shutdown of schools and affected businesses, causing
0°C or less
economic disruptions.
Departure from Cold Wave: Negative departure from Water Supply Challenges: Freezing temperatures can
Normal normal is 4.5°C to 6.4°C
lead to the freezing of water pipelines, causing bursts
Severe Cold Wave: Negative departure and disruptions in water supply. In January 2018, parts
from normal is more than 6.4°C of northern India faced water supply challenges due to
Actual Minimum Cold Wave: Minimum temperature cold-related issues.
Temperature (For is ≤ 4°C Increased Pollution Levels: Health risks due to cold
plain stations only) Severe Cold Wave: Minimum waves also heighten in areas where air pollution is
temperature is ≤ 2°C severe. A 2018 study conducted by researchers from
C
PS
Cold Wave When the minimum temperature Banaras Hindu University and St Johns Medical College
_U
Conditions for departure is -4.5°C or less over in Bengaluru has found that mortality increases by 30 per
nt
ge
Coastal Stations a station, “Cold Wave” may cent during extreme temperature days. This increases
A
-@
be described if the minimum by another 8 per cent during winters in areas with high
ID
temperature is 15°C or less. concentration of air particulates (PM10) compounds.

am
gr
le
Impacts of Cold Waves in India

Te
Agricultural Impacts: Cold waves in northern India during

the winter damages crops, including wheat and mustard,
leading to significant losses for farmers. Extreme cold
can affect crop growth, delaying or reducing yields.
• Impact on Horticulture: Cold waves can affect
horticultural crops. In regions where temperatures
drop significantly, fruits and vegetables may be
damaged, impacting both local consumption and
market supplies.
• Livestock Vulnerability: Livestock, especially in rural
areas, face risks during cold waves. Farmers may need
to take measures to protect animals from the cold.
Extreme cold conditions can lead to livestock losses.
Health Consequences: Severe cold waves in North India,
particularly in states like Uttar Pradesh and Bihar, have Fig. 3.15: Cold Waves In India From 1967-2019
led to an increase in cases of hypothermia and frostbite. Steps Taken by the Government
Homeless populations are particularly vulnerable, Notified Disaster: Cold wave is already included in the list
with instances of cold-related deaths reported. of 12 disasters notified in the Guidelines on Constitution
Ministry of Statistics and Programme Implementation’s and Administration of the State Disaster Response Fund
Environmental Statistics report show that on an average, (SDRF) and National Disaster Response Fund (NDRF)
Common Alerting Protocol (CAP): Government has resources to treat cold-related illnesses like hypothermia
initiated a project called “Common Alerting protocol and pneumonia.
(CAP) based integrated Alert System (Sachet Phase-l)” for Climate-Resilient Infrastructure: Invest in better
dissemination of early warning/alert regarding disasters insulated homes, especially in vulnerable regions, to
to the public including heat waves and cold waves. retain heat and reduce energy consumption.
Measures by states: Uttar Pradesh government has Urban Planning: Promote green spaces and tree cover in
allocated Rs 120 crore to the relief department for cities to regulate temperatures and provide windbreaks.
providing temporary accommodation, food, clothing and Cautious warming: The heat resources used by people
medical facilities for the destitute. can sometimes trap them in some other disasters for
Way Forward example there have been many instances where people
Increased Governance efficiency: District disaster have been using coal for burning and generating heat in
management centres need to be strengthened further closed room environments where there is no ventilation
in terms of logistics, infrastructure, manpower and other or very limited ventilation available in those cases this
crucial things that are prerequisites for the robust DRR production of carbon monoxide actually affects their
setup. health also causes sometimes casualties of the human
beings. People need to be sensitised properly on the
Medical Preparedness: Ensure hospitals and clinics
use of heat resources so that there is no side effect on
have adequate stocks of medicines, warm clothing, and
their health.
NDMA Guidelines on Cold Wave
Early Warning and Utilising forecasts, impact-based warnings, and efficient communication for timely dissemination of
Communication information, facilitating a swift response and minimising the impact of cold waves.
C
Dealing with Cold

PS
Integrating cold wave management into disaster frameworks, justifying action plans, defining
_U
Wave and Preparing

nt
objectives, and outlining key strategies, including acclimatisation measures.

Action Plan
ge
A
-@
ID
am
Prevention and Addressing preventive strategies and sector-wise mitigation measures to reduce the occurrence and
gr
le
Mitigation Measures impact of cold waves. This includes community, family, and sector-specific actions.
Te
Preparedness and Providing guidance on community and family preparedness during cold waves, empowering individuals
Response Measures to respond effectively to extreme cold conditions.
Information Education
Outlining key components of IEC strategies, activities, and campaigns to effectively disseminate
and Communication
warning messages, ensuring public awareness and preparedness.
(IEC)
Capacity Building and Emphasising the importance of capacity building and training programs, specific measures, and
Training identifying a nodal agency for enhancing the capabilities of stakeholders in managing cold waves.
Thunderstorms, Hailstorms and Dust transportation, power, and socio-economic sectors. With
Storm a population density of approximately 142.8 crore, the
Among the emerging weather hazards, Thunderstorms and vulnerability is heightened. Experts predict an increase in
lightning, Squall, Dust storms, hailstorms, and Strong Winds the frequency and severity of these incidents due to global
pose significant threats, impacting agriculture, aviation, temperature rise and climate change.

Definitions of The Terminologies
Thunderstorm A weather event characterised by the occurrence of thunder or the sight of lightning.
Audible thunder can be heard up to 40 km from the source.
Classified into moderate (loud thunder, moderate to heavy rain, wind speed 29-74 kmph)
and severe (continuous thunder, occasional hailstorm, wind speed >74 kmph).
Lightning and thunder are dependent on each other but they are separate events. Lightning
is electrical energy while thunder is sound energy.
Lightning Luminous electrical discharge accompanied by thunder. Classified into Thundercloud or
Intra-cloud (within clouds), Cloud-to-cloud or Inter-cloud (between clouds), and Cloud-to-
ground (strikes the ground). Cloud-to-ground lightning poses a higher risk, with high peak
power, temperature and current.
Squall A sudden increase in wind speed, at least 29 kmph, lasting for one minute.
Classified into moderate (wind speed up to 74 kmph) and severe (wind speed >74 kmph).
Hailstorm Weather events are characterised by the fall of hail. Classified into slight (sparsely distributed,
small size), moderate (abundant enough to whiten the ground), and strong (includes large
stones) based on intensity.
Dust Storm Convective storms in northwest India during the pre-monsoon season. Classified into slight
(wind speed up to 41 kmph, visibility 500-1000 metres), moderate (wind speed 42-74 kmph,
C
visibility 200-500 metres), and severe (wind speed >74 kmph, visibility <200 metres).
PS
_U
nt
ge
A
-@
Causes of Lightning, Hailstorms, and Dust Dust storm

ID
am
Storms in India Dust storms are caused by very strong winds — often
gr
le
produced by thunderstorms. In dry regions, the winds can

Te
Lightning
pull dust from the ground up into the air, creating a dust
In the early stages of development, air acts as an insulator
storm. An area’s geography and plant life can also make it
between the positive and negative charges in the cloud
more likely to have dust storms. For example, dust storms
and between the cloud and the ground. When the opposite are common in regions that are flat and have very few trees
charges build up enough, this insulating capacity of the air and plants. These two features allow winds to build up
breaks down and there is a rapid discharge of electricity momentum, causing the winds to grow stronger and drive
that is called lightning. The flash of lightning temporarily more dust into the atmosphere.
equalises the charged regions in the atmosphere until the
opposite charges build up again. Lightning can occur between Risk of Lightning, Hailstorms and Dust
opposite charges within the thunderstorm cloud (intra-cloud Storms in India
lightning) or between opposite charges in the cloud and on
Lightning
the ground (cloud-to-ground lightning).
State Wise Distribution: Lightning frequency is highest in
Hailstorm northeastern states and West Bengal, Jharkhand, Odisha,
High up in a storm cloud, it’s so cold that small pieces of ice Bihar and Sikkim. However, the number of lightning-related
can form. The winds within the storm cloud can cause the deaths is higher in central Indian states like Maharashtra,
ice to swirl around. When it bumps into cold water droplets, Chhattisgarh, Madhya Pradesh and Odisha.
the water freezes onto the ice, making hail grow larger. • More risk in plain areas: Lightning characteristics are
Eventually, the hail is so big and heavy that it falls to the different for different regions, the prevalence is more
ground. at night and the early hours in hilly States and more
during the day in the plains. That is why deaths occur However, they can also occur sporadically during other
more in the plains seasons.
Climate Change: In India, a 2021 study published in the
Impact of Lightning, Hailstorms and Dust
journal ‘Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics’ said that by
Storm
the end of the century, lightning frequency is set to rise
by between 10% and 25%, while its intensity is expected Lightning
to increase by between 15% and 50%. Human Loss: According to the National Crime Records
Low Mitigation efforts: As per experts India suffers huge Bureau (NCRB), in the year 2021, as many as 2,880 people
human casualties from lightning compared to developed died due to lightning. As per NDMA on an average 2,500
countries. According to 2016 research published by people die due to lightning annually.
Vaisala, about two people in a million die from lightning Economic Losses: Lightning strikes can damage
in India each year, yet in the U.S. and Australia, for infrastructure, disrupt power grids, and cause agricultural
example, that figure is 0.1 per million. losses, impacting the livelihoods of millions.
Increasing Intensity: According to a study by the non- Health Risks: Survivors of lightning strikes can suffer
profit Climate Resilient Observing Systems Promotion long-term health consequences, including neurological
Council India recorded more than 18 million lightning damage, burns, and psychological trauma.
strikes between April 2020 and March 2021. This was a Social Vulnerability: Certain communities, such as
34% rise over a similar period during the previous year. farmers, construction workers, and outdoor vendors,
are disproportionately affected by lightning due to their
Hailstorm
exposure during their work.
High-Risk Areas: Maharashtra, Vidarbha region, Madhya
Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh, Himachal Pradesh, and West Hailstorm
Bengal are particularly susceptible to hailstorms, Crop damage: Hailstones can severely damage crops like
experiencing more frequent and intense occurrences fruits, vegetables, and cash crops, leading to substantial
compared to other regions. economic losses for farmers. The impact can range from
C
PS
Geographical Features: The Deccan Plateau and the bruising and scarring to complete destruction of the crop.
_U
nt
Himalayan foothills provide ideal conditions for the Livestock injuries: Hailstones can injure or even kill
ge
A
formation of cumulonimbus clouds, which are necessary livestock in open fields, further adding to the losses for
-@
for hailstorms. Strong updrafts within these clouds,

ID
farmers.
am
combined with low temperatures and rapid changes in Disruption of power and communication lines:
gr
pressure, lead to the formation and growth of hailstones.

le
Hailstones can damage power lines and communication

Te
Climate Change: Rising temperatures and alterations in networks, leading to disruptions in electricity supply and
atmospheric circulation patterns are likely contributing communication services.
to increased hailstone size and frequency in some Soil erosion: Heavy hailstorms can lead to soil erosion,
regions.
further degrading vulnerable landscapes and reducing
Dust Storm agricultural productivity.
High-Risk Areas: The western states of Rajasthan, Dust Storm
Gujarat, and Haryana are most susceptible to dust storms Environmental: The fertilising effect of desert dust is
due to their arid landscapes, sparse vegetation, and thought to have an impact on algal blooms, some of
strong winds. Other vulnerable regions include Punjab, which can be harmful, and may contribute to Sargassum
Uttar Pradesh, Delhi, and Madhya Pradesh. seaweed mats. These drifting seaweed mats provide
Geographical Features: The Thar Desert in western India important habitat for many species in the open ocean,
acts as a major source of dust particles, contributing to but close to shore, they can disrupt shipping, fishing and
dust storms affecting surrounding regions. tourism.
Land Degradation: Overgrazing, deforestation, and • Impact on corals: Potential links have also been
unsustainable agricultural practices lead to soil erosion identified between microorganisms, trace metals
and increase the amount of loose soil available to be and organic contaminants carried in desert dust.
transported by wind. Disease has undoubtedly been an important factor
Seasonal Variations: Dust storms primarily occur during in recent coral reef declines worldwide and several
the pre-monsoon months (March-May) when dry winds of the diseases that affect corals are associated with
whip up loose soil particles from parched landscapes. microorganisms carried in desert dust.

Health: Fine dust particles can irritate lungs and airways, government will be testing the use of indigenously
triggering asthma attacks, respiratory infections, and other developed ‘anti-hail guns. An anti-hail gun is a machine
breathing difficulties, especially for vulnerable populations which generates shock waves to disrupt the growth of
like children, the elderly, and those with pre-existing hailstones in clouds
conditions. Weather forecasting and monitoring: The India
Economic: Dust storms can damage crops and deter Meteorological Department (IMD) has a network of
tourists, impacting the economic well-being of radars, automatic weather stations, and Doppler radars
communities dependent on these sectors. to monitor atmospheric conditions and issue timely
hail storm warnings. These warnings are disseminated
Steps Taken by the Government through various channels like mobile apps, SMS, radio,
Lightning and TV.
Early Warning: India Meteorological Department (IMD), Hailstorm Nowcasting system: IMD recently developed
issues forecast and warnings for thunderstorms and the Hailstorm Nowcasting system for real-time prediction
associated weather phenomena five days in advance of hailstorms within a short timeframe (60-90 minutes) in
with regular updates. Indian Institute of Tropical vulnerable areas. This allows for more targeted warnings
Meteorology(IITM), Pune, an autonomous research and immediate precautionary measures.
institution under the Ministry of Earth Sciences(MoES), Pradhan Mantri Fasal Bima Yojana (PMFBY): This
has established a lightning location network, scheme provides financial support to farmers in case of
strategically installed at 83 places in the country to hail-induced crop damage, helping them mitigate losses
detect and locate lightning strikes with utmost accuracy. and recover more quickly.
The output from this network is shared with IMD and Dust Storm
various State Governments and is used for forecasting National Action Plan to Combat Desertification:
purposes. Launched in 2001, this plan aims to restore degraded
‘Damini’ lightning App: Developed by IITM-Pune. The App land and prevent desertification, thereby reducing dust
C
is monitoring all lightning activity which are happening

PS
storm sources. It promotes sustainable land management

_U
over India and alerts the person if lightning is happening practices like afforestation, soil conservation, and
nt
ge
in the area near the person, by GPS notification under rainwater harvesting.
A
-@
20KM and 40KM radius. It also provides a lightning National Afforestation Programme: This program
ID
warning at the location valid for the next 40 minutes. focuses on increasing forest cover, which helps bind soil
am
gr
Financial Help: As per the guidelines issued based on and reduce wind erosion, a major dust storm contributor.
le
Te
recommendations for the 15th Finance Commission for Integrated Watershed Management Programme: This
Constitution and Administration of State Disaster Response program promotes holistic watershed management
Fund (SDRF)/ National Disaster Response Fund (NDRF), practices, including soil conservation and water resource
lightning is not included in the centrally notified list of management, which contribute to long-term land health
natural disasters eligible for relief under SDRF/NDRF. and reduced dust storm risks.
However, the State Governments can use up to 10% of National Mission for Green India (GIM): It aims at
the annual funds allocation of their SDRF, for providing protecting; restoring and enhancing India’s diminishing
immediate relief to the victims of natural disasters that forest cover and responding to climate change by a
they consider to be ‘disasters’ within the local context in combination of adaptation and mitigation measures.
the State, including lightning. As per approved norms, an Fodder and Feed Development Scheme: Component
ex-gratia of Rs. 4.00 lakh is provided to the next-of-kin of a of Grassland Development including Grass Reserves,
person who died due to a notified disaster. Command Area Development and Water Management
(CADWM) programme etc.
Kerala State Lightning Action Plan: Action plan lists
risk-reduction measures to be adopted by Government Challenges in Lightning, Hailstorms and
departments/agencies, long and short-term mitigation Dust Storm Mitigation
measures for the State, scientific aspects of the natural
Lightning
phenomenon and standard precautions.
Geographic and Demographic Constraints: India’s
Hailstorm diverse landscape, with mountainous regions and vast
Anti-Hailstorm Guns: To help out horticulturists who face rural areas, makes it challenging to deploy and maintain
crop damage due to hailstorms, the Himachal Pradesh extensive early warning systems and infrastructure.
Reaching geographically isolated communities with Institutional coordination and policy coherence: Dust
awareness campaigns and safety measures presents an storms often transcend state and regional boundaries.
additional hurdle. Effective mitigation requires coordinated efforts and
Policy Lapse: Lightning is not included in the centrally consistent policies across different levels of government.
notified list of natural disasters eligible for relief under Climate change and its impact: Dust storms are expected
SDRF/NDRF despite most common reason for deaths by to become more frequent and intense due to climate
forces of nature (35.3%)(NCRB) change. Integrating dust storm mitigation into broader
Environmental degradation and climate change: The climate adaptation strategies is necessary for long-term
CROPC-IMD report said that rapid degradation of the resilience.
environment like global warming, deforestation, depletion
of water bodies, concretisations, rising pollution and
Way Forward in Mitigating Climate Change
aerosol levels have cumulatively pushed the environment Lightning, Hailstorms and Dust Storm
to extremes. Lightning is the direct promulgation of these Lightning
climatic extremities. Lightning be declared as a “natural disaster”: According
Major incidents in poor states: The Odisha-West Bengal- to present norms, cyclone, drought, earthquake,
Jharkhand belt is more prone as lightning strikes originate fire, flood, tsunami, hailstorm, landslide, avalanche,
from Chota Nagpur Plateau and extend to Bangladesh to cloudburst, pest attack, frost and cold waves are
Patkai plateau of Meghalaya. considered as disasters that are covered under the State
Lack of Awareness and Preparedness: Many Disaster Response Fund (SDRF), 75% of which is funded
communities, particularly in rural areas, lack awareness by the Centre.
about lightning safety practices and precautions Micro-Zonation: Annual Lightning Report 2020-2021
Hailstorm recommended that states should undertake lightning
micro-zonation for geographical region wise precise
Limited Prediction Accuracy: Predicting the exact
handling of the risk. The Lightning Risk Management
location, size, and duration of hailstorms remains
programme for each state has to be customised according
difficult, hindering timely warnings and preventative
to seasonality, intensity and frequency of lightning.
measures.
C
PS
Organise lightning safety drills and awareness

Vulnerable communities: Rural populations, often
_U
campaigns: Engage local communities in preparedness

nt
lacking access to information and resources, may not

ge
activities to ensure they are well-equipped to handle

A
be aware of hailstorm risks or effective safety measures.

-@
lightning emergencies.
Reliance on traditional practices and beliefs about
ID
Nature solutions: Promote the planting of trees that are

hailstorms can sometimes contradict scientific advice,
am
less likely to be struck by lightning. Certain species like

gr
limiting the effectiveness of preventive actions.

le
neem and peepal have lower conductivity and can offer

Te
Fragile agricultural practices: Traditional farming some protection.

techniques may leave crops vulnerable to hailstorm
damage, impacting food security and livelihoods. Hailstorm
Invest in advanced Doppler radars and hailstone
Dust Storm detection technology: Precise hailstone size and location
Addressing land management practices: Unsustainable prediction can give farmers and communities precious
agricultural practices, overgrazing, and deforestation time to prepare.
contribute significantly to dust generation. Encouraging Sustainable agricultural practices and crop
sustainable land management techniques, such as diversification
afforestation, cover cropping, and soil conservation • Encourage planting hail-resistant crop varieties:
practices, is essential. Promote research and development of resilient
Overcoming economic and social constraints: hybrids and educate farmers about available options.
Implementing mitigation measures often involves costs • Adopt sustainable agroforestry practices: Planting
and may require changes in livelihoods and traditional trees around fields can act as windbreaks and disrupt
practices. Addressing these concerns through economic hailstone formation.
incentives, community involvement, and capacity • Diversify crops: Encourage farmers to plant a variety
building is crucial. of crops with different maturity times to minimise
Limited infrastructure and technology: Implementing losses in case of hailstorms.
effective dust control measures like wind fences,
Dust Storm
vegetative barriers, and dust suppressants requires
Agriculture: Installing sand fences near agriculture areas,
resources and expertise. Bridging the gap in infrastructure
planting trees or shrubs to block the movement of sand
and technological know-how is essential.
and dust, deploying equipment and personnel to clear

irrigation and drainage channels from sand, changing harvesting or planting procedures and timing to avoid the impact
of moving sand.
Mapping and characterising dust sources: Accurately pinpointing areas prone to soil erosion, like overgrazed pastures
and arid regions, is crucial for targeted interventions.
Promoting sustainable land management: Encouraging practices like afforestation, cover cropping, and soil conservation
techniques stabilise vulnerable landscapes and reduce dust generation. e.g. The Great Green Wall Project adopted by
the African Union.
Capacity building and livelihood diversification: Equipping communities with skills and resources to adopt sustainable
practices and explore alternative income sources builds long-term resilience.
NDMA Guidelines On Thunderstorms, Hailstorms And Dust Storms
Aspect Description
Active participation of various government bodies, including state and district administration,
Government
line departments, municipal authorities, health agencies, disaster management authorities,
Engagement
and local partners.
The state appoints nodal officers at both state and district levels and designates an agency to
Appointing a Nodal
oversee the action plan’s implementation. Capacity-building initiatives include training key
Department and Officers
officials and conducting exercises to address communication gaps.
Vulnerability Assessment Identification of vulnerable areas, assets, and populations. Priority areas for early warning,
and Early Warning forecasting, and alert activities are established. Coordination with the Indian Meteorological
System Department (IMD) to develop reliable and accurate localised early warnings.
Drafting and Developing Coordination with concerned line departments to formulate an action plan. Roles and
the Action Plan responsibilities for all stakeholders are clearly defined.
State officials and agencies undergo preparation, training, and information dissemination for
C
Team Preparation and

PS
thunderstorms and lightning seasons. Development of an inter-agency emergency response

_U
Coordination
nt
plan with clearly marked roles and information flows.

ge
A
-@
Government departments and partners are responsible for implementing various components
Implementation and
ID
of the action plan. Public awareness is crucial, and Information, Education, and Communication
am
Monitoring
(IEC) play a significant role in disseminating key messages to communities.
gr
le
Te
Strategies for Adapting Encouragement for states to undertake mitigation strategies to reduce the impact of climate
to Climate Change (Long- change on extreme weather incidents. This may include developing disaster-resilient
term plans) infrastructure and implementing guidelines for hazard-resistant construction.
Forest Fire may be dreadful for the other, depending upon the climatic
Forest fire may be defined as an unclosed and freely spreading conditions and type of vegetation. Each year, millions of
combustion that consumes the natural fuels. When a fire hectares of the world’s forests are consumed by fire, which
burns out of control it is known as Wildfire. There have been results in enormous economic losses because of burnt
forest fires throughout historic time ignited and burned timber; degraded real estate; high costs of suppression;
naturally through the forest. Fire effects on forests however damage to environmental, recreational and amnesty values;
are not equal. Fire may be beneficial for one ecosystem and and loss of life.
Causes of Forest Fires

People
Current and past land Fuel
Topography Weather
management practices, Living and dead
Terrain, aspect, exposure, Temperature, rainfall,
forest resource use, vegetation, organic soil
accessibility humidity, winds
fire use, policies and material
regulations, etc.
Fig. 3.16: Various igniting factors for forest fires
Natural causes: Lightning, volcanic eruptions, and Frequency: Based on the forest inventory records,
spontaneous combustion of dry vegetation are some 54.40% of forests in India are exposed to occasional
of the natural causes of forest fires. For instance fires, 7.49% to moderately frequent fires and 2.40% to
Uttarakhand Forest Fire (April-May 2016), fire was high incidence levels while 35.71% of India’s forests have
triggered by a prolonged dry spell and high temperatures, not yet been exposed to fires of any real significance.
and was aggravated by the presence of pine needles,
Fire Clusters: Broadly four fire clusters have been
which are highly flammable.
recognised in India.
Human causes: Human activities are a major contributor • North-West Himalaya: This region encompasses
of forest fires across the globe - Smoking, campfires, Jammu & Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh, Uttarakhand,
machinery, bullets, petroleum products, electric faults, and parts of Uttar Pradesh. The presence of coniferous
and arson are some of the human causes of forest fires.
forests(Pines) with high fuel loads, steep slopes, and
Some people also deliberately start fires for land clearing,
dry conditions in the pre-monsoon months makes
agriculture, hunting, or other purposes. For example
them highly susceptible to wildfires.
Fires in the Bandipur National Park, Karnataka (February
2019), Fire in the Similipal Biosphere Reserve, Odisha • North-East India: Comprising the states of Arunachal
(February-March 2021), Fire in the Similipal National Park Pradesh, Assam, Manipur, Meghalaya, Mizoram,
in Odisha between February-end and early March 2021 Nagaland, Sikkim, and Tripura, this region experiences
all are suspected to be caused by human negligence. high fire frequency due to shifting cultivation
According to a forest research Institute document 95% practices(Slash and burn), bamboo flowering, and
of the forest fires are caused by human negligence. dry pre-monsoon winds.
Risk of Forest Fire in India • Central India: Covering Madhya Pradesh,
Chhattisgarh, Odisha, Jharkhand, and parts of Andhra
Pradesh and Maharashtra, this region experiences
high fire occurrences due to deciduous forests with
high fuel loads, dry periods, and tribal practices of
using fire for land clearing.
C
PS
• Western Ghats: Stretching across Maharashtra, Goa,

_U
Karnataka, Kerala, and Tamil Nadu, these mountains

nt
ge
experience fires due to a combination of factors like

A
-@
dry pre-monsoon winds, steep slopes, presence of

ID
fire-adapted species like Shola forests, and human

am
gr
activities like tourism and honey collection.

le
Te
Impact of Forest Fire

Loss of biodiversity: Forest fires tend to wipe out many
flora and fauna, some of which may be rare or native to a
specific area. Forest fires also lower the genetic variation
of the forest ecosystem, making it more susceptible to
diseases and pests. Terminalia chebula, T. bellirica, T.
tomentosa which have highly commercial and medicinal
value respectively are facing severe problems due to
forest fire leaving behind poor stocking. Species like
Lantana camara, L. indica, Eupatorium glandulosum,
Parthenium hysterophorus, Cassia tora, C occidentalis,
etc, have invaded several of the significant sites of forest
biodiversity conservation.
Fig. 3.17: Forest Prone areas in India
Soil erosion and degradation: Forest fires create a
Proneness: According to the Forest Survey of India 2019, deficit of organic matter and nutrients in soil, leaving
More than 36% of the country’s forest cover has been it vulnerable to water and wind erosion. This results in
estimated to be prone to frequent forest fires of which low soil quality, reduced water-holding capacity, and
Nearly 4% of the country’s forest cover is extremely carbon storage potential. In February 2019, forest fire in
prone to fire The number of forest fires detected using the Bandipur Tiger Reserve and National Park in 2019
satellite data increased from 52,785 in 2020 to 3,45,989 destroyed nearly 40,000 acres killing a forest guard and
in 2021. injuring many others.

Economic losses and social conflicts: Forest fires harm National Action Plan on Forest Fires 2018 (NAPFF): It
valuable timber and non-timber forest products, affecting has been formulated to minimize forest fires from taking
the livelihoods of millions of people who depend on place by informing, enabling, and empowering forest
them. According to a World Bank report India is losing at fringe communities and maybe incentivizing them to
least ₹ 1,100 crore due to forest fires every year. work in tandem with the forest departments.
Air pollution and health hazards: Forest fires release large Forest Fire Prevention and Management (FFPM)
amounts of smoke, particulate matter, and greenhouse Practices: These Practices are used to prevent forest fire.
gases, which affect the air quality and climate. The The most common methods of prevention employed by
smoke can cause breathing problems, eye irritation, and forest departments in India include the clearance of fire
allergies for humans and animals. The greenhouse gases lines and conducting controlled burning to limit fuel
contribute to global warming and climate change. loads. Other methods may include silvicultural practices
Positive Feedback Loop: Increased temperatures and such as selective thinning and planting fire-adapted
changing climate conditions can lead to more frequent tree species in fire-prone areas. Telangana is the only
and severe wildfires, creating a feedback loop that state to have digitized locations of fire lines.
contributes to climate change as well. Forest Survey of India Initiatives: FSI implemented its
Water Quality issues: After a fire, the loss of vegetation first nationwide system for monitoring active forest fires
can lead to increased runoff and soil erosion, impacting using remote sensing and providing alerts to local forest
water quality and aquatic ecosystems. Furthermore, departments in 2004. State-level detection and alert
Fires can affect water sources, leading to problems with systems have also been developed in states of Madhya
water supply for both human and natural systems. Pradesh, Andhra Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, Telangana, and
Uttarakhand.
Long-Term Recovery and Regeneration: Forest
• The Forest Survey of India developed in 2016, an
ecosystems have the capacity to regenerate after a fire,
indigenous “Early Warning Alert System for Forest
but the process can take years or even decades. Human
Fire”. The alerts to State Forest departments are
efforts, such as reforestation and habitat restoration
based on parameters like Forest Cover, Forest Type,
projects, may be necessary to accelerate the process of
and Climatic Variables (Temperature and Rainfall).
recovery.
• Managing Drought: Drought is an important factor in
C
Socio-economic impact: Forest fires have negative

PS
forest fires FSI has attempted to use Keetch–Byram

_U
impacts on the ecological and socio-economic aspects Drought Index (KDBI) which is being tested in 25x25
nt
ge
of the country. They destroy biodiversity, ecosystem sq. km grid in Dehradun, Uttarakhand. The KBDI can
A
-@
services, livelihoods, and cultural heritage. They also be used to forecast fire danger ten to twelve weeks
ID
increase the risk of soil erosion, landslides, and floods. in advance.

am
Forest Fires Hazard Mitigation in India Large Forest Fire Monitoring Programme: It uses near-
gr

le
real-time SNPP-VIIRS data to track large fire events

Te
National Laws: As per, sections 26 and 33 of the Indian

Forest Act of 1927 it is a criminal offense to burn or to across the country.
allow a fire to remain burning in reserved and protected FAST 3.0 Collaboration: The program receives NASA’s
forests. active fire data, processed by ISRO, and then updated by
• Wildlife Protection Act 1972: Section 30 of the Wild FSI. The information is disseminated in real-time to over
Life (Protection) Act of 1972 further prohibits setting 40,000 registered users, including governmental and
fire in wildlife sanctuaries. public entities, through the forest alert system.
FAO Recommendations On Forest Fire

Preventive Programs Emphasise zoning, danger rating, early warning, and real-time monitoring to enhance forest fire prevention.
Coordination Advocate collaboration with government agencies (e.g., National Remote Sensing Agency, Forest
Survey of India, Meteorological Department) and media for coordinated actions during fire season.
National Awareness Suggest the launch of a nationwide campaign on fire damage, prevention, detection, and
Campaign communication involving schools, Joint Forest Management committees, NGOs, and voluntary
organizations.
Research and Training Propose the establishment of a central fire management research and training institute to equip
Institute foresters and public agencies with knowledge and skills for effective fire management.
Integration with Joint Recommend incorporating prevention and management programs into the Joint Forest Management
Forest Management framework by state governments.
Inclusion in National Urge the specific designation of fire management as an element of “Protection” in the list of priority
Forestry Action Plan strategies within the National Forestry Action Plan.
Way Forward
Case Study: Cool Burning Method in Australia
Community-based fire management: Engaging local
Challenge: Kakadu National Park, a UNESCO World
Heritage Site renowned for its biodiversity and Indigenous communities in fire prevention and early detection activities
cultural significance, faces a significant threat from empowers them to become stewards of their own forests.
wildfires. The park’s vast savannas and woodlands Examples include Firewise USA, Canada’s FireSmart
experience hot, dry seasons that create ideal conditions program and community forestry programs in Nepal.
for uncontrolled wildfires, potentially devastating the Advanced monitoring systems: Utilizing remote sensing
ecosystem and cultural heritage. technology like satellites and drones for real-time fire
Solution: Traditional cool burning practices, championed detection allows for rapid response and minimizes
by Indigenous Australians for millennia, are being revived fire spread. Countries like Spain and Portugal have
and integrated with modern fire management strategies successfully implemented such systems.
to protect Kakadu. Rapid initial attack: Responding quickly to small fires with
Implementation trained personnel and appropriate equipment can prevent
them from becoming larger and more difficult to control.
Israel’s rapid response teams and Indonesia’s Manggala
Agni fire fighting brigade exemplify this approach.
Effective fire suppression strategies: Employing a
Fig. 3.18 combination of ground and aerial firefighting techniques
Mosaic Burning: Burning small, controlled patches in adapted to the specific terrain and fuel types is crucial for
a mosaic pattern throughout the park during cooler successful fire suppression. Canada’s air tanker fleet and
months. This creates firebreaks and reduces fuel load, China’s emphasis on ground firefighting demonstrate
hindering the spread of future wildfires. different approaches.
Indigenous Knowledge: Collaborating with traditional Burned area rehabilitation: Implementing measures
owners, the Mirarr people, to leverage their deep like reforestation, erosion control, and wildlife habitat
understanding of the land and fire behaviour. Their restoration promotes the recovery of ecosystems
insights guide burn location, timing, and intensity. damaged by fires. The US Forest Service’s Burned Area
C
PS
Modern Technology: Utilising drones and satellite Emergency Response Team (BAER) and Spain’s post-fire
_U
imagery to monitor fire activity and fuel loads, recovery plans are commendable examples.
nt
ge
ensuring precision and safety during controlled burns. Community engagement in recovery: Involving local
A
-@
Community Engagement: Educating park visitors and communities in post-fire rehabilitation efforts fosters
ID
local communities about the benefits of cool burning ownership and ensures long-term success. Programs like
am
and fostering collaboration in fire management efforts. Nepal’s Community Based Forest Management (CBFM)
gr
le
and Indonesia’s community-based fire management

Te
Challenges in Mitigation initiatives showcase this approach.

Climate change and droughts: Forests become more
Knowledge sharing and capacity building: Collaborating
prone to fires due to prolonged droughts and rapid
with other countries and organizations to share best
changes in climate and weather conditions, such as
practices, training personnel, and developing technologies
high temperatures, low precipitation, and strong winds.
These factors are driving forest fires not only in India but is essential for continuous improvement in forest fire
also across the world. management. Initiatives like the Global Fire Monitoring
Fragmentation of forests: India’s forests are mostly
Center (GFMC) and the International Association of
fragmented and surrounded by human settlements Wildland Fire (IAWF) facilitate such cooperation.
of various sizes, which increase their exposure and
susceptibility to fires. Human activities, such as CONCLUSION
agriculture, grazing, and burning of biomass, are also
major sources of ignition. Throughout this chapter, we’ve delved into the complexities of
Inadequate resources: Forest departments lack natural disasters – their diverse forms, causes, risks, impacts
sufficient funds to invest in effective forest fire mitigation and measures taken by the government to tackle them. While
infrastructures, such as fire detection, suppression, and we cannot control the Earth’s unpredictable nature, we have
safety equipment. Instead, they spend a large amount of the power to shape our response. Mitigation strategies, from
money on planting trees, which may not survive or adapt robust infrastructure to community preparedness, offer
to the changing environment. powerful tools to lessen the sting of disaster. Embracing
Insufficient personnel: Forest departments also face these measures isn’t just about safeguarding lives and
a shortage of trained and equipped staff to respond to property; it’s about fostering resilient communities, capable
forest fire incidents. of bouncing back stronger and adapting to a changing world.

Anthropogenic Disasters
and Their Mitigation 4
international efforts focus on preventing such scenarios.
INTRODUCTION Nuclear warfare: The detonation of nuclear weapons in
Anthropogenic disasters, also known as human-caused warfare would unleash catastrophic levels of radiation
disasters, are events resulting primarily from human actions and lead to immense destruction. For instance USA
or inactions that have significant negative consequences for attack on Japan in 1945.
human life, property, the environment, or a combination of
these. The Chernobyl nuclear disaster (1986), The Bhopal Risk of Nuclear Emergencies in India
gas tragedy (1984) are few of the examples. Increasing Use of Nuclear Technology: As per NDMA
website, India has 20 power reactors and three research
NUCLEAR EMERGENCIES reactors in operation along with five power reactors
under construction. It has also been planned to explore
A nuclear emergency involves the explosion of a nuclear setting up Thorium based reactors to meet its ever
weapon or improvised nuclear device (IND). The explosion increasing energy needs. The country is also at the verge
produces an intense pulse of heat, light, air pressure, and of making operational the first 500MW prototype Fast
radiation. Nuclear explosions produce fallout (radioactive Breeder Reactor (PFBR) after a prolonged experience
materials that can be carried long distances by the wind). of operation of FBTR (Fast Breeder Test Reactor).
The impact depends on factors like release amounts, wind Further, the country utilizes radioisotopes in a variety of
dynamics, and weather conditions. Accidental radiation applications in the non-power sector, viz., in the field of
exposure can also happen during transportation or industry, agriculture, medicine, research, etc.
machinery failures in radiation facilities. Preparedness and
Natural Disasters: The December 2004 tsunamis,
C

response strategies are vital for addressing these complex
PS
triggered by a magnitude 9 earthquake in Indonesia,

_U
nuclear disaster scenarios.

nt
reached the west coast of India and impacted the

ge
Causes of Nuclear Emergencies Kalpakkam nuclear power plant near Madras/Chennai.

A
-@
Reactor malfunctions: Equipment failures, operator The Narora plant in Uttar Pradesh is located in Seismic
ID
errors, or design flaws can lead to overheating and loss Zone IV. Thus can be impacted by Earthquakes.
am
gr
of control within the reactor core, which potentially Terrorism and Sabotage: Concerns persist regarding
le
Te
causes a meltdown and release of radioactive materials. intentional terrorism targeting nuclear facilities or
The Chernobyl disaster in 1986 serves as a tragic materials, encompassing risks from sabotage by external
example, where reactor design flaws and operator entities or insider threats to the security of nuclear
errors combined to cause a catastrophic explosion and installations. For example, Stuxnet cyberattack, a
widespread radioactive contamination. computer worm that specifically targeted Iran’s nuclear
Natural disasters: Earthquakes, tsunamis, or other program, disrupted operations at its Natanz uranium
natural disasters can damage nuclear power plants and enrichment facility.
disrupt safety systems, increasing the risk of radioactive Inadequate Emergency Preparedness: Insufficient
releases. The Fukushima Daiichi nuclear disaster in readiness and response capabilities can worsen the
2011 occurred after a massive earthquake and tsunami consequences of a nuclear emergency.
triggered equipment failures and core meltdowns at the Aging Infrastructure: Challenges in safety and reliability
plant. stem from the ageing infrastructure of some nuclear
Transportation accidents: Accidents involving vehicles facilities.
carrying radioactive materials can lead to breaches Waste Management Challenges: Long-term challenges
in containment and release of radiation. A notable and environmental risks arising from safe disposal and
example occurred in 1987 in Goiânia, Brazil, where a
management of nuclear waste.
radioactive source was stolen from a medical facility
and subsequently mishandled by individuals, leading to Impact of Nuclear Emergencies
several deaths and widespread contamination.
Nuclear emergencies or disasters can happen due to human
Nuclear terrorism: Terrorist groups may attempt
mistakes, natural disasters, or deliberate attacks. They can
to acquire and detonate nuclear devices, causing
widespread radioactive contamination and human have serious effects on people, the environment, or the
casualties. This remains a potential threat, although nuclear facility. Some of the possible effects are:
Radiation exposure: Nuclear accidents can release a lot last decade to allow nitrogen injection into the
of radioactive material into the air, water, or soil. This can containment in the event of a hydrogen build-up.
harm people’s health in different ways such as, causing Atomic Energy Act, 1962: An Act to provide for the
radiation sickness, cancer, or changes in their genes, development, control and use of atomic energy for the
depending on how much and how long they are exposed welfare of the people of India and for other peaceful
to radiation. The worst nuclear accident ever was the purposes and for matters connected there with.
Chernobyl disaster in 1986, which killed 50 people The Civil Liability for Nuclear Damage Act of 2010 (CLND
from radiation and caused about 5000 cases of thyroid Act): It is pivotal in addressing the civil liability associated
cancer. The Fukushima nuclear disaster in 2011, which with nuclear damage. This legislation establishes a legal
was caused by a huge earthquake and tsunami, did not structure for compensation in the event of a nuclear
kill anyone from radiation but made more than 100,000 incident, aligning India with international conventions
people had to leave their homes. on nuclear liability.
Environmental contamination: Nuclear accidents can also The National Disaster Management Act of 2005: Though
affect the environment by making the land, water, or food not explicitly tailored for nuclear emergencies, it lays
sources radioactive. This can have lasting effects on the down the legal groundwork for disaster management
environment and the economy, such as reducing the variety in the country. In the context of a nuclear incident,
of living things, damaging the soil, or making the crops less the National Disaster Management Authority (NDMA)
productive. For example, after the Chernobyl accident, assumes a crucial role in orchestrating and executing
a 30-km area around the plant was made off-limits to disaster response and recovery initiatives.
people and there was a significant change in the fauna The Radiological Emergency Preparedness and Response
also. Another such instance is the Fukushima accident Plan (REP&R): It was developed by the Atomic Energy
where some of the places have become too radioactive to Regulatory Board (AERB). It delineates strategies and
live in and some food products were declared not safe to actions to be implemented in the event of a radiological
consume. emergency, encompassing scenarios related to nuclear
Psychological and social effects: Nuclear accidents can power plants.
also affect people’s feelings and relationships, such as Department of Atomic Energy (DAE): It is designated as
C
PS
making them scared, worried, stressed, sad, or ashamed. the nodal agency for man-made radiological emergencies
_U
These effects can be caused by the lack of information, in the public domain. Activates the Crisis Management
nt
ge
wrong information, or being alone due to nuclear Group (CMG) promptly in case of nuclear/radiological
A
-@
emergency. They can also affect people’s mental and emergencies. Ensures coordinated technical responses
ID
physical health, happiness, and sense of belonging. For in collaboration with local and central authorities.
am
gr
instance, After the Fukushima accident, many people Atomic Energy Regulatory Board: It functions as the
le
Te
felt sad, lonely, or discriminated against. nuclear regulatory authority in India. Mandated by the
Atomic Energy Act, of 1962, to issue licenses for nuclear
Steps Taken by the Government and radiation facilities. It develops safety policies,
Improved Technology: Newer reactors in India are codes, guides, and standards for all phases of facility
equipped with built-in safety measures that are designed life cycles and reviews emergency preparedness plans
to minimize risks. For example, new light water and and oversees training programs for personnel in nuclear
heavy water reactors at nuclear plants such as Tarapur and radiological facilities. Along with this it takes steps
nuclear power plant in the state of Maharashtra and the to inform the public about significant radiological safety
Kudankulam Nuclear Power Plant in Tamil Nadu have issues.
double containment to ensure that nuclear material is Mobile Radiation Detection System (MRDS): To detect
confined in case of a nuclear emergency.’ unclaimed radioactive materials/substances and save the
• In Tarapur 3 an indigenously developed containment public from its hazardous effects, NDMA has chalked out
filtered venting system, which operates on the wet- a plan to provide States/UTs Mobile Radiation Detection
scrubbing principle, has been operational for some Systems to be deployed in Metros/all Capital Cities and
time and is set to see fleet-wide deployment. Big Cities in India.
• NPCIL is also deploying iodine scrubbing through
Challenges in Mitigation of Nuclear Emergencies in
a containment spray system on which tests using
different aerosols have been conducted and removal
India
rate measurements recorded. Even the Tarapur 1&2 Limited monitoring and early warning systems: Expanding
BWRs, which are older than Fukushima Daiichi I and the network of radiation monitoring stations across
had been upgraded prior to 2011 to ensure continuous the country, especially in populated areas near nuclear
cooling during site blackouts, were modified in the facilities, would ensure faster detection and response.
Anthropogenic Disasters and Their Mitigation 53

Upgrade of emergency response equipment and NDMA Guidelines
medical facilities: Equipping first responders with
NDMA Guidelines for Nuclear and Radiological Emergencies
specialized protective gear and ensuring adequate
stockpiles of radiation decontamination materials is Enhanced Enhance radiation monitoring for
crucial. Additionally, medical facilities require dedicated Monitoring and swift detection of nuclear facility
resources and trained personnel to handle cases of Warning Network emissions, weapons activities, and
radiation exposure. Greenpeace released a report(2016) transportation of nuclear materials.
‘Red Alert – India’s nuclear disaster plans outdated Prevention of Illicit Implement a monitoring system
and inadequate’, highlighted key issues like “lack” Movement with radiation detectors at border
of emergency preparedness, “ancient” manual for posts and ports to prevent illegal
emergency guidelines, “unacceptable” standards of transportation of radioisotopes.
food contamination among the reasons for India’s plans
Robust Establish a reliable and dedicated
being “outdated” in case of an emergency. Communication national-level communication
Lack Implementation: The Greenpeace report also Networks network to ensure effective last-
stated that The manual on emergency preparedness mile connectivity.
at Kalpakkam, despite being revised in April 2011, still Dissemination Ensure widespread warnings reach
includes a regulatory guideline with intervention levels of Warnings and remote, rural, and urban areas for
based on Publication 40 of the International Commission Information an organised response; regularly
on Radiological Protection (ICRP) adopted in 1984 which update the information to combat
was well before the Chernobyl disaster. misinformation and prevent panic.
Way Forward Implementation Identify secure buildings and sites

of Structural for temporary shelters in proximity
To address these challenges, India needs to adopt a holistic Measures to nuclear installations.
and proactive approach to nuclear emergency management,
Construct versatile shelters near
which includes: nuclear installations, adhering to
C
PS
Enhancing the prevention and mitigation measures, relevant building codes.

_U
nt
such as improving the design, construction, and

ge
Comprehensive Establish specialised tertiary care

A
operation of the nuclear power plants, conducting

-@
Medical hospitals for radiation injuries.

regular safety audits and inspections, and implementing
ID
Management Plan Deploy primary and secondary care

am
stringent security protocols. facilities in key cities to ease the

gr
le
Strengthening the preparedness and response capabilities, healthcare infrastructure burden.

Te
such as developing and updating the emergency plans and

procedures, conducting realistic and effective drills and
MINE DISASTERS
exercises, and providing adequate training and equipment
to the emergency personnel. The Mines Act 1952 defines disasters in terms of accidents
Improving the public information and participation causing the loss of more than 10 lives. In the context of
mechanisms, such as increasing the transparency and mining, a mining accident is an unexpected event that
accountability of the nuclear authorities, disseminating occurs during the process of extracting minerals. The Act
accurate and timely information to the public, and categorizes accidents involving the loss of fewer than 10
lives as major accidents. One of the most significant mining
engaging the local communities and civil society
disasters in Indian history took place on December 27, 1975,
organizations in the nuclear emergency management
at Chasnalla Colliery.
process.
Causes of Mine Disaster
Harmonizing national and international cooperation
Ground instability: Collapses, rockbursts, and sinkholes
and coordination, such as establishing a clear and
can occur due to natural factors like weak geological
consistent legal and regulatory framework, participating
formations, seismic activity, or water infiltration. The
in the global nuclear safety and security regimes, and 2010 Upper Big Branch disaster in the US, resulting in 29
seeking technical and financial assistance from the fatalities, was caused by a methane explosion triggered
international community. by a mining machine.
Conducting mock drills to review the emergency Gas explosions: Flammable gases like methane and coal
preparedness plan of the organization and enable the dust can accumulate in enclosed mine spaces, igniting
public at times of need. and causing powerful explosions.
Flooding: Sudden inrushes of water from underground Poverty and desperation: Miners, especially in small-
sources or heavy rainfall can flood mines, trapping miners scale or illegal operations, often work under pressure to
and causing structural damage. The flooding incident in meet financial needs, potentially compromising safety
the Bagdigi colliery in Jharkhand in 2001 resulted in the practices.
deaths of several miners. Inadequate enforcement and monitoring: Weak
Equipment malfunction: Faulty machinery, electrical enforcement of safety regulations and limited resources
systems, or ventilation equipment can create dangerous for regular mine inspections further exacerbate the
conditions like fires, gas leaks, or oxygen depletion. For problem.
example West Virginia Sago Mine disaster 2006 where Coal mines: Methane explosions and coal dust
12 miners died due to a roof collapse caused by a faulty explosions pose a significant threat in India’s coal mines,
belt conveyor. contributing to a history of tragic accidents.
Structural instability: Improperly designed or maintained
Metal and mineral mines: Collapses and exposure
mine supports, tunnels, or shafts can collapse under
to toxic gases are major concerns in these mines,
pressure.
highlighting the need for specific safety protocols based
Transportation accidents: Malfunctioning trains, trolleys,
on the mined material.
or other transportation systems within mines can cause
injuries and fatalities.
Unsafe working practices: Failure to follow safety Rat-Hole Mining
protocols, improper use of equipment, or ignoring Rat-hole mining which is prevalent in Meghalaya involves
warning signs can increase the risk of accidents. extracting coal through small pits known as “rat holes,”
• Inadequate training and supervision: Untrained using manual tools. Two methods, side-cutting and box-
or inexperienced workers who lack proper safety cutting, are employed to access thin coal seams in hill
knowledge and procedures are more vulnerable to slopes. Safety and environmental concerns arise due
accidents. to the lack of regulations, leading to unsafe working
• Negligence and cost-cutting measures: Prioritizing conditions and ecological damage. The National Green
Tribunal (NGT) banned rat-hole mining in 2014, citing its
production over safety standards, disregarding
C
unscientific nature. However, the practice persists due to

PS
maintenance needs, or using poor-quality materials

_U
economic factors and lack of alternative livelihoods.

can significantly increase the risk of disasters.
nt
ge
A
-@
Risk of Mine Disasters in India

Impact of Mine Disasters
ID
Outdated mining methods: Many Indian mines continue

am
to utilize outdated and inherently risky mining techniques, Environmental Damage: Mining disasters can lead
gr
le
increasing the likelihood of accidents and collapses. For to significant environmental damage, including the
Te
example Rat-hole mining which is prevalent in Meghalaya production of waste, the release of toxic and hazardous
involves extracting coal through small pits known as “rat waste, air pollution, and emissions. It can also increase
holes,” using manual tools. the acidity of water in streams, and cause increased
Inadequate safety measures: Stringent safety protocols sediment loads, some of which may be metal-laden, in
and implementation are often lacking, leading to unsafe drainage basins.
working conditions and exposure to hazards. The 2016
Water Pollution and Depletion: Mining disasters can
Khetri copper mine collapse, claiming 12 lives, involved
cause water pollution and depletion. For instance, debris
the failure of an old winding shaft mechanism.
flow and ground subsidence can damage water resources
Negligence and disregard for regulations: Instances of
in the mining area, including pollution of water resources
ignoring safety regulations or cutting corners to maximize
and blocked transportation routes of water resources.
profits add to the danger factor.
Lack of awareness and training: Limited access to proper Loss of Productive Land and Ecosystems: Mining hazards
training and safety awareness programs can leave miners can lead to the loss of productive land and ecosystems.
vulnerable to risks they may not fully understand. Landslides, settlement and debris flows can cause serious
Unstable geological formations: Many Indian mines are damages to buildings and natural vegetation in the mining
located in seismically active zones or have structurally area.
weak terrains, posing a high risk of ground instability and Human Casualties: Mining is deadly and thousands of
collapses. miners die from mining accidents each year, especially
Presence of natural hazards: Heavy rainfall and water from underground coal mining.
inrushes are common concerns in certain regions, Long-term Impact: The impact of mining disasters can
increasing the risk of flooding and other dangers. be long-term and far-reaching. For example, the rupture

of Samarco’s mining company tailings dam in Mariana, safety consciousness in their functioning. The goal is to
Brazil, resulted in mud tailings that killed people and develop a strong commitment to safety practices and
animals, destroyed cities, and affected marine life. accident prevention.
Socio-economic Impacts: Mining disasters can have Continuous Education and Training: Continuous education,
socio-economic impacts, affecting livelihoods and training, and retraining programmes are instituted
leading to displacement and social upheaval. for all employees, emphasising the development of
safety-oriented skills. This ongoing learning is crucial for
Steps Taken by the Indian Government maintaining a high level of safety awareness.
Mines Act 1952: This primary legislation covers all
aspects of mine safety, including safety standards, Challenges in Mining Disaster Risk
equipment specifications, training requirements, and Reduction in India
accident reporting procedures. Poor understanding of disaster causes: The root causes
Metalliferous Mines Regulations 1961 and Coal Mines of mine disasters are not fully understood, which makes
Regulations 2011:These detailed regulations prescribe it difficult to prevent or predict them.
specific safety protocols for different types of mining Ineffective engineering controls: The existing engineering
activities. controls are not sufficient to prevent, detect, or mitigate
Directorate General of Mines Safety (DGMS): This Mine disasters.
Central Government agency is responsible for enforcing Lack of workforce training: The general mining workforce
mining regulations, conducting inspections, investigating lacks adequate education and training on how to deal
accidents, and promoting safe mining practices. with Mine emergencies.
Safety Policy of Coal India Limited (CIL) Inefficient forecasting and mitigation: Forecasting and
Coal India Limited’s Safety Policy underscores a steadfast mitigating mine disasters, whether natural or manmade,
dedication to prioritising safety in mining operations through is a major problem.
comprehensive measures, regulatory compliance, and a Vulnerable infrastructures: Critical infrastructures such
pervasive safety culture across all organizational levels. as power, communication, water, and transport are
Planning for Hazard Elimination: Operations and systems exposed to disaster risks.
C
PS
are designed to eliminate mining hazards, with a focus

_U
Limited funding: Preparedness and mitigation measures

nt
on ensuring the safety of personnel and equipment. are often neglected due to the priority given to relief as
ge
A
Compliance with Statutory Rules and Regulations: a disaster response.

-@
CIL emphasizes strict adherence to statutory rules and

ID
Non-standardized efforts: There is no standardization

am
regulations related to safety, and it commits to achieving in collecting and analyzing geo-spatial data, satellite
gr
superior safety standards..

le
imagery, and early warning signals.

Te
Joint Consultations on Safety Matters: The organization

Weak areas: Forecasting, modeling, risk prediction,
establishes forums for joint consultations with
simulation and scenario analysis, etc.
employees’ representatives to discuss safety matters.
It aims to secure the motivation and commitment of Poor implementation: The National Disaster
employees in safety management. Management Plan, and the State and district level disaster
Annual and Long-Term Safety Plans: The formulation
management plans are not implemented properly.
of annual safety plans and long-term safety plans is Way Forward
emphasized. These plans are designed to address specific
Modernize equipment: Replacing outdated machinery
geological and mining needs, ensuring preparedness for
challenges such as monsoons. with modern, well-maintained technology can
significantly reduce equipment failure risks. The US Mine
Framework for Execution: CIL sets up a framework for
Safety and Health Administration (MSHA) promotes
the execution of the Safety Policy and Plans through the
using safer technologies like methane monitors and
involvement of General Managers, Area Safety Officers,
Agents, Managers, and other safety personnel at the automated roof bolting equipment.
mines. Invest in advanced monitoring systems: Implementing
Multi-level Monitoring: The implementation of Safety real-time monitoring systems for gas levels, air quality, and
Plans is closely monitored at various levels, including ground stability can provide early warnings of potential
the company headquarters and area levels. Internal dangers. Australia’s MineSAFE system and Chile’s Strata
safety organisations are responsible for overseeing and Control Unit (SCU) offer valuable examples.
assessing safety measures. Improve ventilation and drainage systems: Upgrading
Safety Consciousness at all Levels: Senior executives and ventilation systems and ensuring proper drainage
management at all levels are encouraged to inculcate infrastructure prevent harmful gas buildup and water
inundation. China’s focus on advanced ventilation Technical Errors: It is caused by mechanical failures,
systems in coal mines showcases effective practices. software defects, or deviations from normal operational
Strengthen safety regulations: Regularly reviewing and conditions. Visakhapatnam Gas Leak (2023) involved a
updating mining regulations to address emerging risks leak of styrene gas from the LG Polymers chemical plant
and best practices is crucial. The UK’s Health and Safety in Andhra Pradesh. While the exact cause is still under
Executive (HSE) constantly revises its mining regulations investigation, initial reports suggest a malfunction in the
based on evolving risks and research. refrigeration system used to store the highly flammable
Improve inspection and enforcement mechanisms: liquid.
Ensure thorough and regular inspections by adequately Management Errors: It is a result of poor planning, lack of
trained and equipped personnel. Canada’s Coal Mine safety measures, or inadequate supervision. For instance
Health and Safety Law has robust enforcement Bhopal Gas Tragedy (1984) was attributed to a series of
mechanisms with significant penalties for non- human errors, including faulty maintenance, inadequate
compliance. safety procedures and poor emergency response.
Promote transparency and accountability: Encourage Unsafe Conditions: These are conditions that pose a risk
whistleblower protections and public reporting of to the workers, the equipment, or the environment. For
safety concerns to empower miners and stakeholders example Neyveli Lignite Corporation boiler explosion
to demand accountability. The US MSHA’s anonymous (2020) was attributed to faulty boiler maintenance and
complaint system exemplifies this approach. inadequate safety protocols.
Component Failures: These are failures of machinery or
Provide comprehensive safety training: Equip miners
equipment components that can lead to accidents. For
with thorough training on safety protocols, emergency
example, a component may break down, wear out, or
procedures, and hazard identification. Finland’s
malfunction.
mandatory safety training programs for all miners set a
high standard. Natural causes: These are disasters caused by natural
events such as earthquakes, floods, or storms. Fukushima
Involve communities and stakeholders: Engage local
Nuclear Power Plant Accident (2011) was primarily
communities and NGOs in safety discussions and
triggered by a massive earthquake and tsunami.
initiatives to build trust and ensure collaborative efforts.
C
PS
South Africa’s Mine Health and Safety Act actively Risk of Industrial and Chemical Disaster
_U
nt
involves unions and communities in safety decision- in India

ge
A
making.
-@
Unorganized Sector: There are around 1,861 Major

Invest in research on safer mining practices: Support
ID
Accident Hazard (MAH) units in India, which handle

am
research into safer mining technologies, materials, and hazardous chemicals. Besides, there are many more
gr
risk assessment methods. The European Union’s Horizon unsafe factories and informal sector units that pose a
le
Te
2020 program funded several projects on mine safety risk of disaster.

innovations. Aging Infrastructure and Design Flaws: Many chemical
plants in India are old, faulty, or have not been
INDUSTRIAL AND CHEMICAL modernized, making them prone to accidents.
DISASTERS Increasing Frequency: As per National Disaster
Management Authority (NDMA) In the last decade, 130
Industrial and Chemical Disasters refer to catastrophic significant chemical accidents were reported in India,
incidents that occur as a result of mishaps, accidents, or which resulted in 259 deaths and 563 major injuries.
failures in industrial processes involving hazardous chemicals. Human Error: A significant amount of industrial accidents
These disasters can result from failures in processes, human happen because of human errors, such as violating the
errors, technical issues, management lapses, natural Standard Operating Procedures (SOPs).
calamities, transportation accidents, and even terrorist
Organic Solvents: Solvents are one of the main causes of
attacks.
fires and explosions in the chemical industry.
Causes of Industrial and Chemical Terrorist Activities and Sabotages: It poses another
Disasters source of threat, as they could target chemical plants or
Human Errors: These are errors made by workers due to
transport vehicles.
mistakes, lack of training, or negligence. For example In Impact of Industrial and Chemical
Buncefield Oil Depot Explosion (2005) Hertfordshire, UK,
a worker at the oil depot mistakenly transferred gasoline Disasters
into a storage tank containing incompatible chemicals, Human Health: Bhopal Gas Tragedy (1984) Impacted
triggering a series of explosions and fires over 5 lakh people and resulted in over 3,800 deaths,

numerous injuries, and long-term health issues due to to strengthen chemical safety in India. In addition, the
exposure to hazardous substances like Methyl isocyanate. National Action Plan on Chemical Industrial Disaster
As per a 2015 International Labour Organization report Management (NAP-CIDM), has been finalized which will
Globally, occupational accidents contribute to over act as the roadmap for chemical disaster management
350,000 deaths yearly, causing 313 million serious in India.
injuries and work absences.
Natural Environment: Chemical spills or leaks have Oleum Gas Leak
a far-reaching impact on the natural environment, The M.C. Mehta vs. Union of India (1986) case, also
contamination of air, soil, water, and living organisms. known as the Oleum gas leakage case, was filed by
This can result in ecological degradation, damaging
environmental activist and lawyer M.C. Mehta against
essential ecosystem services, and diminishing overall
Shriram Foods and Fertilizers Industries for manufacturing
resilience. The effective cleanup and restoration
hazardous substances in a densely populated area. The
required also demands considerable time and financial
case is related to an oleum gas leak from the industry
resources. Bhaghjan Gas and Oil Leak (2020) resulted in
environmental damage to Dibru-Saikhowa National Park which resulted in death and health issues for many.
and Maguri-Motapung Wetland. This landmark case significantly altered the application
of environmental laws in India and the interpretation
Economy: Industrial and chemical disasters leave
of Articles 21 and 32 of the Indian Constitution, dealing
a profound impact on the economy, disrupting the
production, transportation, and supply chain. These with the right to life and remedies for fundamental rights
disruptions result in substantial economic losses, violations respectively. The judgment explored legal issues
affecting income, employment rates, and market share and introduced new legal principles. The case challenged
for the industries involved. Legal liabilities, compensation the then-prevalent ‘strict liability’ principle, which
claims, and reputational damage further increase held companies accountable only if proven negligent.
the economic fallout. The government may also find However, proving negligence in complex industrial
itself compelled to allocate substantial funds for relief, accidents was often difficult and time-consuming. The
C
rehabilitation, and recovery efforts among affected court established the principle of absolute liability, stating
PS
_U
communities and regions. that any enterprise engaged in hazardous or inherently

nt
dangerous activities is strictly liable for any harm caused

ge

A
-@
by such activities, irrespective of negligence. This meant

Regulatory measures: The relevant provisions on
ID
that the burden of proof shifted from the victim to the

am
chemical disaster management, prevailing in the country company, making it responsible for preventing damage
gr
are Explosives Act 1884, Petroleum Act 1934, Factories

le
and compensating those affected.

Te
Act 1948, Insecticides Act 1968, Environment Protection

Act 1986,Motor Vehicles Act 1988, Public Liability
Insurance Act 1991 and Disaster Management Act 2005. Challenges in Industrial and Chemical
Legal Mechanism: Government of India has further Disaster Mitigation in India
reinforced the legal framework on chemical safety Enforcement of Regulations: India has a complex web
and management of chemical accidents by enacting of safety regulations, but inconsistent enforcement and
new rules such as Manufacture, Storage and Import loopholes weaken their effectiveness. Additionally, the
of Hazardous Substances Rules, 1989, The Chemical capacity for safety inspections and audit often falls short
Accidents (Emergency Planning, Preparedness, and of requirements.
Response) Rules, 1996, SMPV Rules, Central Motor Inadequate Worker Training and Safety Culture:
Vehicles Rules, Gas Cylinder Rules, Hazardous Waste
Insufficient safety training leaves workers vulnerable
Rules, Dock Workers Rules and by way of amendments
and unprepared for emergencies. A culture prioritizing
to them.
production over safety further exacerbates the risk.
Enforcement Mechanisms: The Ministry of Labour
Management of Hazardous Chemicals (HAZCHEM):
and Employment, in collaboration with the Directorate
General Factory Advice Service and Labour Institutes, Handling large quantities of HAZCHEM in installations,
enforces hazardous processes under the Factories Act, isolated storages, and during transportation, poses the
1948. grave risk of a sudden release of copious quantities of
NDMA initiatives: Apart from specific guidelines on toxicants in the environment.
Chemical Disaster Management, NDMA is also working Industrial Locations: Many industries that store or
on revamping of CIFs (Chief Inspectorate of Factories) process large quantities of chemicals are situated in
densely populated areas, increasing the risk of exposure emergency response plans are effective, and necessary
to these substances. precautions are taken.
Awareness and Preparedness: The vulnerability is Technical and Technological Information: Providing
further increased due to inappropriate construction access to technical and technological information equips
practices and lack of awareness and preparedness. relevant stakeholders with the latest knowledge about
chemical substances, their properties, and advancements
Way Forward in handling them safely.
Safer engineering and operational practices: Chemical Education and Training: Education and training
manufacture, use, storage, and transportation should programmes are essential for individuals involved in
follow the best engineering and operational safety chemical disaster management. This includes training
standards to prevent accidents and minimize risks. on handling emergencies, using safety equipment, and
Intelligence and surveillance: The movement of understanding the nature of different chemicals.
hazardous chemicals and the potential threats of Creation of Appropriate Infrastructure: Developing
chemical terrorism should be monitored and reported infrastructure, such as emergency response centres,
by the relevant authorities and agencies. chemical storage facilities, and communication networks,
Emergency planning and preparedness: On-site and off- ensures that the necessary resources are in place to
site emergency plans should be developed and rehearsed, respond effectively to chemical disasters.
and community awareness should be generated of the Institutional Framework: Establishing a robust
possible hazards and the response procedures. Resource institutional framework involves creating organizations,
and risk inventory and capacity building for disaster committees, and authorities dedicated to chemical
management should also be conducted regularly. disaster management, ensuring a coordinated and
Response capabilities: Rescue and emergency medical effective response.
resources should be available and accessible in case Networking and Information: Facilitating networking
of a chemical disaster. Environmental monitoring, and information exchange among relevant agencies,
decontamination, and rehabilitation should also be industries, and emergency responders helps in sharing
C
best practices, lessons learned, and staying updated on

PS
carried out to minimize the impact and restore normalcy.

_U
emerging trends.
nt
Legal safeguards and regulations: The existing laws and

ge
Medical Preparedness: Ensuring medical preparedness

A
rules against chemical disasters in India, such as the

-@
Bhopal Gas Leak (Processing of Claims) Act, 1985, the involves having adequate healthcare facilities, medical
ID
personnel, and resources to address health-related

am
Environment Protection Act, 1986, the Public Liability

issues arising from chemical disasters, including injuries,
gr
Insurance Act, 1991, the Chemical Accidents (Emergency,

le
Te
Planning, Preparedness, and Response) Rules, 1996, and poisoning, and long-term health effects.
the National Green Tribunal, 2010, should be enforced Research and Development: Investing in R&D for
and complied with by all the stakeholders. chemical disaster management involves exploring new
technologies, materials, and strategies to improve the
International and national recommendations:
overall preparedness and response to chemical incidents.
The recommendations of the International Labour
Organization (ILO) and the National Disaster Management Emergency Medical Response: Developing and
Authority (NDMA) on industrial disaster prevention, implementing emergency medical response plans
preparedness, and mitigation should be followed and ensures that immediate medical care is provided to
implemented by the relevant authorities and industries. those affected by chemical disasters.
Preparation of On-Site and Off-Site Emergency Plans: This
NDMA Guidelines on Chemical and Industrial step focuses on developing comprehensive emergency
Disasters plans that cover both on-site and off-site scenarios. On-
Codes of Practices, Procedures, and Standards: Develop site plans address immediate actions within the facility,
and implement codes of practices, procedures, and while off-site plans consider the broader impact and
standards that detail the safe handling, storage, and responses needed in the surrounding areas.
disposal of hazardous chemicals. This helps create a
uniform and safe approach to chemical management. ROAD ACCIDENTS
Statutory Inspection, Safety Auditing, and Testing of
Emergency Plans: Regular inspections, safety audits, Road accident management in India involves prompt
and testing of emergency plans are crucial. This ensures emergency response, coordinated efforts among police and
that facilities are in compliance with safety regulations, medical services, and ongoing initiatives for public awareness,

infrastructure improvement, and legal enforcement to Accidents by Weather Condition: Most accidents
enhance road safety and reduce casualties. occurred in sunny/clear weather (72%), while adverse
conditions like rain, fog, and hail/sleet contributed to
Data-Wise 18.4% of total road accident in 2020.
According to the Road Accidents in India-2022 report, Accidents by Vehicular Condition: Vehicles below 10
there were 4,61,312 reported road accidents, causing years of age accounted for over 58% of accidents and
1,68,491 fatalities and 4,43,366 injuries—an 11.9% 56% of deaths. Overloaded vehicles constituted 6.7% of
accidents, 7.9% of deaths, and 7.2% of injuries.
increase in accidents, 9.4% in fatalities, and 15.3% in
injuries compared to the previous year. Risks Associated with Road Accidents in
Notably, 32.9% of accidents occurred on National India
Highways, 23.1% on State Highways, and 43.9% on Loss of life and productivity: Road accidents are one of
other roads. the leading causes of death among people aged 15 to 49
Rural areas accounted for 68% of road accident years. It further degrades the human capital as people
deaths, with Tamil Nadu leading in accidents (13.9%) lose their lives or suffer from disabilities due to road
and Uttar Pradesh topping in fatalities (13.4%). accidents.
Burden on the health care system: Road accidents
result in high demand for emergency and trauma care
services, which strains the already overburdened health
care system in India. Many road accident victims do
not receive timely and adequate medical attention,
which worsens their outcomes and increases the risk of
complications and infections.
Damage to property and environment: Road accidents
also cause damage to vehicles, infrastructure, and the
C
environment. The cost of repairing or replacing damaged

PS
Fig. 4.1: Trends In The Number of Accidents and

_U
Fatalities 2018-2022 vehicles and infrastructure is borne by the government,

nt
insurance companies, and individuals. Road accidents

ge
A
Causes of Road Accidents

-@
also contribute to air pollution, noise pollution, and

ID
Human Error and Traffic Rule Violations: The Ministry of greenhouse gas emissions, which harm the environment
am
Road Transport and Highways’ annual report of accidents and public health.
gr
le
during 2022, revealed that ‘overspeeding’ accounted for Legal and social issues: Road accidents often lead to
Te
72.3 % of the total road accident 71.2 % of total deaths legal disputes and litigation, which consumes time
and 72.8 % of total injuries. and resources of the victims, the perpetrators, and
Non-use of Safety Devices (Helmets and Seatbelts): The the judiciary. Road accidents also affect the social and
report titled ‘Road accidents in India — 2021’ of Ministry psychological well-being as well.
of Road Transport and Highways (MoRTH) said a total of
46,593 persons were killed in road accidents due to Impact of Road Accidents
not wearing helmet, of which 32,877 were drivers and Road Accidents have A Profound and Far-Reaching
13,716 were passengers.
Impact, Affecting Individuals, Families, and
Accidents by Neighbourhood and Road Environment:
The majority of accidents (46.9%) occurred in open areas,
Communities Some of Them are as Follows:
followed by residential (18.6%) and market/commercial Road accidents can cause physical injuries, emotional
areas (14%). Institutional areas showed lower accident trauma, and loss of life for the victims and their families.
rates than expected, possibly due to better traffic rule Road accidents can also result in financial burden,
enforcement. disability and reduced mobility, and impact on mental
Accidents by Road Features: Accidents on straight roads health for the survivors and their caregivers.
accounted for 65%, while curved roads, potholes, and Road accidents can affect the quality of life and
steep grades contributed to 15.2%. confidence of the victims, leading to chronic pain,
Accidents by Road Junction Type: “T Junction” had isolation, and social problems.
the highest share of accidents, deaths, and injuries. Road accidents can have a social and economic impact on
Uncontrolled junctions accounted for the highest communities and nations, causing losses in productivity,
number of accidents (17.7%). health care costs, and environmental damage.
Road accidents can be prevented by addressing the
contributing factors such as speeding, reckless driving,
IGNITE YOUR MIND
drunken driving, and non-compliance with traffic
regulations. It is important to improve the enforcement Cars dominate our roads, creating congestion,
mechanisms, driver education, and training programs, pollution, and safety hazards. But what if we
and the condition of roads and vehicles. transform streets into dynamic spaces shared
equitably by pedestrians, cyclists, and vehicles?
Institutes of Driving Training and Research (IDTR):
Mitigating road accidents is imperative as revealed by the
Setting up model IDTR centres, regional driving training
‘Road accidents in India -2022’ report, citing a staggering centres, and driving training centres to improve driving
4,61,312 incidents in that year alone, resulting in 1,68,491 skills and knowledge of road regulations.
lives lost and 4,43,366 individuals injured. Addressing this Electronic Monitoring and Enforcement: Rules have
alarming toll requires concerted efforts through enhanced been notified for electronic monitoring and enforcement
safety measures, public awareness, and effective traffic of road safety through various technologies.
management strategies. Incident Management System: Deployment of services
like ambulances, patrol vehicles, and cranes at toll plazas.
Road Accident Mitigation Measures Taken By National Road Safety Board (NRSB): Establishment
MoRTH of NRSB to render advice on road safety and traffic
management.
The Ministry of Road Transport & Highways in India has
implemented a comprehensive strategy to address road Challenges of Mitigation of Road
safety issues. Some key initiatives and measures they have Accidents in India
taken: Poor road design and engineering, which do not take
into account the safety of all road users, especially two-
The Motor Vehicles Act (Amendment) 2019: Stricter
C
wheeler riders and pedestrians.

PS
penalties for offences, including speeding, dangerous

_U
Lack of enforcement of traffic rules and regulations, such

nt
driving, drunk driving, not wearing helmets, and use

ge
as speed limits, helmet and seat belt use, drunk driving,

A
-@
of mobile phones. Implementation of IT-enabled and vehicle fitness.

ID
enforcement equipment and mandatory automated Inadequate road safety education and awareness
am
among drivers, passengers, and the general public.

gr
testing for fitness certification.

le
Te
Protection of Good Samaritans: Section 134A of the Way Forward

Motor Vehicles (Amendment) Act, 2019 safeguards Good Enforce the Motor Vehicles (Amendment) Act, 2019,
Samaritans by allowing them not to disclose personal which has new provisions for road safety, such as higher
details unless voluntarily chosen, complemented by penalties for traffic violations and mandatory insurance
for road accident victims.
a Scheme for Award to Good Samaritans recognizing
Formulate and implement a National Road Safety
those who save lives by offering immediate assistance to Policy and Action Plan, which defines the roles and
accident victims. responsibilities of various stakeholders and sets targets
Road Engineering: Identification and rectification of and indicators for road safety performance.
accident blackspots on National Highways. Measures Carry out road safety audits and upgrade the quality
such as flyovers, underpasses, foot overbridges, and and maintenance of road infrastructure, such as signage,
markings, lighting, and crash barriers, to ensure the
service roads are provided for long-term rectification. safety of all road users.
Pedestrian Facilities: Financial power delegated to Encourage the use of safer and greener vehicles, such
regional officers for the construction of pedestrian as electric, hydrogen-powered, or hybrid vehicles, and
underpasses, pedestrian subways, and foot overbridges. ensure compliance with emission and safety standards,
to reduce the environmental and health impacts of road
Accredited Driver Training Centre: Requirements for
transport.
accredited driver training centres have been mandated, Strengthen the capacity and coordination of road safety
equipped with simulators and dedicated driving test agencies, such as the National Road Safety Board, the
tracks. State Road Safety Councils, and the District Road Safety

Committees, to oversee and monitor the road safety children, women, and senior citizens, to raise the road
activities and initiatives. safety culture and behavior of the public.
Improve the data collection and analysis of road
accidents, using the revised format that includes new RAIL ACCIDENTS
items on causes and factors, to identify the key risk
factors and trends of road accidents and fatalities. Railway Disaster is a serious train accident and/or an untoward
Enhance the insurance coverage and quality of event of grave nature, either on railway premises or arising
emergency and trauma care services for road accident out of railway activity, due to natural or man-made causes,
victims, to provide timely and adequate medical that may lead to loss of many lives and/or grievous injuries to
assistance and compensation. a large number of people, and/or severe disruption of traffic
Increase the road safety education and awareness etc, necessitating large scale help from other Government/
campaigns, especially among vulnerable groups such as Non-government and Private Organizations.
Fig. 4.2: Consequential Train Accidents From FY 2000 To FY 2022
Causes of Railway Accidents

C
PS
_U
nt
ge
A
-@
ID
am
gr
le
Te
Fig. 4.3: Causes of Railway Accidents

Infrastructure Defects: Poor maintenance, aging, the wrong track, collisions, overshooting stations, and
vandalism, sabotage, and natural disasters contribute other safety-related incidents. For example the Balasore
to defects in railway infrastructure, including tracks, Railway accident.
bridges, overhead wires, and rolling stock. Much of the Natural disasters and weather: Floods, landslides, and
infrastructure was built in the 19th and 20th centuries extreme weather events can damage tracks and disrupt
and has not been adequately upgraded to meet modern operations, increasing accident risks.
standards. Socio-economic factors: Encroachment on railway land
Human Errors: Railway staff responsible for operating, and lack of awareness among the public about railway
maintaining, and managing trains and tracks may safety procedures further exacerbate the issue.
commit errors due to fatigue, negligence, corruption, Overcrowded Routes: Many railway routes operate
or a disregard for safety rules. Human errors can lead to at over 100% capacity, leading to congestion and
issues such as wrong signaling, miscommunication, over- overloading. Overcrowding increases the risk of accidents
speeding, and overlooking defects or hazards. Data Show and makes it challenging to manage train movements
among the consequential train accidents, 55% had efficiently.
occurred due to negligence or failure of the Railways Inadequate Training and Communication Skills:
staff. About 28% of accidents were attributed to the Insufficient training and communication skills among
failure of persons other than the Railways staff. railway staff can affect their performance and
Signalling Failures: Technical glitches, power outages, coordination. Well-trained and effectively communicating
and human errors can lead to failures in the signalling staff is crucial for ensuring safe and efficient railway
system. Signalling failures may result in trains running on operations.
projects, including track renewals, signaling initiatives,
Data-Wise and bridge rehabilitation in the railway sector.
In 2021, there were 16,431 deaths and 1,852 injuries
Technological Upgradation: Improved design and
from railway accidents. The majority (67.7%) of
incidents involved people falling from trains or features of coaches and wagons, including Modified
collisions with individuals on tracks. Centre Buffer Couplers, Bogie Mounted Air Brake System
A steep decline is observed in consequential train (BMBS), and Automatic fire & smoke detection systems.
accidents, dropping from 473 in 2000-01 to 48 in • Linke Hofmann Busch (LHB) Design Coaches: Lighter
2022-23. The average annual accidents were 171.1 and safer coaches for Mail/Express trains based
during 2004-14, decreasing to 70.9 during 2014-23. on German technology with better anti-climbing
The number of consequential train derailments features, fire retardant materials, and enhanced
declined significantly from 350 in 2000-01 to 36 in safety features.
2022-23. The average annual derailments decreased Kavach (box): Kavach, an Automatic Train Protection
from 86.7 (2004-14) to 47.3 (2014-23). (ATP) system, is an indigenous innovation by Indian
A substantial drop is evident from 14,769 train Railways. Developed by the Research Designs &
accidents (1960-61 to 1970-71) to 1,844 accidents Standards Organisation (RDSO), it aims to prevent train
(2004-05 to 2014-15). collisions. Certified for safety integrity level 4 (SIL-4)
The six-year period between 2015-16 and 2021-22 operations, Kavach is cost-effective, with implementation
recorded 449 train accidents, excluding Konkan Railways. costs significantly lower than global counterparts. The
system enhances safety by helping loco pilots avoid
signal passing and overspeeding, and improves efficiency
Impact of Rail Accidents during inclement weather. Rapid implementation across
Human Loss: In the year between 2000-2016, 2297 India’s rail network is underway, with a focus on the
people lost their life in railway accidents and 6088 Golden Quadrilateral rail route.
people got injured affecting a total of 8385 people in the
GPS-based Fog Pass Device: A GPS-enabled device
country. The annual mean data showed that 524 people
to assist loco pilots in navigating in foggy conditions,
were affected each year during 2000-2016, out of which,
C
providing information about approaching landmarks and

PS
144 lost their life and 381 left injured.

_U
alerting the pilot when nearing signals or level crossing

nt
Economic loss: Economic loss include rolling stock loss,

ge
gates.
A
permanent way loss and compensation paid to victims.

-@
Modern Track Structure: Implementation of stronger

Between 2000-2016, Indian Railway faced a total loss of
ID
and more durable tracks and bridges using technologies

am
Rs. 86486 Cr. due to accidents. Thus, Indian Railway lost

like Prestressed Concrete Sleeper (PSC), higher Ultimate
gr
Rs. 5405 Cr. per year due to accidents. Out of total loss
le
Tensile Strength (UTS) rails, and fan-shaped layout

Te
of Rs. 86486 Cr during 2000-2016, Indian Railway paid

turnout on PSC sleepers.
Rs. 6412 Cr. towards the compensation to the incident
victims and rest Rs. 80073 Cr. faced for permanent plus Ultrasonic Flaw Detection (USFD): Non-destructive
rolling stock. The Indian Railway faced a total loss of Rs. testing method using high-frequency sound waves to
61620 Cr. during the 16 year under study as a loss due to detect and remove faulty rails, reducing the risk of
rolling stock. derailments.
Environmental Damage: Accidents involving chemical Mechanization of Track Maintenance: Automation of
spillages, flammable or explosive cargoes can cause track maintenance activities using machines such as
environmental damage. track tamping machines, ballast regulating machines,
and dynamic track stabilizer to reduce human errors and
Property Damage: Rail accidents can lead to the
improve track quality and safety.
destruction of public property and consequent financial
losses. Interlocking System: Centralized control of points and
signals using electrical or electronic devices, eliminating
Disruption of Traffic: Accidents can disrupt rail and
manual operation by ground staff and reducing the
possibly road traffic.
chances of human failure.
Psychological Cost: Accidents can lead to a loss of public
and commercial confidence in the transport system. CAG Recommendations for Indian Railways (IR)
Adherence to Timelines for Accident Inquiries:
Steps Taken by the Government Ensuring strict adherence to scheduled timelines for
Rashtriya Rail Sanraksha Kosh (RRSK): Established in conducting and concluding accident inquiries to enhance
2017-18 with a corpus of Rs 1 lakh crore for a 5-year transparency and accountability in the investigation
period, this initiative focuses on critical safety-related
process.

Monitoring Mechanism for Timely Maintenance should follow the guiding principles for the deployment
Activities: Developing a robust monitoring mechanism of Rashtriya Rail Sanraksha Kosh (RRSK) funds.
to ensure the timely implementation of maintenance Outcome of Framework for Safety Work: Preparation of
activities. Adoption of fully mechanized methods for a detailed outcome framework for each safety work item.
This framework should align with indicative outcomes,
track maintenance and incorporation of improved
enabling an assessment of whether the benefits derived
technologies to enhance efficiency. from RRSK funds align with the objectives of the fund’s
Principles for RRSK Funds: The Railway Administration creation.
Various Committee Recommendations To Ensure Railway Safety In India

Establishment of a non-lapsable Rashtriya Rail Sanraksha Kosh (RRSK) of Rs. 1 lakh crores over 5
years for safety works.
Kakodkar Committee Creation of a statutory Railway Safety Authority.
(2012) Adoption of advanced technologies for track maintenance and inspection.
Improvement of human resource development and management.
Ensuring independent accident investigation.
Bibek Debroy Merger of Railway Budget with General Budget.

Committee Outsourcing of non-core activities.
(2014) Creation of a Railway Infrastructure Authority of India.
Establishment of an independent Railway Safety Authority with statutory powers.
Formation of a Railway Accident Investigation Board to conduct independent and impartial
Vinod Rai Committee inquiries.
(2015)
Creation of a separate Railway Infrastructure Company to own and maintain railway assets.
Introduction of a performance-linked incentive scheme for railway employees.
C
PS
Improve recruitment and manpower: Address the

_U
Way Forward
nt
personnel shortage by hiring trained professionals and

ge
Prioritize modernization: Upgrade tracks, signaling

A
ensuring adequate staffing for all critical roles. In this

-@
systems, and rolling stock with a focus on sturdiness,

direction the government has already taken steps with
ID
reliability, and safety features. Invest in advanced

am
1,38,948 candidates appointed in the 6 Rozgar Melas

technologies like ATP and collision avoidance systems.
gr
held of which 1,10,000 are in the safety category.

le
Te
For example in Japan High-speed Shinkansen trains Invest in weather monitoring and forecasting:
leverage advanced collision avoidance systems like Implement advanced weather monitoring systems and
automated train control (ATC) and continuous automatic forecasting technologies to predict and prepare for
track signaling, ensuring near-zero accident rates. potential disruptions caused by natural disasters.
Increase track capacity: Explore options like double- Address encroachment: Implement strict measures to
tracking and electrification to manage increased traffic prevent and remove encroachments on railway land,
and freight movement efficiently. For example In prioritizing public safety over individual convenience.
Germany The Deutsche Bahn network prioritizes track Raise public awareness: Launch educational campaigns
maintenance and renewal, employing sophisticated and awareness programmes to educate the public about
track monitoring systems and predictive maintenance railway safety rules, responsible behaviour around
techniques to prevent track failures. tracks, and the dangers of trespassing or ignoring safety
warnings.
Enhance training and safety culture: Implement rigorous
training programs for all personnel, emphasizing safe
practices and fatigue management. Foster a culture Odisha Rail Accident 2023
of safety within the railway system where safety takes Key Lessons from the Odisha Train Accident
priority over operational pressures. For example In the Identification of Faults: The accident stemmed from
United Kingdom, The Rail Safety and Standards Board an undetected fault in the wiring near Bahanaga
(RSSB) implements rigorous training programmes for Bazar Railway Station, emphasizing the need for
routine checks and thorough testing of signaling
all railway personnel, including fatigue management
circuits.
protocols and safety best practices.
at high-risk airports, narrow perimeter roads around
Communication and Coordination: The incident
airports, incorrect runway friction testing methods and
exposed communication lapses and a lack of
infrequent testing, flawed rubber removal from runways,
coordination in the disaster response system,
faulty HR policies with regard to crew utilization, and a
stressing the need for faster initial disaster response
shortage of air traffic controllers.
by the railways and improved coordination between
Zonal Railways and Disaster-Response Forces. Use of Accident Prone Aircraft: MiG-21 jets were first
introduced by the air force in 1963 to increase its combat
Preventive Measures: The investigation report
ability during the Cold War. Over the years, as they gained
underscores the importance of preventive measures,
the reputation of being the backbone of the air force but
citing a past incident in 2022 where corrective actions
also earned names like “widow maker” or “flying coffin”
could have averted the Odisha tragedy. For instance,
because of their accident-prone nature.
the use of automotive systems like KAVACH can be
instrumental in averting such incidents. Impact of Air – Accidents
Loss of life and injuries: According to data primarily
AIR ACCIDENTS sourced from the DGCA’s accident investigation reports,
since Independence 2,173 people have died in 52
Air accidents are infrequent but highly impactful events, with commercial passenger airline accidents that have had
the majority occurring during take-offs and landings. Rescue at least one fatality. Of these, an overwhelming 1,740
and fire services at airports are better equipped to respond people, or 80 per cent, died in mishaps that were
to accidents on runways or in undershoot or overshoot attributed to pilot error.
areas. However, accidents en route contribute to about 25% Environmental damage: Air accidents can cause
of total accidents and have a significantly lower survival rate. environmental damage by releasing hazardous materials,
fuel, and debris into the air, land, and water. Air accidents
Causes of Air Accidents can also worsen air pollution, especially when they occur
Technical Reasons: The Air India Express Boeing 737 in urban areas or trigger fires.
overshot the runway at Mangalore Airport, crashing into Economic losses: Air accidents can cause economic
a valley and killing 158 people. Investigation revealed
C
losses for airlines, airports, insurance companies, and

PS
faulty altitude sensors and pilot confusion as contributing

_U
other stakeholders. They can also disrupt air travel,

nt
factors.
ge
tourism, trade, and business activities.

A
Human Factors: Pilot error was also found to be the

-@
ID
cause in eight of India’s 10 most fatal air crashes that Learning from Charkhi Dadri Plane Accident
am
together claimed 1,352 lives. The Incident: Two planes from Saudi Arabia and
gr
le
External Factors: These include Bird strikes, Sabotage and Kazakhstan collided in the sky over Charkhi Dadri district
Te
terrorism. An Air India Boeing 787 suffered a bird strike of Haryana in 1996, killing at least 349 persons in the
shortly after takeoff from Mumbai Airport, damaging the deadliest mid-air collision.
engine and forcing an emergency landing. Similar bird
strike incidents have also occurred in Delhi and Chennai. Who was Responsible?
Weather: Aviation is highly weather dependent. Weather Pilot: The investigators found that the Kazak Airlines
factors contribute to accidents occurring and enhance plane was commanded by air traffic control to fly at
the probability and effects of other factors such as heavy 15,000 feet, but the pilots made an unauthorized
weather and poor visibility may increase the possibility descent to 14,000 feet, causing the collision.
of pilot errors and collision with terrain or with other Miscommunication: The Airport Authority of India
aircraft. Weather-induced rough flights, capable of and the Directorate General of Civil Aviation both
causing serious discomfort and even injury are a matter stated that the Kazakh pilots failed to understand
of common experience by many passengers. the repeated instructions of the air traffic controller
because of their poor knowledge of English language.
Air Accident Risk in India Pre-existing hazards: The airspace over Charkhi Dadri
Unlicensed Airports: According to data from the Airports was known for its congestion and lack of proper air
Authority of India (AAI), the 125 functional airports in traffic control infrastructure, posing a significant
India catered to about 14.26 million passengers. Out hazard for air travel.
of this as many as 86 airports have had their license
Lesson Learned: Upgradation of air traffic control
renewed after they met the long checklist of regulations.
infrastructure, Stricter pilot training, need for Stringent
Prevailing issues: Poor runway signage and markings that
regulations and safety protocols
do not conform to international aviation standards even

Steps Taken by the Government in ICAO, including the Provisional ICAO from 1944 to
Increased Manpower and improved work condition: As 1947, underscores its commitment to aligning aviation
practices with international standards. Adherence to
per Aviation Minister About 1000 air traffic controllers
ICAO standards is crucial for maintaining safety and
have been recruited during the last three years taking
global aviation interoperability.
their number to 3,263. Changes have been proposed to
the Civil Aviation Requirement (CAR) pertaining to ‘Duty Recommendations of the Standing Committee on
Period, Flight Duty Period, Flight Time Limitations and Air Safety
Prescribed Rest Period. The Standing Committee on Transport, Tourism, and Culture
Development of health system capacities at airports presented a report on ‘Issues related to Safety in the Civil
under the Atma Nirbhar Swasth Bharat Yojana: Under Aviation Sector’ on March 31, 2022. The key observations
this programme, Public Health Units will be strengthened and recommendations include:
at 32 airports. This program will facilitate smooth Airworthiness of Aircraft Engines: The Committee
movement of pharmaceuticals through air across India highlighted the essential need for adherence to aircraft
as well in other parts of the world. engine safety regulations, advocating substantial
Amendment to Aircraft Rules, 1937: The Amendment penalties for airline operators violating rules to ensure
introduces key changes addressing concerns related airworthiness.
to the display of “false lights” in the vicinity of an Navigation Technology at Airports: The Committee
aerodrome. This update clarifies that the term “light” stressed the importance of the Instrument Landing
encompasses lantern lights, wish kites, and laser lights. System (ILS) for safe landings, urging swift installations
The government’s jurisdiction over those exhibiting such at all airports and coordination with the Ministry of
lights has been extended from 5 kilometers to 5 nautical Defence for permissions, especially at civil enclaves.
miles around an aerodrome. Furthermore, it is made Preventing Recurrence of Previous Accidents: It urged
explicit that the government possesses the authority advanced technology installations at airports to prevent
to take action against individuals displaying lights that accidents, particularly in adverse weather, citing incidents
C
PS
disrupt the safe operation of aircraft or pose hazards to in Mangalore (May 2020) and Calicut (August 2020).
_U
nt
the operating crew. Investigation of Accidents: The Committee urged

ge
A
increased budget allocation for the Aircraft Accident

-@
Institutional and Legislative Framework on Air

Investigation Bureau in 2022-23, emphasizing alignment
ID
Safety in India
am
with global investigation standards and strict timelines

gr
Directorate General of Civil Aviation (DGCA)(1946): The

for finalizing accident reports to prevent similar incidents.
le
Te
DGCA is the national regulatory body for civil aviation

Unmanned Aircraft Systems (UAS): It recognized drone
in India. It attained statutory status under the Aircraft
(Amendment) Act, 2020. It operates under the Ministry safety risks, urging the Ministry of Civil Aviation to
of Civil Aviation and is responsible for overseeing promptly specify safety features within a strict timeline.
and implementing regulations related to air safety, Safety of Helicopter Operations: The Committee noted
airworthiness, licensing of personnel, and more. helicopter accident fatalities, suggesting guidelines for
Aircraft Accident Investigation Bureau: AAIB, India is safe operations in adverse weather and improvements in
responsible for classification of ‘Safety Occurrences’ safety and airworthiness checks.
involving aircraft operating in the Indian Airspace into Bird Hits: The Committee noted bird strike
Accidents, Serious Incidents and Incidents. As per the Rule incidents, especially at Thiruvananthapuram Airport,
3 of Aircraft (Investigation of Accidents and Incidents) recommending universal measures and compliance
Rules, 2017 the sole objective of the investigations guidelines from the Ministry of Civil Aviation.
carried out by AAIB is prevention of accidents and
incidents and not to apportion blame or liability. Ideal Evacuation- The Japan Method
Bureau of Civil Aviation Security (BCAS)(1978): BCAS is The Incident and Evacuation
responsible for overseeing and implementing security On January 2th, 2024, a Japan Airlines Airbus A350
measures in civil aviation. It plays a crucial role in collided with a smaller Coast Guard aircraft while
ensuring the safety and security of airports and aircraft. taxiing at Haneda Airport.
International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) All 379 passengers and crew members onboard the
Compliance(1944): As a founding member since the A350 were safely evacuated within 18 minutes.
1944 Chicago Convention, India’s consistent participation
runway at Mumbai airport, causing damage to the
The success of the evacuation is attributed to several
aircraft and the runway. The investigation revealed
factors:
that the pilot had violated the standard operating
• Swift action by the crew: Following the collision, procedures and had a history of disciplinary issues.
the crew immediately initiated emergency
Outdated norms: India’s biggest aviation issues is that its
protocols.
regulations are outdated and not in sync with the rest of
• Effective communication: Due to the collision,
the world. The world either follows the FAA or the EASA
only three of the eight emergency exits were
[European Union Aviation Safety Agency]. While West
usable. Crew members quickly assessed the
Asia and even Bangladesh follow EASA regulations, China
situation and directed passengers accordingly.
follows the FAA
• Utilization of evacuation slides: Slides were
deployed efficiently, and passengers were Way Forward
instructed on proper exit procedures. Enhance the implementation of global and regional
Lessons Learned: The successful evacuation of Japan safety plans: ICAO has developed the Global Aviation
Airlines flight highlights several valuable lessons Safety Plan (GASP) and the Regional Aviation Safety
Importance of emergency training: Thorough and Groups (RASGs) to provide guidance and coordination
regular training for both crew and passengers is for States and stakeholders to address the most pressing
essential for effective emergency response. safety issues and achieve the safety targets. These plans
Adaptability and improvisation: The ability to and groups need to be fully implemented and supported
assess the situation, improvise, and utilize available by adequate resources and political will.
resources is crucial in unforeseen circumstances. Strengthen the safety oversight and regulation:
Importance of emergency equipment: Properly Authorities need to ensure that they have effective
functioning equipment like slides and life jackets can and independent safety oversight systems, that they
significantly improve the chances of survival. comply with the ICAO standards and recommended
Looking Forward practices, and that they enforce the safety regulations
and procedures for all operators and service providers.
This incident showcases the importance of robust They also need to harmonize their safety requirements
emergency protocols and the effectiveness of well- and practices with other regions and countries to avoid
C
PS
trained crew and passengers. The lessons learned can be inconsistencies and gaps.
_U
applied to further improve aviation safety standards and

nt
Promote the safety management and culture: Operators

ge

emergency response procedures globally. Additionally,
A
and organizations need to adopt and implement safety

-@
continued research and development of evacuation

management systems (SMS) that identify and mitigate
ID
technologies and procedures can enhance preparedness

the safety risks and hazards in their operations. They also
am
for future aviation incidents.

gr
need to foster a positive safety culture that encourages

le
Te
the reporting and learning from errors, incidents, and

Challenges in Mitigation of Air Accidents accidents, and that rewards safe behaviors and practices.
in India Improve the human factors and training: Pilots and
Inadequate infrastructure and regulation: India needs other aviation personnel need to receive adequate
more trained personnel, modern equipment, and and continuous training on the technical and non-
effective oversight to meet the increasing demand for technical skills required for their roles, such as upset
air travel. The DGCA, the authority responsible for prevention and recovery training (UPRT), crew resource
civil aviation safety should enhance enforcing safety management (CRM), and fatigue management. They also
standards and monitoring airlines. need to be aware of the human factors that can affect
• DGCA has been managed by the Indian Administrative their performance and safety, such as stress, fatigue,
Service (IAS) lobby, with nine of the regulator’s communication, teamwork, and decision-making, and
directors general (D.Gs) since 1980 being IAS officers, how to cope with them.
who do not necessarily have the domain experience. Leverage the technology and innovation: States
Human factors and organizational culture: Human factors, and operators need to invest in and adopt the latest
such as fatigue, stress, communication, teamwork, and technology and innovation that can enhance the safety
decision-making, are crucial for aviation safety. However, and efficiency of their operations, such as underwater
these factors are often overlooked or disregarded by the locator devices, cabin safety improvement, aircraft fire
aviation industry and authorities. There is a need for extinguishing systems, runway safety programme, global
more education and training on human factors and their reporting format, online airworthiness information
impact on performance and safety. There is also a need network, clean aircraft concept, and aircraft type
for a positive safety culture, where errors are reported designator. They also need to ensure that the technology
and learned from, rather than punished or hidden. and innovation are compatible and interoperable with
For example, in 2019, a SpiceJet flight overshot the the existing systems and equipment.

FIRE DISASTERS Solution
Completely cap the material using soil and close
Fires in buildings, whether residential or commercial, are
landfills in a scientific manner: This solution is
the most common occurrences among fire disasters, often
becoming uncontrollable due to the presence of combustible unsuitable in the Indian context as the land can’t be
materials like wood, cloth, paper, plastics, chemicals, and used again for other purposes. Closed landfills have
flammable substances such as cooking gas and kerosene oil. specific standard operating procedures, including
managing the methane emissions.
Causes of Urban Fires in India Clear the piles of waste through bioremediation:
Under-equipped fire services in the country: According
This basically means excavating old waste and
to the Home Ministry report 8,550 fire stations needed
using automated sieving machines to segregate
in the country, a little more than 2,000 are in place —
the flammable refuse-derived fuel (RDF), such as
a shortage of about 65 per cent. Urban areas alone
require an additional 4,200 fire stations just to meet the plastics, rags, clothes, etc., from biodegradable
minimum standard for response. material. The recovered RDF can be sent to cement
Poor working conditions in the informal urban areas: kilns as fuel, while the bio-soil can be distributed
The quality of jobs is very poor in informal establishments, to farmers to enrich soil. The inert fraction will
especially for women. It is also often reported that there have to be landfilled. However, implementing a
is poor enforcement of the labor laws by the enforcement bioremediation project usually takes up to two or
machinery as the corruption has entered into administration. three years, necessitating a short-term solution for
For example the 2022 Mundka fire incident. landfill fires in the summer.
Lack of Smoke Management: Since high-rise buildings
usually comprise large enclosed spaces or voids, even a Impacts Associated with Fire incidents in
small fire can become a fire hazard due to the lack of
India
smoke management and warning mechanism through
emergency lighting. Loss of life and injury: Fire incidents can be fatal or
C
PS
harmful to many people, especially women who are

_U
Vulnerability Analysis: Due to inadequate regulation

nt
and enforcement of National Building Code 2016, lack more exposed to domestic fires. According to a world
ge
A
of vulnerability analysis buildings leads to urban fire as

-@
bank report every year, more than 180,000 people die in

ID
vulnerability directly affects preparedness, response, fires or from burn-related injuries worldwide. Over 95%
am
and recovery. of these deaths and injuries occur in low- and middle-
gr
le
High risk: India, according to the India Risk Surveys 2022,

Te
income countries, where risks rise in proportion to rapid

held 4th position globally in fire incidents, particularly in
urbanization.
the Northern and Western regions.
Property damage and economic disruption: Fire
According to the National Fire Services Study, every 5th
fire-related death worldwide in 2017 occurred in India. incidents can ruin or damage valuable assets and affect
economic activities. For instance, in 2021, a fire at a
Landfill Fire chemical factory in Maharashtra caused a loss of Rs 40
Why do landfills catch fire?
crore and disrupted the nearby industries.
Low Waste Processing: The rate of processing in India’s
Infrastructure damage and public safety: Fire
cities is far lower than the rate of waste generation,
so unprocessed waste remains in open landfills incidents can impair essential infrastructure, such as
for long periods. India’s municipalities have been buildings and public utilities, and jeopardize public
collecting more than 95% of the waste generated in safety. It can also affect the power supply and water
cities but the efficiency of waste-processing is 30- pipes in the area.
40% at best. This openly disposed waste includes
• Environmental impact and health hazards: Fire
flammable material like low-quality plastics, which
have a relatively higher calorific value of about incidents can contaminate the environment and
2,500-3,000 kcal/kg (compared to around 8,000 create health risks, especially when they involve
kcal/kg for coal), and rags and clothes. In summer, industrial plants and hazardous materials. For
the biodegradable fraction composts much faster, instance, in 2018, a fire at a landfill site in Delhi
increasing the temperature of the heap to beyond released toxic gases and smoke, affecting the air
70-80° C.
quality and the health of the residents.
building, provisions for modern fire-fighting equipment,
1997 Uphaar Cinema Fire strengthening of State Headquarters and Urban Fire
Early morning on that ill-fated day, the larger of the two Stations, technological upgradation and installation and
transformers installed on the ground floor of the Uphaar augmentation of online system etc. Fund allocation
Cinema building caught fire. While this fire was put under the scheme is on a cost sharing basis. While
out quickly, it damaged the transformer, quick repairs the Centre will provide Rs. 5000 crore to the States for
were carried out. The shoddiness of these repairs was identified activities, the States’ contribution will be of Rs.
reportedly behind the much larger fire later in the day. 1387.99 Crore.
At around 5 pm, the transformer caught fire again, after Kerala State government guidelines: Government offices
one of the repaired cables came loose and caused intense have been directed to install fire protection devices and
sparking. Since the transformer did not have an oil soak maintain digital copies of important documents.
pit, as required under regulations, the burning oil spread
• Smoke detection and alarm systems with hooters
outside. Thus, cars parked even at a distance of no more
should be installed in the record rooms and other
than a meter from the door of the transformer were also
rooms where important records are kept. Such
engulfed in flames. By now, the blaze had gone out of
locations should also be equipped with automatic
control. While the fire itself need not have been the cause
fire detection sensors with hotlines to the nearest
of death for so many, the cinema was woefully unprepared
fire station.
for such a situation. Smoke entered the cinema hall and
as the theater lost power, there was complete chaos. • Record rooms where priceless documents are
While the viewers seated in the lower floor were able to preserved, server rooms and UPS rooms should have
escape, people in the balcony were trapped. A total of 59 CO2/FM200-based total flooding systems operating
people died of asphyxiation. Many were also injured in a on smoke/heat sensors. Multi-storeyed buildings
stampede. should be equipped with fire protection mechanisms
as prescribed by the National Building Code.
Lapses that Caused the Uphaar Cinema Tragedy • Waste material should not be kept in the corridors,
Generator that caught fire was installed after terraces, and staircases of the buildings. They should
flouting many norms: Not only did it not have be disposed of at regular intervals. Old electrical
C
PS
adequate safety features, it was placed in what equipment should be replaced and it should be
_U
was being used as a parking lot. This meant the fire

nt
ensured that the offices are equipped with Earth

ge
could not be easily contained as cars with tanks

A
Leakage Circuit Breaker (ELCB)/Residual Case Circuit

-@
full of highly inflammable gasoline started catching

Breaker (RCCB).
ID
fire. Further, as the investigation later revealed, the

am
generator had not undergone periodic maintenance The Building Bye-Laws, 2003: Under the Modern
gr
Building Bye-Laws of 2003, the responsibility for fire

le
as required by law.
Te
clearance lies with the Chief Fire Officer at each point.

Hall had inadequate safety measures and procedures
Development Authorities are required to submit building
in place: There were no exit lights, foot lights, or
plans to the Chief Fire Officer for clearance.
emergency lights in the cinema – when the building
lost power, the hall became pitch dark. There was also National Building Code (NBC) of India, 2016: It the NBC
no public announcement system to alert the movie- is a recommendatory document which is published by
goers of the fire. In the darkness of the cinema hall, the Bureau of Indian Standards, State governments
it took a significant while for viewers to even realize are expected to integrate its provisions into local
there was a massive fire in the building. building bylaws, thereby making the recommendations
Lock exits: Many exits were locked and gangways mandatory. It encompasses administrative regulations,
blocked due to the hall making unauthorized extensions general building requirements, fire safety measures,
to increase seating capacity. There were also various and provisions for structural design and construction
unauthorized businesses being run within the building, safety.
occupying spaces that were supposed to be empty. The Disaster Management Act of 2005: Empowers the
National Disaster Management Authority (NDMA) and
Steps Taken by the Government for Fire State Disaster Management Authorities to develop
policies and plans for disaster management, including
Safety in India fire emergencies.
Scheme for Expansion and Modernization of Fire National Disaster Management Authority (NDMA):
Services in the States: The measures included in NDMA guidelines set forth fire safety requirements for
the scheme provides setting up of new fire stations, public buildings, including hospitals. Design guidelines
strengthening of State Training Centres and capacity cover aspects such as maintaining adequate open space,

exit mechanisms and stairs, and conducting evacuation systems such as smoke and heat detectors are mandatory
drills to ensure a minimum level of preparedness. elements in international building codes, and particularly
useful in spotting fires during times when occupancy in
Challenges in Mitigation the building is low.
Regulatory Lapse: In most parts of the country, a fire-
Maintain smoke suppression system: Fire extinguishers
safety inspection is, at best, a once-in-a-few-years affair. are only useful if they work, so check them regularly. High-
This means that after obtaining a license, owners of shops, rise buildings, which are harder to access and evacuate,
restaurants and other private buildings make changes in
should consider installing automatic sprinkler systems.
the sanctioned layout plans that very often compromise
The National Fire Protection Association (NFPA), a
the fire-preparedness of their premises. For example,
US-based non-profit body, estimates that automatic
Karol Bagh Hotel Fire 2019
suppression systems lower the cost of damage by 60%.
Limited resources and infrastructure: The fire services in Karguppikar endorses their use, admitting that “the fire
India face a shortage of manpower, vehicles, equipment, in one of the rooms on the 18th floor of the Oberoi was
and funds to deal with the increasing number of fire extinguished by its sprinkler system and it was an eye-
incidents. The Fifteenth Finance Commission(XV-FC) has opener for all of us”.
also noted that fire services in the country lack resources
Conduct regular fire drills: Preventing panic in an
and are ill equipped to provide adequate fire safety
cover to the population. Therefore, recognizing the emergency is as important as staying away from flames
need for expansion and modernization of Fire Services, and fumes. Regular fire drills familiarize people with
XV-FC recommended a provision of Rs. 5,000 crore for emergency evacuation methods at little cost. Nominate
strengthening fire services at the State level. a fire safety officer in every building to ensure that this
becomes standard operating procedure.
Lack of awareness and preparedness: Many people
are not aware of the fire hazards and the preventive Use flame-retardant materials in interiors: Materials used
measures they can take to avoid them. For example, in the interiors can save or endanger lives. The combination
some people do not know how to use fire extinguishers, of wood, paper and textiles makes workstations highly
or how to escape from a fire situation. combustible. Fabrics can be made flame-retardant,
however, so that they self-extinguish when lit. An increasing
C
Environmental and health impacts: Fire accidents can

PS
cause severe damage to the environment and the health number of companies, especially multinationals, request
_U
such fabrics despite their price premium, according to

nt
of the people, especially when they involve industrial

ge
data from Indian office furniture manufacturer BP Ergo.

A
plants and hazardous materials. For example, some fire

-@
accidents can release toxic gases, smoke, and ash, which Stringent fire regulations abroad make it necessary for US
ID
furniture makers such as Herman Miller to provide only

am
can affect the air quality and the respiratory system of the
gr
people. fire-tested fabrics.

le
Te
Comply with National Building Code: “Green buildings”

Way Forward are in vogue but safe structures are sadly not. Both the
State-specific Fire Acts: The urgent enactment of Mumbai Fire Brigade and BMC commissioner concede
state-specific Fire Acts, based on the 2019 model bill, that 80% of buildings likely violate accepted codes of
is imperative for comprehensive regulations in states
building safety, with ignorance and personal whims
lacking adequate fire safety measures, ensuring the
leading to illegal modifications after gaining requisite
protection of lives and property.
occupancy permission.
Adherence to Standards: Strict compliance with National
Disaster Management Guidelines for fire services, NDMA Guidelines
mandating scaling, equipment, and training standards. The National Disaster Management Authority (NDMA)
Provide adequate means of escape: The first rule of fire has issued the National Disaster Management Guidelines
management requires sufficient escape routes out of on Scaling, Type of Equipment and Training of Fire
the building, in accordance with its scale and occupancy. Services under Section 6 of the DM Act 2005. These
The number, size and location of exits are specified in guidelines aim to standardize and revamp the fire
the National Building Code (NBC) 2005, a detailed set of
services in the country and ensure effective, efficient and
guidelines for constructing, maintaining and operating
comprehensive management of fire incidents.
buildings of all types. Office occupiers must additionally
ensure that staircases, stairways and corridors are well- The NDMA guidelines cover various aspects of fire
maintained, ventilated and free of obstacles in order to services, such as organizational structure, manpower,
be effective in an emergency. equipment, training, communication, fire prevention,
Install smoke detection systems: The first few minutes fire safety audit, fire investigation, fire research, and
of a fire are crucial in containing it. Automatic fire alarm disaster response.
The NDMA guidelines also provide the norms and • Excavation activities: Construction or mining
standards for scaling, type of equipment and training of activities near the dam can disturb the surrounding
fire services based on the population, area, risk profile, soil and destabilize the foundation.
and response time of different states and cities. Climate change: Climate change is causing the glaciers in
The NDMA guidelines are intended to serve as a reference the Himalayas to melt at an alarming rate. This melting
document for the central and state governments, urban ice is creating more glacial lakes, and it is also making the
local bodies, fire service organizations, and other slopes of the mountains more unstable. These factors are
stakeholders involved in fire management. likely to increase the risk of dam failures in the future.
For example 2023 Teesta Dam Failure (2023)
DAM SAFETY Piping: This type of failure occurs when water seeps
through the dam, eroding the soil and creating channels
Dam safety in India is a critical aspect given the extensive
network of dams that play a vital role in water management, or “pipes” within the structure. This happens due to
irrigation, and power generation. India’s global rank stands at Defective drainage systems and Faulty construction
third place with 5334 large dams currently operational, and materials.
an additional 411 dams are under construction. Alongside Trends all over the world: According to the International
these, there are numerous smaller dams. These structures Commission on Large Dams (ICOLD), approximately a
play a crucial role in ensuring the water security of the third of the dam failures worldwide occur due to floods
country. exceeding the design capacity of dam spillways. ICOLD
(1995) reports that, worldwide, overtopping is the
Data-Wise leading cause of dam failure (32%) followed by internal
India possesses 5745 large dams, as per the 2019 erosion (27%). In India, on the other hand, internal
National Register of Large Dams by the Central Water erosion (breaching) accounts for the maximum number
Commission. Among them, 5334 dams are completed of dam failures (44%), followed by overtopping (25%)
and operational, and 411 are currently under (Dam Safety Organisation, Central Water Commission,
Government of India.
C
construction.
PS
_U
Notably, 227 large dams are over 100 years old, with
Risks Associated with Dams in India
nt
approximately 18% falling within the age range of 50

ge
A
to 100 years. Rapid Growth in Dam Numbers: The exponential growth

-@
in the number of large dams in India, from fewer than

ID
300 at independence in 1947 to almost 6000 indicates

am
Causes of Dam Failure

gr
a substantial increase in exposure to potential hazards.

le
Te
Overtopping: This occurs when the water level in the

Aging Infrastructure: India has almost 6,000 large dams
reservoir rises above the capacity of the dam, spilling
and about 80% of them are more than 25 years old
over the top and eroding the structure. It can be caused and carry safety risks. Apart from this, 220 large dams
by several factors, including Heavy rainfall or extreme have surpassed the age of 100 years. Among the 70 large
weather events, Blocked spillways (debris or ice) and dams classified as nationally important, 15 are over 50
Design flaws. For example The 1979 Machchhu dam years old, with 3 of them exceeding 80 years of age. This
failure. aging infrastructure raises concerns about their ability to
Foundation defects: The foundation plays a crucial role withstand the impacts of climate change, especially in
in the stability of any dam. Issues with the foundation the context of changing precipitation patterns.
can lead to cracks, settlement, and ultimately, failure. Climate Change Impact: Dams built in an era when the
This happen due to: full effects of climate change were not understood may
• Geological instability: Faults, underground cavities, not be adequately designed to handle large changes in
or weak rock formations can undermine the dam’s precipitation patterns. The potential intensification of
foundation and compromise its integrity. floods due to climate change poses a risk to the structural
• Erosion: Wiping of the foundation by water or the integrity of older dams.
movement of sediment can weaken the support for Population Exposure: The growth of settlements around
the dam, increasing the risk of collapse. The 2019 dams, driven by expectations of a reliable water supply,
Tiware dam failure in Maharashtra, India, was increases the potential impact of dam failures. With
attributed to the erosion of its earthen foundation, every new dam constructed, more people and property
potentially due to a combination of factors, including are exposed to flood hazards resulting from potential
heavy rainfall and pre-existing cracks. dam failures.

Historical Dam Failures: The occurrence of 23 major dam the Environment Protection Act, 1986. Since dams
failures between 1960 and 2010, resulting in significant and dam failures can have a significant impact on the
loss of life and property damage, underscores the real environment, the Central Government can regulate
and historical risks associated with dams in India. The some aspects of dam safety.
Machchu Dam failure in 1979, which claimed over Central Water Commission (CWC): It provides technical
2000 lives, serves as a stark reminder of the potential expertise and guidance on all matters related to dams.
consequences of dam failures. It is tasked with research into dam safety, developing
standards for dam design and operations, and it is
Impact of Dam Failure
involved in the process of granting environmental
Flooding: A dam failure typically results in a sudden
clearance to dam construction projects.
and uncontrolled release of water, leading to severe
The Dam Safety Act, 2021: The Act listed key
flooding downstream. This can cause extensive damage
to properties and infrastructure. responsibilities and mandated that national and State-
level bodies be established for implementation. It said
Human Casualties: Dam failures can result in a significant
a National Committee on Dam Safety would oversee
loss of life. For instance, the 1975 failure of the Banqiao
dam safety policies and regulations; a National Dam
Reservoir Dam in China resulted in an estimated 171,000
fatalities. Safety Authority would be charged with implementation
and resolving State-level disputes; the Chairman of the
Economic Consequences: The economic impact of dam
Central Water Commission (CWC) would head dam
failures can be substantial. Damage can extend beyond
safety protocols at the national level; a State Committee
the dam itself, affecting other infrastructure such as
on Dam Safety (SCDS) and State Dam Safety Organisation
roads, bridges, and water systems, leading to millions of
dollars in costs. (SDSO) would be set up.
• State Responsibility: Provisions require States to
Environmental Impact: The abrupt release of water can
classify dams based on hazard risk, conduct regular
cause considerable environmental damage. This includes
the destruction of wildlife habitats and alterations to the inspections, create emergency action plans, institute
landscape. emergency flood warning systems, and undertake
C
safety reviews and period risk assessment studies.

PS
Displacement: Large-scale dam failures can lead to the

_U
States were asked to report and record incidents of

displacement of people.
nt
dam failures.
ge
A
Damage to Infrastructure: Dam failures can impair

-@
• Punishment: Failure to comply with any provision

various infrastructure systems, including roads, bridges,
ID
of the Act is punishable with imprisonment and/or

and water systems. This can disrupt essential services and
am
fines, and if such obstruction or refusal to comply

gr
further contribute to the economic impact. For example

le
with directions results in loss of lives or imminent

Te
The GLOF that hit the 1200-MW Teesta-III in October

2023 also severely damaged two NHPC projects, the danger thereof, the entity shall be punishable with
510 MW Teesta-V, and the under-construction 500 MW imprisonment for a term which may extend to two
Teesta-VI. years. For example, in February 2023 the Sikkim High
Court ordered the Gati Hydropower Project company
Steps Taken By the Government to pay ₹70 lakh to two widowed mothers, for non-
Constitutional Mechanism: Under the 7th Schedule compliance with the Dam Safety Act.
of the Constitution of India, water and water storage
is a state subject. Therefore, legislating dam safety is Challenges in Mitigation
the responsibility of state governments. However, the Lacking Implementation: Dam safety is a function of
Central Government can enact legislation governing many parts which include designing and constructing
dams in three scenarios. dams that adhere to safety margins, maintaining and
• If a project affects multiple states or international operating them per guidelines, recording data in real-
treaties. Thus, the Central Government can pass time in an accessible format, forecasting hazardous
legislation regulating dams whose catchment area or events and instituting emergency plans, to name a few.
downstream affected areas span multiple states or The Sikkim GLOF reveals poor compliance at all levels,
international borders. from the dam’s design to the spillway capacity (which
• If two or more states pass a resolution requiring controls the release of water from a reservoir).
such a law. In 2010, Andhra Pradesh and West Bengal No Regular Hazard Profiling: Hazard profiling and regular
passed resolutions requiring a law on dam safety. assessment are also mandated by the 2021 Act. Periodic
• The Central Government can legislate on matters reviews are expected to bring forth fresh inundation
related to the protection of the environment under maps and new rule curves (which determine the capacity
of dam reservoirs), all of which contribute towards the
safety of the downstream areas. Spillway capacity and
CROWD MANAGEMENT (STAMPEDE)
other metrics should be reviewed every five years or Crowd management is the organized planning and oversight
so, but as per experts periodic reviews are often not of people’s movement, assessing venue capacity, entry
conducted or if they are, their findings are not not easily points, and activity patterns. A stampede, characterized by
available in the public domain. a rapid and uncontrolled surge in a crowd, often results in
• The 2021 Act requires dam builders to conduct injuries and fatalities due to factors like excitement, panic,
comprehensive dam safety evaluations, but there is or perceived threats. Effective crowd management strategies
no standardization of how the failure is analyzed and are essential to prevent stampedes and ensure the safety of
reported. individuals during large gatherings. This involves meticulous
planning, communication, and safety measures.
Lacking Transparency: The Dam safety Act fails to
incentivise transparency. A robust DSA should allow
different stakeholders to access information easily, but Data-Wise
India’s framework falls short. Transparency is further On average since 2001, there have been approximately
obstructed when national and State bodies comprise 19 stampedes each month since the year 2000,
government employees and engineers who worked on resulting in an average of 14 deaths per incident,
these projects, compromising objective decision making according to National Crime Records Bureau (NCRB)
and lacking people with a proven track record of taking data.
independent decisions. Number of Accidental Deaths & Suicides during 2022,
stampede incidents reduced by 76% compared to
Management of Multiple Dams: Larger river basins such
2021, with 22 fatalities and 16 injuries reported in
as the Krishna, Godavari have multiple dams or chains of 2022.
dams making analysis difficult. For better management ,
In 2022 at least 12 people died and more than a
communication between central, state, district, local and
dozen got injured in a stampede at Mata Vaishno Devi
community levels needs to be enhanced. Temple in J&K.
C
PS
Way Forward
_U
Causes of Crowd Disaster (Stampede)

nt
Enforcement of Dam Safety Act, 2021: This act provides

ge
A
a comprehensive framework for proper surveillance, False Rumors: 110 pilgrims died during the Hindu
-@
inspection, operation, and maintenance of specified dams festival of Navratri when a stampede broke out near the
ID
am
to prevent dam failure-related disasters. There is a need for Ratangarh Mata Temple in Madhya Pradesh following
gr
proper implementation of the newly formed act. rumors that a bridge was collapsing.
le
Te
Risk Assessment: Comprehensive risk assessments, Poor crowd management: In 2023 A. R Rahman concert
including climate change and geological stability, are venue was overcrowded, exceeding the expected
essential for identifying and mitigating the potential capacity. This resulted in many people being unable to
hazards and vulnerabilities of dams. enter the venue and some who entered facing difficulty
in movement. The alleged overselling of tickets led to
Hazard Profiling: Hazard risks are influenced by climate
a stampede-like situation, indicating a potential lack
change and urbanization, but reviews are often
of proper crowd control measures to manage the large
overlooked or not shared publicly. There is a need to
and dense crowd.
conduct regular hazard profiling of dams and their
Inadequate space allocation: A stampede on a footbridge
catchments, and to disseminate the information to the
at a Mumbai railway station in 2017 left 22 people dead and
relevant stakeholders and the public.
injured more than 301. The tragedy occurred during the
Enforce Legally Binding Standards: The government morning rush hour at Elphinstone station, which connects
needs to institute legally binding standards for conducting two major local lines. It was triggered by overcrowding and
and reporting dam failure analysis, which is currently not people seeking shelter from monsoon rains.
mandatory. Insufficient safety team deployment and lack of
Data Sharing: Regular sharing of dam-related data cooperation hinder effective crowd control: In 2022 in
between the states and the centre, which needs to a football stadium in Malang, East Java, 133 people were
be made publicly available for transparency, and for killed including more than 40 children. Police had tried
facilitating research in dam safety. This would also help to fend off fans with teargas and many panic-stricken
in developing a national database of dams and their victims were crushed or suffocated while trying to use
characteristics, which is currently lacking. closed or too-narrow exit doors.

Risks Associated with Crowd Incidents in Challenges in Mitigating Crowd Incidents
India in India
Religious Places in Risk Prone areas: Most of the Planning and Preparedness: There is often a lack of
religious festivals are located in areas like banks of rivers, planning and preparedness for mass gathering events,
hilly terrains or mountain tops. These areas lack proper which can lead to crowd disasters.one for instance
pathways, posing a geographical risk to the pilgrims. components like Financial Constraints and technology
A 2013 study published by International Journal of hinders preparedness.
Disaster Risk Reduction (IJDRR) points out that religious Population Growth: The rising number of people visiting
gatherings and pilgrimages have been venues for 79% of religious and commercial sites, combined with a lack of
the stampedes in India. management and mitigation plans for mass gatherings,
Inadequate On-site Medical Care: The absence of poses a significant challenge.
immediate medical attention can worsen injuries. India Infrastructure: Infrastructure challenges, such as
has a little over one million modern medicine doctors temporary structures and inadequate pedestrian
to treat its 1.3 billion people.This shortage of healthcare crossings, can intensify crowd incidents. For instance, a
providers and infrastructure can lead to inadequate on- 2023 stampede at Surat railway station was triggered by
site medical care during crowd incidents. overcrowding. Similarly, rapid urbanization, especially
Lack of Registration and safety system: In developed
during religious festivals, puts a strain on infrastructure,
countries, there is a safety system which is in place. struggling to manage large crowds.
Organizers have to approach local authorities to get a Electric/Fire Hazards: Mishandling of firecrackers or poor
kind of license to have the mass gathering. After that, the electrical wiring are common triggers for stampedes.
authorities, after looking at the capacity of the venue, Safety Team Deployment: Insufficient deployment of
issued a certificate to the organizers licensing them. In safety teams can lead to drastic measures, such as the
India, there is a lack of safety, licensing and registration use of tear gas.
systems.
C
Way Forward
PS
_U
Infrastructure Issues: Rapid urbanization and population

Context-Driven Interventions: India should be capable
nt
ge
growth can strain infrastructure, struggling to of implementing complex, context-driven crowd control
A
-@
accommodate the influx of people. interventions and automated tools.

ID
Restricted Access Points: Limited access points can

am
Crowd Management Strategy: Establishing an effective

gr
create bottlenecks, especially on bridges, ferry terminals, crowd management strategy can help control threats
le
Te
or riverbanks. and reduce losses. It includes - Understanding need, risk

Impacts of Crowd Incidents assessment, Emergency plan and Robust communication.
Loss of Life and Injuries: According to the National Crime
Technology Utilization: The incorporation of flexibility
and the use of proven, cutting-edge technology can be
Records Bureau figures, from 2000 to 2013, almost 2,000
effective in managing crowds. For instance AI models
people died in stampedes.
to predict and simulate, Mobile applications facilitating
Law and Order Situations: Crowd incidents can disrupt
schedules and emergency alerts, Drones etc. For example
law and order, necessitating a review of India’s crowd
Finland has been conducting practical research into using
control laws and policing. This was evident during the AI for everything from regional population planning to
violence at Aligarh Muslim University and the widespread crowd control. Local authorities and the police force are
protests following the 2019 Citizenship Amendment Act, assessing the viability of using AI when hosting events
which saw significant vandalism and arson in Delhi. like music festivals and sporting events.
Damage to Reputation: The country’s reputation can be Capacity Development: All states should act promptly
tarnished in the eyes of the international community. to create crowd disaster management plans, adhering to
Financial Constraints: Managing large crowds, especially the standards set by the National Disaster Management
during religious festivals, often involves financial Authority (NDMA).
challenges. Pilot Projects: Pilot projects, like the one established
Lack of Knowledge: There is a disparity in crowd safety at Sabarimala in Kerala, can provide valuable insights
knowledge between religious festivals and sports for crowd control, taking into account the unique
events. characteristics of each event or location.
Event Planning and Crowd Management Guidelines the intentional use of disease-causing agents in Biological
By NDMA Warfare (BW) operations or incidents of Bioterrorism (BT).
Some of the examples of Biological Disasters include
Understanding Identify the type of event (religious,
Venue, educational, sports, music, political, Infectious diseases such as COVID-19, the disease caused by
Visitors, and etc.). the novel coronavirus; Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome
Stakeholders (SARS); Middle East Respiratory Syndrome (MERS); and the
Analyse crowd demographics (age,
gender, economic background) and diseases caused by the Ebola, Nipah, and Zika viruses.
motives (social, academic, religious).
Assess venue characteristics (location, Types of Biological Disasters
topography, temporary or permanent,
Natural Epidemics that significantly impact a large
open or closed).
number of individuals and spread across a
Recognize the roles of stakeholders continent or globally.
(NGOs, local neighbours,
administrators). Man-Made These disasters arise from intentional
or unintentional human actions, such as
Crowd Handling Regulate traffic around mass
Biological Warfare and Bioterrorism, lead to
gatherings; Provide route and
widespread biological disasters.
emergency exit maps; Implement
barricades for crowd control; Follow
snake line approach for large queues. Difference Between Epidemic and Pandemic
Safety and Ensure authorised electricity use, Epidemic affecting a disproportionately large number of
Security follow fire safety guidelines, and individuals within a population, community, or region at
employ CCTV and mini UAVs for crowd the same time, examples being Cholera, Plague.
monitoring. Pandemic is an epidemic that spreads across a large
Communication Install a public address system with region, that is, a continent, or even worldwide of existing,
loudspeakers at crowded points for emerging or reemerging diseases and pestilences,
effective communication. example being Influenza H1N1 (Swine Flu).
C
PS
Medical and Establish medical first-aid rooms and

_U
Causes of Epidemics
nt
Emergency Care emergency operations centres to

ge
A
address post-disaster emergencies. Infectious Agents: Pathogens like bacteria, viruses, fungi,
-@
Role of Event Develops, implements, reviews, and and parasites can rapidly spread, for instance COVID19,
ID
am
Managers revises a disaster management plan in Indian Black Fungus etc.

gr
coordination with local administration Globalization and Travel: Increased global connectivity
le

Te
and police. facilitates swift disease transmission across borders.

Role of Civil Involve NGOs and civil defence in Environmental Factors: Changes in climate, deforestation,
Society disaster response in traffic control, and altered ecosystems impact disease vectors. The
medical aid, and resource mobilisation.
thawing of permafrost due to global warming has been
Role of Police Actively participates in venue linked to the re-emergence of ancient diseases. For
assessment and preparedness example, in 2016, an outbreak of anthrax occurred in
checks, and guides crowd and traffic the Siberian Yamalo-Nenets region, during which several
movements. people were hospitalized. The reason for this outbreak is
Capacity Enhance security personnel training believed to be the high temperatures in this region that
Building through drills and periodic assessments year, going up to 35°C.
for effective crowd disaster prevention.
Population Density: High-density living fosters rapid
disease transmission, especially in urban areas.
BIOLOGICAL DISASTERS Poor Sanitation and Hygiene: Inadequate sanitation
(EPIDEMICS) IN INDIA and hygiene practices contribute to waterborne
diseases. According to WHO, Poor sanitation is linked to
A biological disaster refers to situations where there is transmission of diarrhoeal diseases such as cholera and
a widespread occurrence of disease, disability, or death dysentery, as well as typhoid, intestinal worm infections
among humans, animals, and plants, caused by toxins or and polio.
diseases resulting from live organisms or their products. Antimicrobial Resistance: Misuse of antibiotics (direct
These disasters can take the form of natural events such as human consumption or Agriculture) leads to drug-
epidemics or pandemics, or they can be man-made through resistant strains of infectious agents. Some of the

examples include Tuberculosis, MRSA (methicillin-resistant weaponize such technologies and naturally occurring
Staphylococcus aureus) and Clostridium difficile etc. pathogens. India is vulnerable to zoonotic diseases.
War and Conflict: Armed conflicts disrupt healthcare Naturally occurring zoonotic pathogens can be
systems and contribute to epidemics. manipulated in the lab to enhance their virulence,
Lack of Vaccination and Healthcare Infrastructure: transmissibility, and/or resistance to therapeutic
Insufficient access to healthcare services and interventions. India shares porous borders with most
vaccinations leaves populations vulnerable. A UNDP of its neighboring states, the possibility of cross-border
analysis reveals extreme vaccine inequity, with less than infections is another major biological threat.
1% of populations in vulnerable Sub-Saharan African
countries, including Burundi, the Democratic Republic Impact of Biological Disaster
of the Congo, and Chad, fully vaccinated. The WHO Loss of life: Depending on the severity and transmissibility
highlights a global disparity in essential vaccine access, of the pathogen, death rates can vary greatly, potentially
with HPV vaccines, crucial in combating cervical cancer, reaching significant proportions of the population. For
introduced in only 41% of low-income countries, despite instance COVID-19 led to 7,019,704 deaths around the
these countries shouldering the majority of the disease
world.
burden.
Mental health: Fear, anxiety, depression, and trauma
Zoonotic Transmission: These illnesses are often caused
can be widespread during and after a biological disaster.
by bacteria, viruses, parasites, or fungi when people
touch afflicted animals or their habitats. Some examples This can lead to increased mental health problems and
of zoonotic diseases: Rabies, Lyme disease, COVID-19, disruptions in social interactions.
West Nile fever etc. Economic disruption: Biological disasters have a
detrimental impact on economic growth due to two
Risks of Biological Disaster in India primary factors.
India is especially vulnerable to such infections because of
• Financial Instability: The growth of the global
its geographical position, large population, low healthcare
epidemic directly contributed to considerable
spending, minimal expenditure on research that benefits
confusion about instability in the financial and capital
C
public health, weak coordination between central and state

PS
markets.
_U
health authorities, limited involvement of private actors,

nt
• Restricted Movement: Countries start regulating

ge
poor awareness of biosecurity, and the shaky state of public

A
human movement and transport to monitor the

-@
health infrastructure.
ID
growth of the epidemic and significantly reduce

India Faces Three Major Biological Threats
am
economic activity.
gr
Naturally Occurring Infections: Given India’s climate

le
• Impact on India: As per the official data released

Te
conditions, the country is vulnerable to vector-borne

diseases such as malaria and dengue fever, among by the Ministry of Statistics and Programme
others. A high-density livestock population and a poorly Implementation, the Indian economy contracted by
guarded animal-human interface make India susceptible 7.3% in the April-June quarter of 2021.
to zoonotic infections such as avian influenza, commonly Strain on infrastructure: Hospitals, public health systems,
called bird flu; pig influenza, commonly called swine flu; and emergency services may become overwhelmed by
Nipah virus disease; and coronavirus diseases, such as the surge in demand, leading to inadequate care and
COVID-19. resource shortages.
Laboratory Mismanagement: India has multiple Social unrest: Fear, frustration, and economic hardship
laboratories with different biosafety levels (BSLs) can contribute to social unrest and instability, including
set up across the country. Although new biosafety protests, riots, and violence. The issues such as Migrant
guidelines issued by the Department of Biotechnology unrest, farm protests and blame game between
(DBT) mention certification and validation for the religious communities in India exemplify this.
higher-standard BSL-3 and BSL-4 labs, the country lacks Food insecurity: Crop failures due to plant diseases or
accredited government or private agencies to certify disruptions in agricultural production can lead to food
and validate the lower-standard BSL-2 laboratories’ shortages and malnutrition, particularly in vulnerable
compliance with safety rules. populations.
Technology Misuse: Disease-causing pathogens are
abundantly available in nature. Technologies needed to Steps Taken by the Government
manipulate them are becoming more easily accessible. Diseases emerging from natural sources: India has
Actors with nefarious designs could purposefully invested in a public health infrastructure and has
various laws and guidelines that drive preparedness epidemic preparedness and response strategies with
and response to naturally occurring disease outbreaks. international standards. This includes information
The National Centre for Disease Control is under the exchange, technical assistance, and capacity building.
administrative control of the Directorate General of
Health Services, MoH&FW. It has various technical Challenges in Mitigation
divisions and many specialized laboratories. The institute Infrastructure and policy issues: India’s response to the
has three technical centres, viz. Centre for Epidemiology avian influenza, Nipah virus disease, and COVID-19 has
and Parasitic Diseases, Advanced Centre for HIV/ AIDS exposed the country’s public health infrastructure, poor
and Related Diseases, and Centre for Medical Entomology disease surveillance network, inadequate coordination
and Vector Management; and four technical divisions— between ministries to prevent zoonotic infections,
Biochemistry and Biotechnology, Microbiology, Training absence of a national policy on biological disasters, and
and Malariology, and Zoonosis. dismal investment in scientific research. Rather than
Diseases caused by Laboratory Mismanagement: India
using the time between outbreaks to develop national
has developed comprehensive biosafety guidelines to guidelines to tackle infectious diseases, India mostly
monitor the safety of biotechnological research. relies on ad hoc notifications and guidelines, along with
World Health Organization (WHO) advisories during
Threats emerging from intentional sources: India has
COVID-19.
no specific biosecurity policy or legislation but has a
multiplicity of regulations that address threats emerging Multiplicity of Organisations: Although implementation
from different sources. of biosafety guidelines falls under the ambit of the
Ministry of Science and Technology and MOEFCC,
Various acts and policy initiatives taken by the
researchers often work in labs supported by the Indian
government
Council of Medical Research (ICMR) and the Indian
• The Epidemic Diseases Act, 1897: A colonial-era law
Council of Agricultural Research, which are research
empowers state and central governments to control
bodies set up under the Ministry of Health and Family
the spread of epidemic diseases. It allows inspection,
Welfare (MOHFW) and the Ministry of Agriculture and
C
regulation, and segregation of individuals suspected

PS
Farmers’ Welfare. The multiplicity of organizations

_U
of infection, particularly during travel by railway.

operating under different ministries makes it difficult to
nt
ge
• National Disaster Management Act, of 2005: This act ensure implementation of biosafety guidelines across
A
-@
provides a legal framework for disaster management the country.

ID
in the country, including epidemics. It establishes the

am
Ministry of Statistics and Programme Implementation

National Disaster Management Authority (NDMA)
gr
Resistance: Poor patient adherence to antibiotic

le
Te
and mandates the preparation of national and state-

treatment, non therapeutic use of antibiotics to promote
level disaster management plans.
growth in farm animals, self-medication, and illegal
• National Health Policy, 2017: The National Health
over-the-counter access to antibiotics makes antibiotic
Policy outlines the government’s vision to ensure
resistance an emerging health threat that demands
the attainment of the highest possible level of health
immediate policy attention.
for all. It emphasizes the importance of preventing
and controlling communicable diseases, including Lack of Human Resources: There is a shortage of medical
epidemics. and paramedical staff at the district and sub-district levels.
There is also an acute shortage of public health specialists,
• National Centre for Disease Control (NCDC): The
epidemiologists, clinical microbiologists and virologists.
NCDC plays a crucial role in disease surveillance,
outbreak investigation, and control. It provides Socioeconomic and Food Crises: Biological hazards such
technical support to states and union territories as COVID-19 not only flourish, but they also exacerbate
in managing public health challenges, including socioeconomic and food crises. This underscores the
epidemics. systemic nature of contemporary crises, where the most
• State Health Departments and District Surveillance vulnerable are affected the most.
Units: Each state has its health department Social Distancing: Implementing social distancing
responsible for implementing disease control measures for instance during COVID-19 lead to reduced
measures. District Surveillance Units work at the local economic activity and social interaction, neglect of
level to monitor and control the spread of diseases. vulnerable populations, and psychological damage.
• World Health Organization (WHO) Collaboration: Policy constraints: Some scientific experts emphasized
India collaborates with the WHO to align its that the sudden ban on plastic in India in 2018 has

made it difficult to use autoclavable plastic bags to Fostering Resilience: It is the key to develop a
dispose of laboratory waste. This has complicated the comprehensive, coordinated, proactive, and
implementation of the proper disinfection protocol to technologically advanced strategy for managing
dispose of biomedical waste, posing a serious biosafety biological disasters. This includes fostering a culture
hazard. of prevention and mitigation, for instance Nature-
Based Disaster Risk Reduction; this initiative promotes
Way Forward livelihoods through nature-based disaster risk reduction,
Specific agency for Biological Disasters: As the spread significantly reducing the risk of disaster and building
safer, more resilient communities.
of infectious diseases is a long-term, continuous, and
evolving threat, India may need an agency specifically NDMA Guidelines on Biological Disasters
responsible for preventing and managing biological The Indian government has released several guidelines
threats. India could consider investing in an agency to enhance preparedness and manage various types of
that can coordinate policy responses for any biological biological disasters. These include:
emergency. A full-time Office of Biological Threats Medical Preparedness and Mass Casualty Management
Preparedness and Response (BTPR) under the National (2007): Focuses on all-hazard medical readiness, with
Disaster Management Authority (NDMA) is being emphasis on CBRN casualties.
suggested as an alternative. Guidelines on Chemical (Industrial) Disasters (2007):
Legislation: The Epidemic Diseases Act was enacted Concentrates on managing chemical industrial disasters
in 1897 and needs to be repealed. This Act does not and coordinated responses to resulting casualties.
provide any power to the centre to intervene in biological Guidelines on Management of Biological Disasters
emergencies. It has to be substituted by an Act which (2008): Focuses on preventing, preparing for, and
takes care of the prevailing and foreseeable public managing epidemics, pandemics, and bioterrorism
health needs including emergencies such as BT attacks incidents.
and use of biological weapons by an adversary, cross- Guidelines on Management of Chemical (Terrorism)
border issues, and international spread of diseases. Disasters (2009): Addresses prevention, preparedness,
C
It should give enough powers to the central and state and capacity development, with a focus on strengthening
PS
_U
governments and local authorities to act with impunity, resources and services.
nt
ge
notify affected areas, restrict movement or quarantine Guidelines on Psycho-social Support and Mental Health
A
-@
the affected area, enter any premises to take samples Services (PSSMHS): Addresses post-disaster psychosocial
ID
of suspected materials and seal them. The Act should and mental health issues with interventions like psycho-
am
also establish controls over biological sample transfer, social first aid and coordinated referral mechanisms.
gr
le
biosecurity and biosafety of materials/laboratories.

Te
Benefiting from Past Experiences: The handling of CONCLUSION

COVID-19, the first biological disaster which affected Anthropogenic disasters, stemming from human activities,
the entire nation, offers important lessons for managing present significant challenges to both the environment and
future disasters. The National Clinical Management human well-being. To mitigate these disasters effectively, a
Protocol provided comprehensive guidelines for case multi-faceted approach is crucial. Continuous investment in
management. Emphasis on personal health and hygiene, research and education is crucial for better understanding
enforcement of the Disaster Management Act, and of the causes and impacts of anthropogenic disasters and
use of indigenous knowledge were key strategies. The for devising innovative solutions. By embracing above given
formation of Empowered Groups for decision-making strategies, it is possible to reduce the frequency and severity
proved effective. These strategies could be tailored for of anthropogenic disasters, fostering a more sustainable and
future biological disasters. resilient future for both people and the planet.
Relief, Recovery
and Rehabilitation 5
Minimising damage and ensuring safety: They secure
INTRODUCTION unsafe areas, assess potential hazards, and initiate
In the previous chapters, we explored the crucial role of measures to prevent further damage or secondary
disaster mitigation in disaster management. We learned how disasters. This can involve tasks like extinguishing fires,
proactive measures, from strengthening infrastructure to controlling floods, or securing hazardous materials. Their
fostering community preparedness, can pre-empt disaster’s swift intervention can significantly reduce the long-term
destructive grasp. However, even the most comprehensive costs and consequences of a disaster.
mitigation strategies cannot fully eliminate the possibility Providing stability and hope: Their presence offers
of catastrophe. When disasters strike, a different phase of reassurance, guidance, and a sense of order amidst the
the cycle comes into play - the critical stage of disaster relief, disruption. They provide crucial information, coordinate
recovery, and reconstruction. The catastrophic aftermath rescue efforts, and facilitate communication channels.
of disasters presents a complex challenge for disaster This fosters a sense of security and paves the way for
management. This chapter delves into the intricate interplay organised recovery efforts. After the 2001 Gujarat
of these phases, navigating the transition from emergency earthquake, NDRF (National Disaster Response Force)
response to long-term resilience building. teams worked tirelessly for days to pull survivors from
collapsed buildings. Their rescue efforts saved hundreds
FIRST RESPONDERS of lives and brought hope to countless families amidst
the tragedy.
First responders in disaster management are the initial
C
Fostering trust and collaboration: First responders

PS
individuals or organisations arriving at the scene of an

_U
emergency or disaster. They play a critical role in providing often form the bridge between affected communities
nt
ge
immediate assistance, including search and rescue, and official response agencies. Their direct interaction
A
-@
medical care, and evacuation. These frontline workers with survivors builds trust and understanding, enabling
ID
include paramedics, firefighters, police officers, and other effective communication and collaboration during
am
challenging times. They play a crucial role in ensuring

gr
emergency personnel. Their prompt actions aim to mitigate

le
that the needs of the affected population are heard and

Te
harm, save lives, and stabilise the situation during the early
stages of a crisis, serving as the first line of defence before addressed throughout the recovery process.
additional support and resources are mobilised. People As First Responders
People serve as crucial first responders in disasters,
emphasizing the need for empowering communities
through basic knowledge and early socialization in
disaster management. As the primary individuals affected,
their preparedness is vital, prompting initiatives like
incorporating disaster education into school curricula.
Proactive information dissemination, collaborative efforts
with volunteer organizations, and community-level planning
further enhances the role of people in minimizing the
Fig. 5.1: Emergency Responders impact of disasters. Empowering communities for disaster
response involves volunteer training, proactive information
The Rationale of First Response
dissemination, disaster preparedness tips and pre-planning
Saving lives and reducing suffering: They provide
for emergencies.
immediate medical assistance, rescue trapped
individuals, and initiate vital procedures like securing Role of Government in First Response
collapsed structures or preventing further harm. For In disasters, governments are the ultimate first responders.
example, During the Kerala floods in 2018, a team of They act like a command centre, coordinating the rescue,
Navy divers risked their lives to rescue a pregnant woman mobilizing supplies, and informing the public. They ensure
and her family trapped in a submerged house in Aluva. speedy resource delivery, infrastructure repair, and debris
removal, all while prioritizing safety and communication.
Their long-term focus is on damage assessment, recovery
IGNITE YOUR MIND
plans, and rebuilding communities, making them crucial
for minimizing disaster impact and supporting affected In 2015, Operation Maitri was launched for
populations. responding to Nepal’s earthquake. Do you
think sustainable practices in recovery amplify
a shared responsibility, not just within national
India as First Respondent boundaries but across the broader spectrum of our
India has emerged as the first responder in interconnected world?
Humanitarian Assistance and Disaster Relief (HADR)
efforts at the global level. DISASTER MANAGER
Through strengthening multilateral partnerships and
A disaster manager, often a specialist in public health or
engagement via regional mechanisms, improved
engineering, coordinates pre-, during, and post-disaster
interoperability, and faster response it has been
activities. In India, the District Collector serves as a
playing an important role in providing HADR across
disaster manager at the district level. A disaster manager
the world.
must possess essential managerial skills to handle chaotic
Prominent examples
situations effectively.
• Operation Maitri, rescue operations during
earthquake in Nepal. Role and Functions
• Assistance to Sri Lanka in 2016 during Cyclone Disaster management includes pre-disaster planning,
Roanu, the earthquake in Indonesia in 2018, preparedness, response, information management, and
flooding in Madagascar in January 2020 and the conflict resolution. Applying management principles
supply of vaccines during the COVID-19 pandemic. is essential because disasters disrupt economies and
• Operation Dost following the recent earthquake cause severe consequences. Managerial concepts help
in Turkey. address critical issues and find solutions amid challenging
circumstances.
C
PS
_U
nt
Traditional Approach Contemporary Approach

ge
A
-@
Centralised decision-making Decentralised and participative decision-making

ID
am
gr
Emphasis on relief Pre-and Post-disaster activities linked to development goals

le
Te
Quantity of Relief Quantity and quality of services
Reactive approach Proactive approach
Disaster management involves identifying and assessing resource management involves finances, personnel,
threats, reducing risks, and managing losses. Post-disaster logistics, and information. Innovative approaches empower
efforts focus on response, relief, and rehabilitation. Effective communities to invest in preventive measures.
Incident Command System: A Managerial Tool

Adaptive
The Incident Command System (ICS) provides a structured Management
management approach for coordinating crisis-related activities in Disasters
and directing efforts toward stabilizing incidents while
safeguarding life, property, and the environment. Originally
developed in the 1970s in response to wildfires in Southern Tailored Diverse
California, the ICS model has been adopted by many countries Collaboration Preparedness
worldwide.
Fig 5.2: Main Dimension of Incident Command System
EMERGENCY OPERATIONS CENTRE (EOC) SEARCH AND RESCUE (SAR)
An EOC serves as the central hub for coordinating an Search and rescue is the immediate post-disaster effort
organisation’s response and recovery efforts during involving local volunteers, organisations, and emergency
emergencies. Also known as command centres, they handle agencies. Local volunteers conduct Light Search and Rescue,
resource distribution, communication, and coordination identifying and helping individuals in lightly damaged
for disasters with multiple impacts or large complexities. buildings. If needed, specialized emergency agencies or
Unlike incident command posts, EOCs are situated away Defense Forces may assist, aiming to save the maximum
from disaster sites, typically near government offices. EOCs number of victims in a systematic and organized manner
prioritise resource distribution, facilitate off-site concerns, amid post-disaster chaos.
and ensure effective communication between various Phases of SAR
responding agencies. Originally a civil defence concept, EOCs
Search and rescue (SAR) is the crucial process of locating and
are now crucial for both wartime and peacetime activities,
aiding disaster victims trapped or isolated after an incident.
especially in large-scale disaster responses.
Local individuals familiar with the terrain often play a key
Non-Disaster Time Activities of The EOC role in SAR, supported by sniffer dogs, heavy machinery, and
During non-disaster periods, EOC undertakes crucial activities specialized equipment. Floods and cyclones necessitate the
to enhance its effectiveness, such as operationalizing use of boats and helicopters for systematic SAR operations.
Disaster Management Plans, updating plans, and Following SAR, essential measures are implemented to
maintaining inventories. The EOC Activation Procedure provide relief to evacuees.
involves shifting to emergency mode and notifying relevant Medical Aid. Health and sanitation.
ministries and departments. Rapid Assessment and Quick
Water and food. Information.
Response Teams are deployed promptly for efficient disaster
management. Reporting Systems involve community Shelter. Security.
members informing local authorities, and initiating the EOC Temporary subsistence
activation process. supplies.
C
Search and Rescue Operations (SAR) Stages

PS
_U
First Stage The initial phase involves locating and rescuing individuals with injuries visible in the affected area.
nt
ge
Example: In the case of floods in Sikkim in the year 2023, Hundreds of search and rescue personnel were
A
-@
deployed across the state and it was estimated that around 3000 tourists were stranded in different parts of
ID
the state.
am
gr
Second Subsequently, efforts focus on rescuing individuals who can be contacted but are in inaccessible locations,
le
Te
Stage such as under rubble or in elevated positions.

Example: In the case of floods in Sikkim in the year 2023, The Indian Air Force started rescue and relief
operations in the Himalayan state, airlifting the first batch of stranded tourists from Lachen to Mangan in
North Sikkim.
Third Stage The third stage comprises systematically searching areas where survivors are expected to be trapped, known
as ‘likely survival points’.
Final Stage The final stage involves clearing debris obstructing the path to these probable survival points.
Example: In the collapse of the Silkyara tunnel in Uttarakhand, the rescue team led by the NDRF and the SDRF
made a final passage to rescue 41 trapped workers.
Behavioural Requirements of Search, Rescue and Evacuation: Evacuation relocates individuals from danger
Evacuation to safety before, during, or after an emergency like an
earthquake or fire. Proper methods prevent fatalities,
Qualities of a Good Rescuer: Proficient rescuers need
emphasizing brief, safe exit routes, and avoiding areas
physical fitness, training, and experience. Incompetent increasing vulnerability for occupants.
rescuers can hinder operations and worsen situations, General Precautions while Carrying out Search and
risking harm to those in need. Essential attributes Rescue: In Search and Rescue (SAR), prioritizing rescuer
for rescuers include technical proficiency, practical safety is crucial. Wear necessary protective equipment,
reasoning, a sense of direction, improvisation skills, work in pairs for mutual support, identify alternative
sound judgment, and both physical and mental fitness. escape routes, and follow guidelines. Thorough searches
Relief, Recovery and Rehabilitation 81

in various areas, including toilets, storerooms, and lifts. Information Management: Handling and disseminating
Ensure rescuer’s safety during SAR missions. accurate information in real-time is crucial;
misinformation or lack of information can hinder
INCOIS Develops SARAT-1 For Search & response efforts.
Operations on Sea
WAY FORWARD
The Airports Authority of India (AAI) and the Indian Coast
Training and Capacity Building: To improve disaster
Guard collaborated with the Indian National Centre
for Ocean Information Services (INCOIS) to develop an operations, we must train more helpers in every
application to aid in locating missing aircraft at sea. The community, making sure they know what to do during
Search And Rescue Aid Tool-Integrated (SARAT-I) uses a floods, storms, or other emergencies. It’s crucial to have
statistical approach to compute the probability map of plans ready, with clear instructions and safe places to go.
the aircraft’s descent into the sea, using a methodology Support from the Community: Communities need
approved by international agencies. The application regular practice to be ready, and governments should
eliminates human error in computation, saves time for give them the right tools and support.
rescue operations, and potentially reduces expenditure. Proper Communication: Better communication and
sharing of helpful information quickly can save lives. We
CHALLENGES IN DISASTER must also learn from past disasters to do things better
OPERATIONS next time. By working together, preparing well, and using
what we’ve learned, we can protect more people and
Navigating disaster operations presents multifaceted
recover faster.
challenges, encompassing coordination hurdles, resource
limitations, and unpredictable scenarios. Addressing
these complexities demands strategic planning, efficient IGNITE YOUR MIND
communication, and adaptive responses to safeguard lives,
minimize damage, and facilitate swift recovery. Some of the As technology advances and the nature of
main challenges are as follows: disasters evolves, what does the future hold for
Resource Limitations: Limited availability of funds, Search And Rescue? Can you think of the pros
C
PS
personnel, and equipment can hinder effective disaster and Cons of introducing such measures?
_U
nt
response efforts.
ge
A
Logistical Complexities: Managing and transporting Better Use of Social Media: After the Kerala flood in 2018,
-@
resources to affected areas, especially in challenging Social Media came to the rescue. Charity organizations
ID
am
terrains or during adverse weather conditions, poses such as World Vision, which has been operating in India
gr
logistical challenges. since the 1950s, used its website, to collect donations for
le
Te
Coordination Issues: Coordinating efforts among various relief kits. More initiatives can be used.
agencies, organizations, and government bodies may be Use of Drones: “Drones Tech Lab”, a start-up at IIT
complex, leading to potential gaps in response. Guwahati used drones to reach out to the people trapped
Communication Breakdowns: Disruptions in in the floodwaters in lower Assam, with relief. It can be
communication networks can impede the flow of vital replicated in another disaster-hit area also.
information, hindering coordination and decision-
After the First Response comes Recovery, rehabilitation,
making.
and reconstruction (RRR). RRR forms the crucial bridge
Community Engagement: Ensuring active community
between the immediate aftermath of a disaster and a
participation and cooperation during disaster response
resilient future. It’s the long-term process of healing
can be challenging, impacting the effectiveness of relief
efforts. communities, restoring livelihoods, and rebuilding
infrastructure. Imagine a disaster zone as a broken vase.
Rapidly Changing Situations: Dynamic and unpredictable
disaster scenarios require quick adaptation and decision- Recovery is like gathering the pieces, rehabilitation is like
making, adding complexity to operations. mending them together, and reconstruction is like giving
Risk of Secondary Hazards: The potential for secondary
the vase a new life, perhaps even stronger and more
hazards, such as aftershocks or disease outbreaks, beautiful than before. It is a complex and multifaceted
complicates response efforts and necessitates additional process, requiring collaboration between governments,
preparedness. NGOs, communities, and individuals. It involves restoring
Evacuation Challenges: Safely evacuating and providing essential services like electricity and water, reviving
shelter for large populations promptly can be logistically local economies, providing psychosocial support, and
demanding and resource-intensive. rebuilding homes, schools, and hospitals.
Recovery from Landslides and Avalanches: Recovering
RECOVERY from events like landslides and avalanches closely
resembles earthquake recovery but operates on a smaller
Nature of Recovery With Regard to
scale. The process involves overcoming challenges
Different Disasters related to identifying safer sites in proximity to affected
Recovering from Large-scale Disasters: Floods, areas. The rehabilitation efforts in such locations are
earthquakes, and cyclones cause extensive damage, posing inherently localised, demanding a tailored approach to
significant recovery challenges. The nature of recovery in address the unique nuances of each impacted area.
such situations is inherently complex and demanding. These
catastrophic events disrupt communities, infrastructure, DISASTER ASSESSMENT FOR BETTER
and essential services, necessitating a focused and RECOVERY
comprehensive recovery strategy.
The first step after stabilising the situation by providing
Recovery from Draught: In events like droughts,
sufficient relief is to assess the damage.
where infrastructure remains intact, rehabilitation
Disaster assessment is a systematic procedure aimed at
mainly focuses on restoring livelihoods within regular
evaluating the impact, extent, and severity of a disaster on
development programs.
affected regions and populations.
Biological Disaster Recovery: In the case of a disease
Objective Of Assessment: The primary objective of
outbreak like COVID-19 (2020), swift implementation
of quarantine measures and containment zones aid in disaster assessment is to acquire precise and timely
restricting the spread of the biological agent. information to steer response and recovery initiatives.
Recovery from Industrial Disasters or Chemical Process of Assessment: This process entails the
Disasters: Recovery from industrial disasters involves systematic collection and analysis of data to comprehend
rapid decontamination of affected areas, soil remediation the scale of damage, ascertain immediate requirements,
is essential for restoring the environment along with and prioritize interventions.
potential victim counselling as it is done during COVID-19 Comprehensive Assessment Teams: The assessment
C
through measures such as isolation and Quarantine. is most effectively executed through diverse teams
PS
_U
• Industrial disasters, like the ‘Bhopal Gas encompassing various disciplines. These teams delve
nt
into all dimensions of damage—social, economic, and

ge
Tragedy’(1984), may span a generation in

A
-@
rehabilitation efforts, addressing livelihoods, and psychological—through active collaboration with the
ID
social and psychological needs. local community.

am
gr
Formulating a Recovery Strategy

le
Te
Guided by Resource
Encompassing
Assessment Identification
Interventions
Outcomes and Definition
The next imperative This strategy The strategy demands

is the formulation should encompass the identification of
of a recovery a spectrum of resources and the clear
strategy, guided by interventions, delineation of roles and
the outcomes of the covering economic, responsibilities for all
assessment social, political, stakeholders involved.
and psychological
aspects.
Fig 5.3: Formulating a Recovery Strategy
Effective Coordination in Post-Disaster Coordination Among Stakeholders: In the aftermath

Recovery of significant disasters, various entities, including
Following any major disaster, a number of players arrive on government agencies, local bodies, international
the scene and as already stated, ensuring proper coordination organisations and voluntary groups, engage in recovery
amongst them thus becomes very important. The following efforts. The absence of proper coordination among
strategy should be followed for better coordination. these stakeholders can result in operational imbalances,

redundant interventions, gaps in service delivery and the Challenges for Sustainable Recovery
inefficient use of resources. For example, after the 2018 Reduced Efforts Over Time: Recovery work tends to slow
Kerala Floods, good coordination helped a lot, but during down as time passes, making it harder for affected areas
the Haiti Earthquake in 2010, there wasn’t enough to fully bounce back. After the floods in Uttarakhand
coordination, causing problems. in 2013, recovery efforts slowed, causing prolonged
Establishing a Coordination Center: To streamline relief difficulties for the affected communities.
and rehabilitation activities carried out by multiple
Limited Community Involvement: Making recovery
organizations, the administration must establish a
efforts last requires active participation from
coordination centre for voluntary organizations. This
communities, which is sometimes overlooked. The Bhuj
ensures that interventions are distributed evenly and not
earthquake in 2001 showed that involving communities
concentrated in specific areas. For example, establishing
was crucial for successful rebuilding.
a coordination centre helps groups like National Disaster
Issues in Distributing Aid: Ensuring that aid reaches the
Management Authority, State Disaster Management
Authority, and District Disaster Management Authority right people and funds are used well is essential. The
work together better. Kerala floods in 2018 revealed problems in this area,
impacting the efficient distribution of relief.
Recovery, encompassing rehabilitation and
Timeframe
reconstruction, may not guarantee full Inadequate Systems for Addressing Concerns: Dealing
restoration to ‘normalcy.’ The time frame for
Challenges with problems during relief and recovery can be
these stages varies, and complete recovery
may not always be achievable. challenging without effective systems for addressing
concerns. Events like the Bhopal gas tragedy in 1984
The distinction between rehabilitation and
reconstruction is not rigid, requiring both to highlighted the need for prompt mechanisms to handle
Holistic be integrated into a comprehensive long-term
Approach issues.
disaster recovery plan. Neglecting long-term
C
PS
recovery can have adverse consequences. Strategies for Sustainable Recovery

_U
nt
Empowering Communities: Focus on building capabilities

ge
Designing a long-term disaster recovery

A
plan involves economic, social, political, and

-@
Multifaceted cultural factors. Political will plays a crucial

within communities. Increase awareness and involve the
ID
Parameters role, as disasters often become electoral community in creating local crisis management plans.
am
opportunities, impacting the execution of

gr
recovery plans. The recovery process after the Kerala floods in 2018
le
Te
showed that empowering communities is effective for

Rehabilitation and reconstruction are
Complex complex processes influenced by various
sustainable rebuilding.
Processes parameters, with their nature dependent on Ensuring Accountability: Establish a strong accountability
the intensity of damage caused by a disaster.
system during relief and recovery. Make sure funds are
Fig 5.4: Challenges and Complexity in Recovery used efficiently and address distribution problems. The
Proactive Risk Reduction Measures: Recognizing the post- recovery from the Bhuj earthquake demonstrated the
disaster recovery phase as a ‘window of opportunity,’ it importance of accountability for successful relief efforts.
is essential to integrate disaster risk reduction measures Evaluation for Improvement: Conduct a thorough
into the redevelopment process. This proactive approach evaluation after the recovery phase. Assess strengths
ensures a more resilient and sustainable recovery. For
and weaknesses in the disaster management process.
example, measures like Build Back Better.
Events like the Uttarakhand floods highlight the need for
SUSTAINABILITY IN THE RECOVERY evaluations to enhance future disaster responses.
PROCESS Swift Audit for Financial Oversight: Include a quick
Normally, it is seen that the recovery efforts tend to taper audit of expenditures in the evaluation process. Ensure
off with the passage of time. The sustainability component transparency in finances and optimal resource use. The
in the recovery process therefore is important. This could be aftermath of the Bhopal gas tragedy emphasised the
achieved by capacity-building of community and awareness need for swift financial oversight to prevent fund misuse
generation and preparing local crisis management plans. and ensure proper resource utilisation.
a systematic return to pre-disaster status. It focuses
Principles Guiding Post-Recovery on resuming basic services, aiding self-help efforts,
Mainstreaming disaster risk reduction in the recovery repairing physical damage, reviving economic activities,
and development process. and supporting the well-being of survivors.
Improving coordination. Transitional Phase: Rehabilitation is considered a
Promoting participatory approaches and transitional phase between immediate relief and long-
decentralising planning and programming for term development, rehabilitation enables affected
recovery. populations to return to more or less normal patterns
Enhancing safety standards and integrating risk of life. This phase involves crucial aspects such as
reduction in reconstruction and development. medical assistance and food support. For example, after
the devastating Kerala floods in 2018, the transitional
Improving the living conditions of the affected
rehabilitation phase played a pivotal role.
communities and sectors.
Building local and national capacities for increased Reconstruction: Long-Term Development
resilience, risk management and sustainable Assistance
development. Definition and Scope: Reconstruction represents long-
Taking advantage of ongoing initiatives, Gender term development assistance, helping affected areas
sensibility. rebuild lives and meet present and future needs. It
Demonstrative effects. considers reducing future disaster risks and may involve
Monitoring, evaluation and learning. replacing temporary arrangements established during
emergency response.
Integration with Development Plans: Reconstruction
REHABILITATION AND must be fully integrated into long-term developmental
RECONSTRUCTION plans, considering future disaster risks and incorporating
measures to reduce them.
The transitional stage, situated between disaster response Example: Rehabilitation of power lines aims for rapid
and overall development, demands vital interlinkages. restoration of essential services, while reconstruction
C
PS
Systematic planning and implementation of a long- aims to rebuild the rehabilitated system to a higher or
_U
term recovery program are crucial for effective disaster safer standard, reducing future risks.
nt
ge
management.
A
Thus, economic, social, and cultural factors are integral

-@
to recovery planning, shaping the rehabilitation and

ID
Rehabilitation: Connecting Immediate

reconstruction processes. The political environment post-
am
Needs and Normalcy

gr
disaster needs consideration, as politics, will significantly

le
Te
Definition and Focus: Rehabilitation involves restoring influence the execution of recovery plans, with politicians
local services to fulfil immediate needs, aiming for leveraging recovery for electoral gains.
TYPES OF REHABILITATION
Physical Rehabi Social Rehabilit Psychological Re
litation ation habilitation
Rebuilding infrastructure Requires infrastructure Immediate consideration
like houses, buildings, like community centers, of social welfare and
railways, roads, and daycare facilities, and old psychological support
utilities. age homes. programs is imperative.
Involves watershed Provisions for constructing Epidemiological
management, canal and rebuilding social Surveillance and
irrigation, social forestry, infrastructure integral to Nutrition-Centered Health
and alternative cropping recovery. Assessment.
techniques. Comprehensive health
Adopts an alternative recovery plan addressing
livelihood approach for psychological challenges.
community resilience.
Fig 5.5: Types of Rehabilitation
Physical Rehabilitation: Rebuilding Infrastructure roads, communication networks, water supply, and
Integral Rehabilitation Aspect: The vital aspect of electricity. This encompasses both short-term and
physical rehabilitation involves the reconstruction of long-term strategies, as exemplified during the Nepal
vital infrastructure, including houses, buildings, railways, Earthquake of 2015.

Social Rehabilitation: Community Support Systems programs like Swarnajayanti Gram Swarozgar Yojna
This process focuses on rebuilding social structures, contribute to resource generation.
fostering community cohesion, and providing support International Cooperation: UN agencies, including WHO,
systems to help individuals recover and reintegrate into UNICEF, UNESCO, WFP, ILO, UNFPA, and international
society. financial institutions like IMF and World Bank, can provide
For example, during the Gujarat Earthquake in 2001, The legitimacy and financial support for disaster recovery
“Kutch Mahila Vikas Sangathan (KMVS)” mobilised its projects. Incorporating their assistance enhances the
network of women’s groups to provide safe spaces for overall recovery process.
women and children, address gender-based violence Building Resilient Communities: Effective rehabilitation
concerns, and offer trauma counselling. They also helped must consider the psychological aspects of affected
women revive their traditional handicraft livelihoods communities. Strategies include community participation,
through economic rehabilitation programs. education and training, stress management, and positive
media engagement. Resilience-building measures
Psychological Rehabilitation: Healing Emotional like creating Village Task Forces and involving local
Scars organizations should be integrated into recovery plans.
Psychological rehabilitation seeks to restore mental Respecting Traditional Wisdom: Traditional practices
well-being following the trauma or mental health issues for disaster resilience, like those related to water
through counselling, support, and skill development for conservation and earthquake-resistant structures,
improved coping and resilience. should be preserved. A balanced approach, integrating
For example, during the Kashmir Floods 2014, the state traditional wisdom with modern technology, is essential
government deployed Psychosocial teams from the for sustainable recovery.
National Institute of Mental Health and Neuro Sciences Disseminating Good Practices: Advancements in
(NIMHANS) Bangalore, for conducting Psychosocial Information and Communication Technologies (ICT) play
Need Assessment. a vital role in effective disaster management. Replicating
successful case studies and incorporating grassroots
GUIDING PRINCIPLES OF experiences into developmental policies can strengthen
REHABILITATION AND recovery efforts. Education and training are key
C
RECONSTRUCTION components in transferring good practices to threatened

PS
_U
Communities as Diverse Entities: A comprehensive communities.

nt
ge
rehabilitation plan must recognize the heterogeneity

A
Case Studies Regarding Disaster Reconstruction

-@
within affected communities. Varied needs emerge

ID
across different groups, from farmers to traders or Christchurch, New Zealand Earthquakes (2010-
am
professionals. Children, women, and the elderly have 2011): Following a series of devastating earthquakes,
gr
Christchurch embarked on a comprehensive

le
unique requirements. Prioritising diverse needs is crucial

Te
for effective recovery. reconstruction project focused on resilience and

Balancing Economic, Social, and Psychological Aspects: sustainability.
Harmonising economic, social, and psychological needs • “Rebuild Stronger” policy: Emphasised
is intricate, given their divergence among different earthquake-resistant building codes and
community segments. Economic compensation, though sustainable infrastructure development.
vital, may not assuage the psychological impact. • Community-driven planning: Residents actively
Successful recovery plans strike a delicate equilibrium, participated in shaping the city’s new layout and
acknowledging and addressing diverse requirements. prioritising public spaces.
Systematic Damage Assessment: A systematic approach • Creative urban design: Innovative architectural
to damage assessment, incorporating sample surveys and projects and revitalised cultural initiatives fostered
leveraging modern technology, is fundamental. Aerial a sense of identity and community spirit.
photography, feasibility studies, and risk management Tohoku earthquake and tsunami, Japan (2011): Post-
play pivotal roles in understanding, quantifying, and disaster reconstruction in Japan focused on disaster
mitigating the impacts. Incorporating these assessments preparedness and innovation.
into the recovery plan ensures a well-informed and • “Seawalls and elevated infrastructure” to mitigate
targeted approach. future tsunami risks.
Disaster Financing: Governments deploy specific • Smart grid technology and resilient housing designs
schemes for disaster management financing, including to improve disaster response and preparedness.
the Calamity Relief Fund (CRF), National Calamity
• Revitalization of coastal communities through
Contingency Fund, Prime Minister’s National Relief Fund,
economic development and cultural preservation
and Member of Parliament Local Area District Scheme
efforts.
(MPLADS). Insurance schemes and developmental
Interlinkages Between Disaster INDIAN LESSONS IN POST-
Recovery and Development DISASTER RECOVERY:
Efficient and effective post-disaster development and EXPERIENCES AND INSIGHTS
recovery can help to reduce the devastation inflicted on
In the last two decades, India has encountered various types
humanity and can prevent poor communities from falling
of disasters, both natural and human-induced. The following
into cyclical poverty. Recovery and reconstruction, through
incidents highlight some notable experiences in post-
their phases, provide the opportunity to rebuild beyond
disaster recovery, rehabilitation, and reconstruction efforts.
pre-disaster states for safer, more sustainable and resilient
These experiences serve as valuable lessons for the country’s
communities. overall recovery process, offering insights to guide future
Building Back Better responders and aiding in the implementation of corrective
What is the BBB Approach?: Building Back Better (BBB) measures.
is an approach to post-disaster recovery that reduces Dam Failures In India
vulnerability to future disasters and builds community The occurrence of dam failures in India has prompted a
resilience to address physical, social, environmental, and reevaluation of dam safety measures, leading to important
economic vulnerabilities and shocks. lessons learned in post-disaster recovery.
Sustainable Safety: Risk reduction now permeates Recent Dam Failure Incidents in India
development activities. Yet BBB, distinct from Teesta III Dam Failure (Sikkim, 2023): In October 2023,
development, does not focus on rectifying a country’s the Teesta III Dam in Sikkim experienced a critical failure,
development deficits but on ensuring the result resulting in widespread flooding and loss of life. Despite
of recovery is sustainable safety for more resilient occurring outside the specified timeframe, this incident
communities. serves as a poignant reminder of the inherent dangers
associated with dam failures. Presently, investigations
BBB in Infrastructure Reconstruction: BBB offers the
are underway to determine the root cause of the failure.
C
PS
opportunity to rebuild stronger, safer, and more disaster-

_U
Lakshmi Barrage Collapse (Telangana, 2023): In October

nt
resilient infrastructure and systems. For example: 2023, a segment of the Lakshmi Barrage on the Godavari
ge
A
• Land-use planning regulations, which curtail River in Telangana collapsed. Fortunately, no casualties
-@
reconstruction in high-risk areas. were reported. This incident, however, prompted

ID
am
• Reconstructing improved hazard-control concerns regarding the safety of ageing infrastructure

gr
and emphasized the imperative need for meticulous

le
infrastructure, such as flood embankments.

Te
maintenance practices.
Bharudpura Dam Seepage (Madhya Pradesh, 2022):
IGNITE YOUR MIND In August 2022, the recently constructed Bharudpura
Dam in Madhya Pradesh faced a notable challenge as
Gandhi dreamt of a nation awakened, self- significant seepage and erosion occurred shortly after
sufficient and strong. Can our disaster its initial filling. This occurrence underscored the critical
response embody this dream? Are we simply
importance of comprehensive safety assessments before
sleepwalking through recovery, patching
the commissioning of new dams.
up wounds without addressing the deeper
vulnerabilities? Can you think of a few Indian Lessons for Post-Disaster Recovery
measures which can be taken to make this Adaptive Management: Advocates for adaptive
process more inclusive and empathetic? management practices, allowing adjustments in dam
operations and maintenance based on changing
Upgraded Technology: Replacing damaged assets with conditions.
context-sensitive, technologically updated alternatives. Collaboration Across Disciplines: Emphasizes the
For example, modernizing damaged telecommunications importance of interdisciplinary collaboration among
geologists, hydrologists, engineers, and local communities
equipment to keep up with technological advances.
to address multifaceted dam safety challenges.
Meeting Community Demands: Using recovery as an Learning from Failures: Encourages a proactive approach
opportunity to right size infrastructure to better meet to learn from past dam failures, influencing engineering
community needs. For example, reconstructing hospitals practices, risk assessments, and regulations to prevent
with an adequate number of beds. similar incidents.

Maintenance as a Crucial Element: Highlights the need Emergency Preparedness: Stresses the necessity
for consistent maintenance to prevent deterioration of of well-structured emergency response plans and
dam structures and reduce the risk of failure. communication systems to mitigate the impact of dam
Comprehensive Risk Assessment: Advocates for accurate failures.
risk assessments that consider potential consequences
to ensure proactive dam safety.
Glacial Lake Outburst Flood (GLOF) In
Seismic Design and Retrofitting: Underscores the
Sikkim (October 2023)
importance of considering seismic factors in dam design The sudden Glacial Lake Outburst Flood (GLOF) in Sikkim,
and retrofitting, especially in earthquake-prone regions. India, in October 2023, triggered by the breaching of South
Lhonak Lake, brought devastation to the region. Lives were
Regulatory Oversight and Community Awareness:
lost, infrastructure damaged, and communities displaced.
Highlights the critical role of regulatory oversight in
However, amidst the tragedy, valuable lessons emerged in
enforcing safety standards and educating downstream
India’s response and recovery efforts, offering insights for
communities about potential risks.
future disaster management.
A 2021 study warned

PS
that ‘both the exisng

_U
and planned hydropower

nt
plants are exposed to

ge
potenal outburst floods

A
from glacial lakes’

-@
ID
Fig 5.6: Glacial Lake Outburst Flood (GLOF) In Sikkim (October 2023)
am
gr
le
Immediate Response and Relief stabilization, afforestation, and glacier monitoring

Te
Swift Evacuation and Relief: The Indian Navy, Air Force, to prevent future disasters and promote long-term
National Disaster Response Force (NDRF), and local environmental sustainability.
authorities quickly led rescue efforts, evacuating people Community involvement: Post-disaster reconstruction
and supplying essential items. This swift response prioritized community participation, incorporating local
minimized casualties and reduced immediate suffering. knowledge into rebuilding plans. This inclusive approach
Community strength: Local communities showed strong ensured sustainable development.
resilience, working with authorities and NGOs for rescue
Key Takeaways
efforts and supporting each other during the initial
response. Disaster preparedness: Sikkim’s experience highlights
Effective coordination: Collaboration among local the importance of robust disaster preparedness,
authorities, the National Disaster Response Force (NDRF), including tailored early warning systems and evacuation
and NGOs ensured efficient resource distribution. This plans for glacial flood risks.
coordinated approach prevented further hardship and Building resilience: Investments in infrastructure,
aided initial recovery. environmental protection, and community preparedness
Long-Term Reconstruction and Rehabilitation significantly enhance regional resilience, reducing the
Infrastructure rebuilding: Efforts shifted toward impact of future disasters.
reconstructing damaged infrastructure like roads, Holistic approach: Effective post-disaster recovery
bridges, and irrigation systems, crucial for reviving requires a comprehensive strategy covering immediate
livelihoods. relief, long-term reconstruction, and environmental
Environmental restoration: Recognizing the region’s restoration, with a focus on community participation and
ecological fragility, initiatives focused on slope sustainability.
Joshimath’s Land Sinking Crisis
Fig 5.7: Joshimath’s Land Sinking Crisis Explained
What is Land Subsidence? • Secondly, climate change is a force multiplier. The

Land subsidence can be defined as the gradual settling way climate change is exhibited in some of the hilly
or sudden sinking of the Earth’s surface due to removal states of India is unparalleled. For example, 2021 and
or displacement of subsurface earth materials. 2022 have been years of disaster for Uttarakhand.
The primary causes include: Measures Towards Recovery and Reconstruction
• Aquifer-system compaction associated with Immediate Relief: Families have been moved to safe
groundwater withdrawals locations in the town. As nearly 4,000 people were
• Drainage of organic soils evacuated due to deep cracks in structures, ongoing
• Underground mining investigations aim to uncover the cause of this rapid
C
subsidence.
PS
• Natural compaction or collapse, such as with

_U
sinkholes or thawing permafrost Recovery Plan: The High-Level Committee, under the
nt
ge
chairmanship of Union Home Minister and Minister of

A
What has happened in Joshimath?

-@
Cooperation, Shri Amit Shah, approved the Recovery

ID
In Joshimath, situated in Uttarakhand, out of 4,500 and Reconstruction (R&R) plan of Rs. 1658.17 crore for
am
buildings, 610 have developed huge cracks, making them Joshimath.

gr
le
unfit for habitation. Build Back Better: The recovery plan for Joshimath will be
Te
The Incidents of land subsidence have been previously implemented in three years, following the best practices,
reported in Joshimath in the 1970s. Build Back Better (BBB) principles and sustainability
initiatives. Thereafter, Joshimath will emerge as an
The government then set up a panel under the
excellent example of ecological sustainability.
chairmanship of Garhwal Commissioner Mahesh
Chandra Mishra who had submitted a report in 1978. Odisha Rail Accident 2023
The commission recommended that major construction Background
works should not be carried out in the city and the Niti On 2 June 2023, three trains collided in Balasore district
and Mana valleys as these areas are situated on moraines in Odisha state of eastern India. The Coromandel Express
Moraine is a mass of rocks, sediment, and soil transported entered the passing loop instead of the main line near
and deposited by a glacier. Bahanaga Bazar railway station at full speed and collided
with a goods train.
Reasons for Land Subsidence in Joshimath
Land subsidence in Joshimath is majorly due to the
National Thermal Power Corporation’s Tapovan
Vishnugad Hydro Power Project
There are two reasons for the Joshimath problem: -
• The first is rampant infrastructure development
which is happening in a very fragile ecosystem like
the Himalayas and this is happening without much
of a planning process in a way where we are able to
protect the environment. Fig 5.8 : Odisha Rail Accident 2023

Short-Term Measures for Recovery and in Gujarat, posing significant challenges for rescue, relief,
Reconstruction and rehabilitation due to its size and impact.
Emergency Response Enhancement: Strengthening Devastation:
the initial disaster response to minimise casualties and • Over 37.8 million people were affected as the
enhance the efficiency of relief operations. devastating earthquake with an epicentre north-
Immediate Infrastructure Repair: Swiftly addressing east of Bhuj city, destroyed homes, schools, roads,
damaged infrastructure, including tracks, bridges, and communication systems and power lines.
signalling systems, ensuring rapid restoration to revive Recovery:
normalcy and prevent further disruptions.
• Within days of the earthquake, temporary health
Community Involvement: Prioritizing community centres were set up in tents and a public health lab
participation in reconstruction plans, incorporating local was established in a pre-fabricated structure in Bhuj
knowledge and needs to foster a sense of ownership and
to ensure continuity of health services and disease
ensure sustainable development.
surveillance.
Environmental Restoration: Integrating environmental
• This was rapidly followed by GIS-based disease
protection measures into recovery efforts, emphasizing
surveillance as an early warning mechanism to
initiatives like afforestation and slope stabilization to
prevent future disasters. prevent outbreaks.
Accountability Mechanisms: Establishing robust Role of NGO in Reconstruction:
accountability mechanisms to ensure the efficient use • Hunnarshala went along a different path altogether,
of resources and timely implementation of recovery assisting villagers nearby to build thousands of
plans, implementing grievance redressal mechanisms to earthquake-resistant homes with traditional
address issues promptly. technologies such as rammed earth.
• For The pastoral communities living in the Banni
Uttarakhand Floods 2013: A Case Study
grassland area near the Rann of Kutch, they chose to
Background: The Uttarakhand floods of 2013, triggered
rebuild their homes by constructing their traditional
C
by a cloud burst, wreaked havoc on the state during the

PS
‘bhungas’ instead of the pucca cement houses found

_U
monsoon season. The disaster disrupted life, causing

nt
in cities.
ge
extensive damage to property, and infrastructure, and

A
-@
claiming numerous lives, leading to the suspension of

CONCLUSION
ID
the famous Char Dham pilgrimage for three years.

am
Response and Relief Measures: This includes a wide range

gr
Effective disaster recovery, relief, and reconstruction are

le
of activities including the erection of control booths, action

Te
vital components of comprehensive disaster management.

according to the action plan drafted, and the broadcasting These processes require careful planning, coordination,
of danger notice. Post the disaster various relief measures
and implementation to minimise the impact of disasters on
were initiated by the authorities in the form of rescue
affected communities. Successful recovery efforts focus on
missions by the Indian Armed Forces.
restoring essential services, infrastructure, and livelihoods
Reconstruction:
while addressing the long-term needs of the affected
• Erection of new buildings, taking ultra care of
population. Emphasising community participation, resilience-
durability while erecting various essential facilities.
building, and sustainable development can enhance the
• The government took the initiative to raise funds
effectiveness of post-disaster efforts. Continuous learning,
from both the public and private fronts.
adaptation, and collaboration among stakeholders are
Kutch Earthquake (2001) essential for improving disaster management practices
Overview: The Kutch earthquake measuring 7.9 on the and building more resilient societies in the face of future
Richter Scale on January 26, 2001, was a major disaster challenges.
Disaster Management:
Institutions and Policy Guidelines 6
Strachey Commission, 1880: The devastating famine
INTRODUCTION of 1876-78 forced Lytton’s administration to appoint
India faces a multitude of natural and man-made disasters a commission led by Richard Strachey. Among the
due to its diverse geographical and socio-economic recommendations were periodic adjustments of wages
landscape. These disa sters pose significant challenges to to ensure ample food for labourers, the state’s obligation
life, property, and infrastructure. In this chapter, we will to offer gratuitous relief to the impoverished, and the
explore how disaster management in India evolved and identification of eligible individuals for such aid. The
the measures (both, legal and institutional) that were commission also provided insights on the suspension
taken by the Indian Government to manage disasters. We and remission of land revenue and rents. It advocated for
will understand how resources are analysed to manage provincial governments to bear the costs of famine relief,
disasters in a better manner. So, let’s grasp the insights of with central assistance available as needed. Accepting
proactive disaster preparedness and equip ourselves with these recommendations, the government initiated steps
the knowledge to face uncertainties with resilience and to establish a famine fund. Subsequently, in 1883, the
readiness. provisional famine code was formulated, which served
as a guide and foundation for the development of
DISASTER MANAGEMENT: FROM provincial famine codes.
THE BRITISH PERIOD TO NOW McDonnell Commission,1900: After the famine of 1899-
1900, Lord Curzon appointed a famine commission led by
C
Disaster management in India has evolved due to historical

PS
McDonnell. The commission advocated a moral strategy,

_U
events, legislative changes, technical developments, and early distribution of advances for seed and cattle
nt
ge
lessons learned from various disasters. The origins of an purchase, and the creation of temporary wells. It also
A
-@
institutional structure for disaster management may be proposed the appointment of a famine commissioner
ID
traced back to the British period following a succession in provinces expecting extensive relief operations
am
gr
of disasters such as the famines of 1900, 1905, 1907, and and encouraged increased non-official assistance.
le
Te
1943, as well as World War II. The earthquake that struck While Lord Curzon accepted most of the commission’s
Bihar and Nepal in 1934. Over the past century, disaster recommendations and implemented various measures
management in India has undergone substantive changes in to prevent and combat famine before leaving India,
its composition, nature, and policy. many of these initiatives were carried out with less than
full commitment.
Reactive approach: Before 1947, disaster responses
were frequently localised and community-driven. Post Independence Developments
Relief departments were established during the British Initial structure: Following independence, the job
administration in the event of a tragedy. of disaster management remained with the Relief
An activity-based design with a reactive approach proved Commissioners in each state, who worked under the
only useful in post-disaster settings. The policy was Central Relief Commissioner, with their role limited to
the delegation of relief goods and money.
relief-oriented with initiatives such as developing relief
rules and launching food-for-work programmes. Five-Year Plans: Every five-year plan addressed flood
disasters under “Irrigation, Command, and Control”,
Major Disaster Related Commissions “Flood Control and Area Development”.
During The British Period Repeated incidence of floods and resulting havoc inspired
Campbell Commission, 1866: Following a devastating the formation of the National Flood Control Program in
famine that claimed the lives of 20 lakhs people, a 1954, with a focus on flood mitigation and management.
committee chaired by Sir George Campbell was formed Disaster Management Committee: This was established
to investigate the causes of the tragedy, and it attributed in 1957, marking one of the earliest attempts at organised
the disaster to deficiencies in the government machinery. disaster management.
National Disaster Management National Disaster Management Authority: The 1999
Framework (1990s-Present) Orissa Super Cyclone, Bhuj Earthquake, 2001 and 2004
National Flood Commission: It was set up by the Ministry Tsunami were the watershed moments that resulted in
of Agriculture and Irrigation in 1976, to study India’s the establishment of the National Disaster Management
flood-control measures after the projects launched Authority (NDMA) in 2005.
under the National Flood Control Programme of 1954 • The Disaster Management Act of 2005 established a
failed to achieve much success. legislative framework for disaster management.
• State Disaster Management Authorities (SDMAs) and
Disaster Management Cell: Following the recognition
District Disaster Management Authorities (DDMAs)
of the decade of 1990 as the ‘International Decade for
were formed by the Act.
Natural Disaster Reduction’ (IDNDR) by the UN General
Assembly, a permanent and institutionalised structure
DISASTER MANAGEMENT
began in the 1990s with the establishment of a disaster
management cell under the Ministry of Agriculture.
STRUCTURE
High-Powered Committee on Disaster Management India, being a country prone to various natural disasters, has
1999: The HPC was constituted in August 1999 under implemented a comprehensive and multi-layered structure
the Chairmanship of Shri J.C. Pant. HPC members were for disaster management. This structure involves various
drawn from the Ministries, States, NGOs, and experts institutions and agencies working together at national, state,
drawn from relevant fields. It was a first attempt in India and district levels.
towards drawing up a systematic, comprehensive, and
Disaster Management Act, 2005
holistic approach towards disasters.
The introduction of the National Disaster Management
• Revision of existing system of response mechanism
Act (NDMA) in 2005 marked a significant transformation
in the wake of natural and manmade disasters at
in India’s disaster management strategy. The shift was from
C
all levels of government and introduction of steps

PS
a primarily response and relief-centric approach to a more

_U
to minimise the response time through effective

proactive emphasis on preparedness, prevention, and
nt
ge
communication and measures to ensure adequacy of

A
planning.
-@
relief operations.
The DM Act of 2005 provides for the setting up of Disaster
ID
• Development programmes related to mitigation of

am
Management Authorities (DMA) at the national (NDMA),

gr
disaster management in different areas and priorities

le
state (SDMA) and district (DDMA) levels. The DM Act does

Te
and strategies for inclusion of disaster reduction

not have any provisions for notifying any disaster as a
components in the ongoing plan/non-plan schemes
‘national calamity’ or a ‘national disaster.’ In most cases, state
have to be considered.
governments will be carrying out disaster management, with
• Measures need to be introduced for intensive the central government playing a supporting role. Generally,
training for building up of human resources to the central agencies will participate in the request from the
improve disaster awareness and capabilities, and state government. Within each state, there is a separate
also public awareness programs to build up society’s institutional framework for disaster management at the state
resilience towards disasters. level.
• Pro-active measures for disaster preparedness and The extent of involvement of central agencies depends on
mitigation in administrative, financial, legislative and the type, scale, and administrative spread of the disaster.
techno-legal aspects. If the situation requires direct assistance from the central
• Measures and programs to harness state-of-the-art government or the deployment of central agencies,
Information Technology for effective communication the central government will provide all necessary
networks. Networking mechanism by Government/ support. The institutional arrangements have been set
NGOs. This would also improve advance warning up consistent with the paradigm shift from the relief-
systems against disasters. centric approach of the past to a proactive, holistic and
• Review of Global Best practices including study of integrated approach for Disaster Risk Reduction (DRR) by
the UN System and the Disaster Preparedness and way of strengthening disaster preparedness, mitigation,
Response mechanism of several countrie and emergency response.
National Disaster Management Institutional Mechanism
Overall Coordination
Ministry of Home Affairs
Designated Nodal
Ministries (Disaster-
Specific)
Top Level Decision Making
National Disaster
Management
Authority (NDMA)
National Crisis
Cabinet Management
Committee on Committee
Security (CCS) (NCMC)
National
Executive
Committee
(NEC)
Armed Forces & National Institute

National Disaster
Central Armed of Disaster
State Response Force
Police Forces Management
Governments/ UTs (NDRF)
(CAPF) (NIDM)
C
PS
Fig. 6.1: National Disaster Management Institutional Mechanism

_U
nt
ge
A
Role of Home Ministry information relating to forecasting/warning of a natural

-@
ID
Function: On behalf of the Central Government, Disaster calamity from India Meteorological Department (IMD)
am
Management Division in the Ministry of Home Affairs(MHA) or from Central Water Commission of Ministry of Water
gr
le
Resources on a continuing basis.

Te
coordinates with disaster affected State Government(s),

concerned line ministries/departments, National Disaster Crisis Management Group(CMG): The Central Relief
Management Authority (NDMA), National Disaster Response Commissioner is the Chairman of the CMG, consisting of
Force (NDRF), National Institute of Disaster Management senior officers (called nodal officers) from various concerned
(NIDM) and the Directorate General of Fire Services, Home Ministries. The CMG’s functions are to review every year
Guards and Civil Defence, and Armed Forces for effective contingency plans formulated by various Ministries/
disaster risk reduction. The Division is responsible for Departments/Organizations in their respective sectors,
legislation, policy, capacity building, prevention, mitigation, measures required for dealing with a natural disasters,
response and long term rehabilitation coordinate the activities of the Central Ministries and the
Central Relief Commissioner (CRC): CRC in the Ministry State Governments in relation to disaster preparedness and
of Home Affairs is the nodal officer to coordinate relief relief and to obtain information from the nodal officers on
operations for natural disasters. The CRC receives measures relating to above.
Nodal Ministry for Management/Mitigation of Various Disasters

Disaster Nodal Ministry/ Department
1. Biological Ministry of Health and Family Welfare (MoHFW)
2. Chemical and Industrial Ministry of Environment, Forest sand Climate Change (MOEFCC)
Disaster Management: Institutions and Policy Guidelines 93

3. Civil Aviation Accidents Ministry of Civil Aviation (MoCA)
4. Cyclone/Tornado Ministry of Earth Sciences (MoES)
5. Tsunami Ministry of Earth Sciences (MoES)
6. Drought/Hailstorm/Cold Wave and Ministry of Agriculture and Farmers Welfare (MoAFW)

Frost/Pest Attack
7. Earthquake Ministry of Earth Sciences (MoES)
8. Flood Ministry of Jal Shakti
9. Forest Fire Ministry of Environment, Forests, and Climate Change

(MoEFCC)
10. Landslides Ministry of Mines (MoM)
11. Avalanche Ministry of Defence (MoD)
12. Nuclear and Radiological Emergencies Dept. of Atomic Energy (DAE)
13. Rail Accidents Ministry of Railways (MoR)
14. Road Accidents Ministry of Road Transport and Highways (MoRTH)
15 Urban Floods Ministry of Urban Development (MoUD)

C
PS
Key National-Level Decision-Making Bodies For Disaster Management

_U
nt
ge
Name Composition Function

A
-@
Prime Minister, Evaluation from a national security perspective, if an incident has potential
ID
Minister of Defence, security implications

am
Cabinet Committee
gr
Minister of Finance, Oversee and review all aspects of preparedness, mitigation and management
le
on Security (CCS)
Te
Minister of of Chemical, Biological, Radiological and Nuclear (CBRN) emergencies and of

Home Affairs disasters with security implications
Cabinet Secretary Oversee the Command, Control and Coordination of the disaster response.
(Chairperson) Give direction to the Crisis Management Group as deemed necessary.
Secretaries of Give direction for specific actions to face crisis situations.
National Crisis Ministries/
Management Departments and
Committee (NCMC) agencies with
specific Disaster
Management
responsibilities
Prime Minister Lay down policies, plans and guidelines for disaster management
(Chairperson) Coordinate their enforcement and implementation throughout the country
Members (not Approve the NDMP and the DM plans of the respective Ministries and
National Disaster exceeding nine, Departments of Government of India
Management nominated by the Lay down guidelines for disaster management to be followed by the different
Authority (NDMA) Chairperson) Central Ministries, Departments and the State Governments
The NDMA has the mandate to deal with all types of disasters – natural or
human-induced.
Union Home To assist the NDMA in the discharge of its functions
Secretary Preparation of the National Disaster Management Plan
(Chairperson) Coordinate and monitor the implementation of the National Policy on Disaster
Management
Direct any department or agency of the Govt. to make available to the NDMA or
National Executive SDMAs such men, material or resources as are available with it for emergency
Committee (NEC) response, rescue and relief
Coordinate with the Armed Forces, Central Armed Police Forces (CAPF), the
National Disaster Response Force (NDRF) and other uniformed services which
comprise the GOI’s response to aid the State authorities
Coordinate with SDRF, civil defence volunteers, home guards and fire services,
through the relevant administrative departments of the State Governments
Specially trained The National Disaster Response Force (NDRF) was established under Section
force headed by a 44 of the DM Act, 2005 by converting 16 battalions of Central Para Military
National Disaster Director General Forces (BSF, ITBP, CISF, and CRPF) into a specialist force for disaster response.
Response Force Structured like Assist the relevant State Government/District Administration in the event of
(NDRF) paramilitary an imminent hazard event or in its aftermath.
forces for rapid The general superintendence, direction, and control of the National Disaster
deployment Response Force (NDRF) are vested in and exercised by the NDMA.
Union Home Human resource development and capacity building for disaster management
National Institute Minister; Vice within the broad policies and guidelines laid down by the NDMA
of Disaster Chairperson, NDMA Design, develop and implement training programmes
Management Undertake research
(NIDM) It works within the framework of broad policies and guidelines laid down by
the NDMA
C
PS
_U
State Disaster Management Authority

nt
ge
A
Formation: The DM Act mandates the setting up of a

-@
IGNITE YOUR MIND

ID
State Disaster Management Authority (SDMA) and a

am
How can the centralised structure of NDMA be similar system in each state and UT.
gr
le
further decentralised to empower local communities Function: The SDMA will approve the disaster
Te
and state governments to manage their own disaster

management plans prepared by various departments.
risks and response measures? Do you think local
It will also approve the State Plan by the guidelines laid
knowledge and traditional practices can be leveraged
to complement top-down strategies? down by the NDMA, coordinate the implementation of
the State Plan, and recommend the provision of funds
State-Level Disaster Management for mitigation and preparedness measures.
As per the DM Act of 2005, each state in India/ Union State Executive Committee
Territory (UT) shall have its own institutional framework for
disaster management. The State Government shall constitute a State Executive
Committee (SEC) to assist the SDMA in the performance of
Disaster Management Department
its functions. The SEC will be headed by the Chief Secretary to
Each State/UT will have one nodal department for
the State Government. The SEC will coordinate and monitor
coordination of disaster management called the DM
department (DMD). The DM Act mandates that each State/ the implementation of the National Policy, the National Plan,
UT shall take necessary steps for the preparation of State/ and the State Plan. The SEC will also provide information to
UT DM plans, integration of measures for the prevention the NDMA relating to different aspects of DM.
of disasters or mitigation into State/UT development plans,
allocation of funds, and establishment of an Early warning District Disaster Management Authority (DDMA)
system. Depending on specific situations and needs, the At the district level, there is provision of DDMA coordinated
State/UT shall also assist the Central Government and central by the District Magistrate or the Deputy Commissioner. It
agencies in various aspects of DM. Each state shall prepare will be responsible for overall coordination of the disaster
its own State Disaster Management Plan. management efforts and planning.

State Level Disaster Management Coordination Mechanism
Central Government National Disaster Management

Ministries/ Departments Authority (NDMA)
State Government
State Disaster
Response Force State Executive State Disaster Management
(SDRF) Committee (SEC) Authority (SDMA)
Relief Commissioner/
Nodal Department
State Emergency
Operation Centre State
(SEOC) Department/ Line
Agencies
District Disaster
Management
Authority (DDMA)
Agencies With
Disaster Management
Responsibilities
C
PS
Fig. 6.2: State-Level Disaster Management Coordination Mechanism

_U
nt
ge
A
operations, medical assistance, damage assessment,

-@
evacuation, and community engagement.

ID
am
IGNITE YOUR MIND

Disaster Preparedness: SDRF personnel actively
gr
le
participates in drills and exercises to enhance their skills

Te
Local elders, farmers, and indigenous groups

become citizen scientists, sharing knowledge of and readiness for responding to emergencies.
flood cycles, erosion patterns, and ancient warning Awareness: They also conduct awareness campaigns and
signs gleaned from nature. Can you think of the community outreach programs to educate citizens about
ways in which state agencies can involve people disaster preparedness and risk reduction measures.
in the mitigation and rescue process to make it Coordination: The SDRF works closely with other
more democratic and participative along with
agencies involved in disaster management, including
technology integration.
the National Disaster Response Force (NDRF), District
Disaster Management Authority (DDMA), and State
State Disaster Response Force (SDRF) Disaster Management Authority (SDMA).
The State Disaster Response Force (SDRF) is an integral part
of India’s disaster management system. Established under Rules Notified Under The Disaster
the Disaster Management Act, of 2005, each state and union Management Act
territory (UT) has its own SDRF for responding to various Disaster Management(National Institute of Disaster
natural and man-made disasters. Management) Rules, 2006: It provides for the makeup
of the institution and governing body, the filling of
Functions of SDRF vacancies, institute meetings, and the authorities and
Emergency Response: SDRF teams are trained and functions of the Executive Director.
equipped to handle various disaster situations, including National Institute of Disaster Management Regulations,
floods, cyclones, earthquakes, landslides, and chemical 2006: It provides for Composition of the institute and the
emergencies. They are responsible for search and rescue governing body.
Disaster Management (Annual Report of National Procedural Delays: Timely and effective action might be
Authority) Rules, 2006: It provides for the inclusion of hampered by lengthy bureaucratic procedures.
the contents in the annual report and its presentation Resource Constraint: The allocation of resources
to both Houses of Parliament within nine months of the for disaster management remains inadequate at all
end of the fiscal year. levels. This limits the capacity to effectively implement
Disaster Management (Notice of Alleged Offence) Rules, mitigation and preparedness measures, ultimately
2007: It provides for notification of alleged offence and impacting response capabilities.
intent to file a complaint, as well as the specifications to
Inadequate Community Participation: The Act
be provided with the notice.
encourages community participation, but the actual
Disaster Management (National Disaster Management
implementation often falls short. This leads to limited
Response Force) Rules, 2008: It provides for the ownership and engagement from communities, hindering
formation of the force; its direction and control;
the effectiveness of disaster management efforts.
responsibility, training, skill, duties, and so on; and the
conditions of service of the NDRF. Data and Information Management: Weak data
collection, analysis, and dissemination hinders effective
risk assessment, preparedness planning, and response
ISSUES WITH THE DISASTER
coordination.
MANAGEMENT ACT, 2005 Climate Change and Emerging Threats: The Act does not
Reactive and piece-meal approach: Disaster explicitly address the growing threat of climate change
management in India has focused more on immediate and emerging risks like pandemics.
response (search and rescue, food and water etc.) while No Integration Of Development With Disaster: The
recovery, rehabilitation, preparedness, and mitigation Act lacks a strong emphasis on integrating disaster
have been neglected. risk reduction into development plans. This can lead
Functional crossovers and confusion: Though the Act to vulnerability being built into infrastructure and
provides for forming of various bodies at all levels, there settlements, exacerbating disaster impacts.
is an overlap of duties, and there is no streamlined The DMA must be thoroughly reviewed and amended to
mechanism of cooperation among the governing bodies.
C
address these shortcomings. Communities, specialists, and

PS
_U
Misutilization of funds: A 2018 CAG report on civil society organisations should participate in this multi-
nt
Uttarakhand’s post-flood reconstruction (Report No.

ge
stakeholder approach.
A
2 of 2018) revealed irregularities in fund utilization,

-@
including delays, lack of transparency in procurement, Way Forward (Disaster Management Act)
ID
am
and discrepancies in project completion certificates. Strengthening decentralisation: Empowering local

gr
Limited Scope: The Act primarily focuses on post-disaster authorities and communities through capacity building
le

Te
response and relief, overlooking the crucial aspects of and resource allocation can lead to more context-specific
prevention, mitigation, and preparedness. and effective disaster management.
Centralised Authority: The Disaster Management Act Promoting community engagement: Actively involving
vests significant power in the Central Government, communities in risk assessments, preparedness plans, and
leading to concerns about overreach and bureaucratic early warning systems can build resilience and ownership.
hurdles at the state and local levels. Clarifying roles and responsibilities: Defining clear
Lack of Accountability: The Act lacks clear mechanisms mandates and establishing coordination mechanisms
for holding authorities accountable for their actions or between different agencies can streamline response and
inaction during disaster management. This can lead to avoid duplication of efforts.
inefficiency, corruption, and inadequate response in
certain situations. Enhancing financial resources: Exploring sustainable
funding mechanisms like disaster insurance and public-
District Funds Have Not Been Established: The Act
private partnerships can ensure adequate resources for
requires the formation of disaster response and
preparedness and recovery.
mitigation funds at the district level, but this provision
has yet to be implemented. Adapting to climate change: The Act needs to be updated
Delayed Response and Policy Implementation: There to incorporate climate change considerations, including
are concerns about delayed response times and policy risk assessment, mitigation strategies, and adaptation
implementation. plans for specific hazards.
• The devastating floods that ravaged Kerala in 2018 Regular review and amendments: Periodic evaluations
serve as a stark example of how delayed response of the Act’s effectiveness and responsiveness to
and implementation can exacerbate the impact of evolving disaster landscapes are crucial for continuous
natural disasters. improvement.

to a Deputy Collector but not below a Sub-Divisional
Institutional Framework for Metropolitan Cities Magistrate under specific conditions.
The government has accepted the recommendation
of the second Administrative Reforms Commission National Civil Defence College (NCDC), Nagpur
that in larger cities with a population of more than The National Civil Defence College, formerly known
2.5 million the Mayor, assisted by the Municipal as Central Emergency Relief Training Institute (CERTI),
Corporation Commissioner and the Police was founded in Nagpur district in 1957 to serve the
Commissioner, be directly responsible for Crisis Emergency Relief Organisation of the Government of
Management. India.
However, the full implementation of the The Institute provided specialised training for revenue
recommendations has been slow and uneven across officers in disaster relief operations for natural or
different states. artificial disasters.
The institution now serves as a focal point for disaster
CIVIL DEFENCE management training and emergency response
training for radiological, nuclear, biological, and
Origin: Civil Defence in India traces it origin from World chemical hazards.
War II when the need for civilian readiness against air
attacks and other wartime threats became apparent.
• Civil Defence (CD) legislation, known as the Civil FIRE SERVICES
Defence Act, was enacted in 1968 and is currently in
Establishment: In 1955, the Indian government
effect throughout the country.
established a “Standing Fire Advisory Committee” under
Civil Defence And Disaster Management: The above Act the Ministry of Home Affairs. The group aimed to assess
was amended in 2009 and given responsibility to play a technical issues in Fire Services and advise the Indian
proactive role in disaster management. government on the rapid development and upgrading of
Role of Civil Defence: During war and emergencies, these services nationwide.
the CD organisation plays a vital role in protecting the • The Committee was renamed “Standing Fire
C
PS
hinterland, supporting the military, mobilising citizens, Advisory Council” (SFAC) in 1980.
_U
and assisting civil administration in efforts to save lives

nt
Present Status: According to item 7 of Schedule 12 of

ge
and property, minimise damage, maintain production

A
Article 243W of the constitution, Municipal Bodies are

-@
centres, and boost morale.

responsible for providing fire services.
ID
• Over the time, CD has expanded beyond conventional

am
• Fire prevention and fighting services are currently

weapon damage management to encompass threats
gr
organised by relevant states and UTs. The Ministry

le
Te
from nuclear, biological, chemical, and environmental

of Home Affairs, Government of India, provides
calamities.
technical guidance on fire protection, prevention,
• For example: In Kerala Floods (2023) over 10,000
and legislation to States, UTs, and Central Ministries.
CDF personnel were deployed for rescue and
relief operations. They helped evacuate stranded
residents, provided first aid and medical assistance,
National Fire Service College (NFSC), Nagpur
and distributed essential supplies like food and water. The National Fire Service College, established in 1956
Their swift action and local knowledge were vital in under the Ministry of Home Affairs, aims to train fire
mitigating the impact of the floods. officers in advanced techniques and create uniformity in
• Civil Defence is primarily organised on a voluntary fire service organisations and management nationwide.
basis except for a small nucleus of paid staff
and establishment which is augmented during HOME GUARDS
emergencies
Civil Defence Setup In The States: To coordinate with Establishment: Home Guards are raised by the Home
the actions of the Controllers of Civil Defence, the state Guards Act and the rules of the various states and UTs.
government chooses a Director of Civil Defence and may Composition: They are recruited from amongst all classes
establish a Civil Defence Corps for specific areas. of people and walks of life, who give their spare time to
Civil Defence at The District Level: The state government the organisation for betterment of the community.
can designate a person named “Controller” who is not Controlling Authority: The Ministry of Home Affairs
below the status of a District Magistrate. develops policies for the Home Guards Organization’s
• The state government can appoint a Deputy function, target, raising, training, equipping,
Controller of Civil Defence with a status equivalent establishment, and other vital issues.
Types: Home Guards are divided into two types: Rural Indian DM Framework and Community-
and Urban, and border states have Border Wing Home Based Disaster Management
Guards Battalions at the national level. Promotes Community Training And Awareness: The
• Border Wing Home Guard acts as an auxiliary to the 2005 Disaster Management Act promotes community
Border Security Force. training and awareness programs for disaster prevention
• Marine Home Guard: Functions as an auxiliary to and mitigation, involving local authorities, NGOs, and
the Indian Coast Guard in coastal areas, assisting grassroots social-welfare organizations.
in patrolling, search and rescue operations, and The National Policy on Disaster Management 2009: It
maritime law enforcement. emphasizes community-based disaster preparedness,
Roles and Responsibilities of Home Guards training, simulations, and mock drills for vulnerable
To assist police in maintaining law and order. sections, recognizing the community as the foundation
of disaster response.
To prevent crime and participate in anti-crime patrols.
The National Disaster Management Plan (NDMP) 2016:
To contribute to disaster relief and rehabilitation efforts.
It aims to enhance India’s disaster resilience and reduce
To provide traffic management and crowd control support.
damage, following the Sendai Framework for Disaster
To engage in social welfare activities and community Risk Reduction guidelines.
development programs. They are related to Investing in disaster preparedness by
structural and nonstructural means, recognising disaster
CIVIL SOCIETY AND DISASTER risk, enhancing disaster risk governance, and improving
MANAGEMENT catastrophe readiness in order to respond effectively and
rebuild more quickly after a disaster.
Disasters have a substantially lower effect, notably in
terms of loss of life, when communities are equipped
and prepared’ - United Nations Office for Disaster
THE COORDINATION/INTERFACE
BETWEEN THE MINISTRIES FOR
C
Risk Reduction (UNISDR). Community-based disaster

PS
DISASTER MANAGEMENT
_U
management has emerged as a top goal in catastrophe

nt
ge
risk reduction. Civil society plays an important enabling

A
The interface between stakeholders and the disaster

-@
role in supporting disaster risk reduction action, from the

management framework is permanent and governed
ID
development and implementation of relevant policies, laws,

am
by legislative measures and government orders. These

gr
and regulations. Recognizing the paramount role of civil decisions determine the structure’s composition, identifying
le
Te
society and community-based organizations in promoting stakeholders to be involved. Each stakeholder’s role is
and implementing disaster risk reduction as there is a need evolving and defined within different Standard Operating
to strengthen the voice and engagement of stakeholders in Procedures (SOPs). While stakeholder involvement is
the implementation of disaster management. mandated and permanent, the nature of the interface
is guided by their expertise or relevance to the disaster
Importance of Community-Based Disaster management framework.
Management (CBDM) Example of stakeholder involvement includes: The
Disaster risk reduction measures: It involves identifying Indian Meteorological Department (IMD) and Central
vulnerable populations, utilizing community-based Water Commission (CWC) providing weather and climatic
preparedness and early warning systems. However, information to the nodal management authority and aid in
inadequate understanding of local risk behaviour can disaster planning activities like flood zonation and flood plain
lead to poorly designed systems. management. The Department of Space provides research
Benefits of participation: Local participation in emergency and technical support by monitoring weather elements,
management ensures self-reliance, meets local needs, facilitating satellite-based communication, and undertaking
and incorporates indigenous knowledge. Organized activities like land use mapping and hazard zoning.
communities enforce downward accountability and Overall, an effective interface between the Ministries for
provide sustainable assistance. disaster management in India requires strong coordination,
Bottom-Up Approach: Community-Based Disaster resource allocation, data sharing, and community
Management (CBDM) is a bottom-up approach that engagement. By addressing existing challenges and
combines top-down strategies to identify and address implementing effective strategies, India can build a more
challenges and difficulties in disaster management. resilient and prepared nation against disasters.

Act, 2005 and the National Policy on Disaster Management, 2009.
MAJOR PLANS AND POLICIES
Objectives of NDMP
National Policy on Disaster Management Along with the mandate given in the DM Act 2005 and
(NPDM), 2009 the NPDM 2009, the national plan has incorporated the
national commitments in the domain of DRR associated
The National Policy on Disaster Management (NPDM)
with the three major post 2015 global frameworks and the
was developed following and in response to the Disaster
PM’s Ten Point Agenda. Accordingly, the broad objectives
Management Act of 2005. The NPDM will give a framework/
of the NDMP are:
roadmap for dealing with catastrophes holistically.
Improve the understanding of disaster risk, dangers, and
Vision: To create a safe and disaster-resilient India
vulnerabilities.
by implementing a comprehensive, proactive, multi-
Improve catastrophe risk governance at all levels, from
disaster, and technology-driven approach based on a
local to national.
culture of prevention, mitigation, readiness, and response.
Invest in catastrophe risk reduction for resilience by
Coverage area: The Policy addresses all aspects of
taking structural, non-structural, and financial measures,
disaster management, including institutional, legal, and
as well as developing comprehensive capacity.
financial arrangements; disaster prevention, mitigation,
Improve disaster preparedness for a more effective
and preparedness, as well as a techno-legal regime;
response.
response, relief, and rehabilitation; reconstruction
and recovery; capacity development, knowledge Encourage “Build Back Better” in the areas of healing,
management, and research and development. rehabilitation, and reconstruction.
• It focuses on the areas where action is required as Prevent disasters and reduce disaster risk and losses in
well as the institutional mechanisms that might lives, livelihoods, health, and assets (economic, physical,
channel such activity. social, cultural, and environmental).
Inclusivity: In terms of awarding relief and creating Increase resilience and minimise existing risks while
C
PS
measures for disaster rehabilitation, the NPDM preventing the introduction of new catastrophic hazards.
_U
Encourage the implementation of integrated and

nt
addresses the concerns of all sections of society,

ge
inclusive economic, structural, legal, social, health,

A
including differently-abled people, women, children, and

-@
other disadvantaged groups. cultural, educational, environmental, technical, political,

ID
and institutional catastrophe prevention and mitigation

am
Objectives
gr
strategies.
le
Te
To reduce the risk of disasters through mitigation and

Empower both local governments and communities to
preparedness measures.
work together to prevent and manage catastrophe risks.
To ensure prompt and effective response to disasters.
Improve scientific and technological capacity in all areas
To provide relief and rehabilitation to the affected of catastrophe management.
population.
Capacity building at all levels to respond effectively
To promote disaster risk reduction (DRR) in all sectors. to multiple threats and to manage community-based
To build capacity for disaster management at all levels. disasters.
To create a culture of safety and resilience. Salient Features of the Plan
Through the involvement of the community, community- Comprehensive Disaster Management: The plan
based organisations, Panchayati Raj Institutions (PRIs), addresses all aspects of disaster management, including
local bodies, and civil society, the NPDM aspires to increase prevention, mitigation, response, and recovery.
openness and accountability in all aspects of disaster Priorities: The approach employed in this national plan
management. includes the four priorities enunciated in the Sendai
National Disaster Management Plan, 2016 Framework into the disaster risk reduction planning
framework under the five Thematic Areas for Actions:
The NDMP serves as a document or guideline for the government
agencies to act in all phases of disasters. It is based on the 1. Understanding Risk
Sendai Framework, which is a United Nations framework, for 2. Inter-Agency Coordination
substantially reducing disaster risk, and losses to lives and 3. Investing in Disaster Risk Reduction - Structural
livelihoods. The NDMP is also as per the Disaster Management Measures

4. Investing in Disaster Risk Reduction - Non-Structural across sectors, aiming for sustainable and resilient
Measures development.
5. Capacity Building Coherence with international frameworks: The plan
Prevention and Mitigation: Implementing structural aligns with international agreements like the Sendai
and non-structural measures to minimize the impact of Framework for DRR, Sustainable Development Goals
disasters. (SDGs), and Paris Agreement on Climate Change.
• Examples include building earthquake-resistant
Dedicated chapter on social inclusion: This new chapter
houses, planting trees to prevent landslides,
underscores the importance of addressing vulnerabilities
and promoting public awareness about disaster
faced by marginalized groups and ensuring equitable
preparedness.
access to resources during disasters.
Preparedness and Early Warning: Developing and
implementing early warning systems for timely alerts to Strengthening disaster risk governance: The revised
communities in case of impending disasters. plan emphasizes robust governance mechanisms for
Defines Roles of Various Stakeholders: It advocates effective DRR and response, including decentralization
horizontal and vertical integration of all government and community engagement.
offices and divisions. In a matrix style, the plan also The National Plan on Disaster Management plays a critical
specifies the functions and responsibilities of all levels of role in building resilience against natural and man-made
government, all the way up to the panchayat and urban disasters in India. By addressing existing challenges and
local body level.
continuously improving its implementation, India can strive
Region-Specific Approach: The plan takes a regional
towards a safer and more resilient future for its citizens.
approach, which will help with both disaster management
and development planning. Subhash Chandra Bose Aapda Prabandhan
Changes Brought to NDMP in 2019 Puraskar 2023
C
Subhash Chandra Bose Aapda Prabandhan Puraskar

PS
The National Plan on Disaster Management (NDMP)

_U
underwent significant revisions in 2019, in order to address 2023: This award was instituted by the Government of
nt
ge
various limitations and adapting to evolving disaster India to recognize the excellent work done by individuals
A
-@
landscapes. and Institutions in India in the field of Disaster

ID
Management like Prevention, Mitigation, Preparedness,

Enhanced Scope and Coverage: The revised plan
am
Rescue, Response, Relief, Rehabilitation, Research/

gr
expanded its scope to include 17 disasters compared

le
Innovations or Early Warning. In 2023 the award was

Te
to 11 in the 2016 version. This broader coverage

given to following organisations.
acknowledges the growing threat of diverse risks.
• Odisha State Disaster Management Authority
Emphasis on social inclusion: The 2019 plan explicitly
(OSDMA) OSDMA was established in 1999 in the
focuses on social inclusion, ensuring marginalized
aftermath of the Super Cyclone. OSDMA embarked
communities’ participation in disaster management
on multiple initiatives including raising of the
activities.
Odisha Disaster Response Action Force (ODRAF),
Multi-hazard Early Warning Service (MHEWS)
IGNITE YOUR MIND framework, and a cutting-edge technology-
enabled web/smartphone-based platform
The National Plan on Disaster Management 2019 called SATARK (System for Assessing, Tracking,
added a new chapter on social inclusion. Do you and Alerting Disaster Risk Information based
think the dedicated chapter on social inclusion on Dynamic Risk Knowledge). OSDMA provided
translates into tangible outcomes for marginalised effective response during various cyclones,
communities, ensuring their voices are heard Hudhud (2014), Fani (2019), Amphan (2020), and
and needs are addressed throughout the disaster Odisha floods (2020). OSDMA conducted disaster
management cycle? Can you think few more preparedness initiatives in building community
measures in this aspect?
resilience in 381 tsunami-prone villages/wards
and 879 multi-purpose cyclone/ flood shelters
Mainstreaming DRR: The plan emphasizes mainstreaming located within 1.5 km from the coastline.
Disaster Risk Reduction (DRR) into development planning

resilient nation. The establishment of NDMA, the
• Lunglei Fire Station (LFS), Mizoram: Responded
implementation of the Disaster Management Act, and the
efficiently and effectively to a massive forest fire
which was reported on April 24, 2021, in the integration of risk reduction into development plans are
uninhabited forest areas that surrounded Lunglei concrete examples of this commitment. These efforts have
town and spread to more than 10 village council demonstrably saved lives, reduced economic losses, and
areas. Lunglei fire station personnel assisted empowered communities to cope with unforeseen disasters.
by local civilians worked continuously for more
than 32 hours during which they motivated and While challenges remain, the institutional and policy
provided on-the-spot training to residents. framework for disaster management in India paints a picture
of unwavering determination and resolute action. From the
dedication of policymakers to the resilience of communities,
CONCLUSION a collective spirit shines through, promising a future where
India’s institutional mechanisms and policy landscape India confronts disasters not with fear, but with preparedness
represent a significant leap forward in building a disaster- and a unified resolve to emerge stronger.
C
PS
_U
nt
ge
A
-@
ID
am
gr
le
Te

Funding Framework
and Capacity Building 7
the NDRF. Currently headed by the Finance Minister,
INTRODUCTION the committee includes the Home Minister, Minister
Financial aid following natural disasters adheres to relief fund for Agriculture, and the Vice-Chairman of the Planning
schemes aligned with the recommendations of successive Commission as its members.
Finance Commissions. The Ministry of Finance manages
the budgetary allocations for these relief funds, while STATE DISASTER RESPONSE FUND
the Ministry of Home Affairs (DM Division) oversees the (SDRF)
processing of state government requests for these funds. The
primary responsibility for disaster management, including Legal Status: The State Disaster Response Fund (SDRF),
disbursal of relief to the affected people on the ground level, constituted under Section 48 (1) (a) of the Disaster
rests with the State Governments. The State Governments Management Act, 2005, is the primary fund available to
undertake relief measures in the wake of natural disasters State Governments for responses to notified disasters.
from the State Disaster Response Fund (SDRF). Additional Source of funding: The Central Government contributes
financial assistance is provided by the National Disaster 75% of SDRF allocation for general category States/UTs
Response Fund (NDRF), as per the laid down procedure, in and 90% for special category States/UTs (NE States, Sikkim,
the case of a disaster of a ‘severe nature’, which includes an Uttarakhand, Himachal Pradesh, Jammu and Kashmir).
assessment based on the visit of the Inter-Ministerial Central • The annual Central contribution is released in two
Team (IMCT). equal installments as per the recommendation of the
Finance Commission.
C
PS
NATIONAL DISASTER RESPONSE • SDRF shall be used only for meeting the expenditure
_U
for providing immediate relief to the victims.

nt
FUND (NDRF)
ge
A
Disaster (s) covered under SDRF: Cyclone, drought,

-@
Legal Status: Section 46(1) of the Disaster Management earthquake, fire, flood, tsunami, hailstorm, landslide,
ID
avalanche, cloudburst, pest attack, frost and cold waves.

am
Act 2005 mandates the establishment of the National

gr
Disaster Response Fund (NDRF) for addressing

le
District Disaster Response Funds

Te
threatening disaster management situations.

District Disaster Response Funds and District Disaster
Financial Arrangements for NDRF: The Government of
Mitigation Funds are proposed to be created at the District
India finances the NDRF through the “National Calamity
Level as mandated by Section 48 of the DM Act. The disaster
Contingency Duty,” which is levied on various imported response funds at the district level would be used by the
items, including petrol, crude oil, motor vehicles, mobile District Disaster Management Authority (DDMA) towards
phones, pan masala, and specific tobacco products along meeting expenses for emergency response, relief, and
with recommendations of the finance commission. rehabilitation by the guidelines and norms laid down by the
The process to get money from NDRF: Beyond the Government of India and the State Government.
provisions of the State Disaster Response Fund (SDRF),
the NDRF provides additional financial assistance for Funding in Local Disasters
calamities of severe nature. A State Government may use up to 10 per cent of the
Assessment Process: Upon receiving a memorandum funds available under the SDRF for providing immediate
from affected states, an Inter-Ministerial Central relief to the victims of natural disasters that they consider
Team (IMCT) is constituted. This team, comprising to be ‘disasters’ within the local context in the State and
representatives from central ministries/departments, which are not included in the notified list of disasters of
conducts an assessment. The report is then examined the Ministry of Home Affairs.
by the Inter-Ministerial Group (IMG), which is headed by This provision is subject to the condition that the State
the Home Secretary. Government has listed the State-specific natural disasters
Approval Process: Following the examination by the IMG, and notified clear and transparent norms and guidelines for
the report is placed before the High-Level Committee such disasters with the approval of the State Authority, i.e.,
(HLC) for consideration and approval of funds from the State Executive Committee (SEC).
relief to pre-disaster preparedness and mitigation, building
long-term resilience against natural hazards.
IGNITE YOUR MIND
Key Recommendations of the 15th FC on
As India confronts an array of natural and man-
made disasters, the National Disaster Response Disaster Management
Fund (NDRF) emerges as a crucial financial New Methodology adopted by 15th FC for allocations of
instrument aimed at catalyzing prompt and funds to the States.
effective responses. Can you Propose some • Historical Approach: Successive Finance
innovative financial instruments and collaborative Commissions up to 14th FC traditionally relied
frameworks that empower the NDRF? on an expenditure-based approach to determine
fund allocations for Disaster Management
to State Governments. The 15th Finance
MITIGATION FUND Commission has introduced a novel methodology
Formation: In 2021 The Central Government constituted for allocating funds to the States for Disaster
Management.
the National Disaster Mitigation Fund (NDMF). The
• Components of New Methodology: The new
Government also advised all the State Governments
methodology combines three key factors:
to set up State Disaster Mitigation Funds (SDMFs). As Capacity: Reflected through past expenditure.
of March 2023, 25 States have initiated the setting up Risk Exposure: Considering the area and
of SDMF. For SDMF, an amount of Rs. 32,031 crore has population.
been allocated for the period 2021-22 to 2025-26 by the Hazard & Vulnerability: Utilizing the disaster risk
Finance Commission. index.

Funding: The corpus of SDMF is contributed by the The commission proposed the formation of the National
Disaster Risk Management Fund (NDRMF) and State
C
Government of India and the State Government in the

PS
Disaster Risk Management Fund (SDRMF) at the

_U
ratio 75:25 for all States, except for the North-Eastern

nt
National Level and State Levels respectively.

ge
and Himalayan (NE&H) States, for which it is contributed

A
• NDRMF will consist of the National Disaster

-@
90:10.
ID
Response Fund and National Disaster Mitigation

am
Fund and similarly, SDRMF will consist of the

gr
le
RECOMMENDATION OF THE 15TH State Disaster Response Fund and State Disaster
Te
FINANCE COMMISSION Mitigation Fund.

From the total earmarked grants for Disaster management
15th Finance Commission (FC) placed significant emphasis for both National and State Corpus 20% is earmarked for
on strengthening Disaster Risk Management (DRM) in India Mitigation and the remaining 80% for response funds.
through its recommendations for the period 2021-26. These The Response fund has been further apportioned into
recommendations aim to shift the focus from post-disaster three windows:
Changes In Funding Structure Under 15th Finance Commission

Allocation
Funding Windows Purpose
Percentage
Disaster response refers to the actions taken directly after a destructive event
Response & Relief 40% occurs
Recovery & Reconstruction Shift in focus to address recovery and reconstruction needs, rebuilding assets
30% and livelihoods
(NDRMF/SDRMF)
Allocation to enhance states’ preparedness for effective disaster response,
Preparedness & Capacity
10% supporting SDMAs, SIDM, training, capacity building, and emergency response
Building (NDRMF/SDRMF)
facilities
Note: 1. NDRMF- National Disaster Risk Management Fund* 2. SDRMF- State Disaster Risk Management Fund*
3. SDMA- State Disaster Management Authority 4. SIDM- State Institute Of Disaster Management

Why is This Division Introduced? 4. Reducing the Risk of Urban Flooding in Seven
Preparedness: State Governments require effective Most Populous Cities: Implementing flood control
disaster preparedness to respond adequately to measures and drainage systems in cities like Mumbai,
disasters. Their institutions and facilities must be well- Chennai, and Kolkata vulnerable to urban flooding.
equipped and functioning to handle emergencies. 5. Mitigation Measures to Prevent Erosion: Addressing
Recovery & Reconstruction: Recovery is vital for soil erosion through afforestation, land terracing,
development, offering an opportunity for rebuilding and other initiatives to prevent environmental
infrastructure, reviving livelihoods, and improving civic degradation and landslides.
services. The current guidelines for the National Disaster 6. Resettlement of Displaced People Affected by
Response Fund (NDRF) and State Disaster Response Fund Erosion: Providing alternative settlements and
(SDRF) primarily focus on response and relief, offering rehabilitation support to communities displaced by
limited support for recovery and reconstruction.
coastal erosion, riverbank erosion, and other land
Six Earmarked Allocations degradation events.
The FC included six allocations which are aimed at addressing STATE DISASTER RISK MANAGEMENT FUND (SDRMF) (IN
specific critical areas. The allotted amount will be spent on CRORES)
preparedness, mitigation, and recovery through special
initiatives. A total of ₹11950 crores has been given in these SDMF (20%) 32031
six earmarked areas. SDRF (80%) 128122
DISTRIBUTION OF TOTAL NATIONAL ALLOCATION Response & Relief (40%) 64061
(IN CRORES)
Recovery & Reconstruction (30%) 48046
NDMF (20%) 13693 Preparedness & capacity building 16015
Catalytic Assistance 1200 (10%)
(12 most drought-prone States) Total (SDRMF) 160153
Reducing Risk of Urban Flooding 2500
C
(7 most populous cities) Fig. 7.2: 15th FC allocation in State Disaster Risk Management
PS
_U
Managing Seismic & landslide risk (10 hill 750 Fund

nt
ge
States)
A
Cost-Sharing Arrangement (Between

-@
Mitigation measures to prevent erosion 1500

Center & States)
ID
NDRF (80%) 54770

am
Central Assistance Structure: Central assistance is

gr
Response & Relief (40%) 27385

le
provided through the National Disaster Response Fund

Te
Recovery & Reconstruction (30%) 20539

(NDRF) or the National Disaster Mitigation Fund (NDMF)
Preparedness & capacity building (10%) 6846
is structured on a cost-sharing basis.
Resettlement of displaced 1000
Graded Cost-Sharing: The cost-sharing arrangements
people affected by erosion
follow a graded structure to ensure fairness and financial
Expansion & modernization of 5000
fire services
responsibility.
Total NDRMF (NDMF + NDRF) 68463
• For assistance up to Rs. 250 crores, states are required
to contribute 10 per cent.
Fig. 7.1: 15th FC allocation in the National Disaster Risk • Assistance up to Rs. 500 crores necessitates a state
Management Fund contribution of 20 per cent.
• Contributions increase to 25 per cent for all assistance
exceeding Rs. 500 crores from the NDRF or NDMF.
1.Expansion and Modernization of Fire Services:
Preventing Exorbitant Demands: This cost-sharing
Strengthening fire services across the country to
arrangement serves as a preventive measure against
improve response capabilities and save lives during
exorbitant financial demands from states, discouraging
fire emergencies. any competitive populism in the allocation of disaster
2. Catalytic Assistance to Twelve Most Drought- relief funds.
Prone States: Supporting drought-prone states
like Rajasthan, Andhra Pradesh, and Karnataka Alternate Sources of Funding
in implementing sustainable water management Recommended by the 15th FC
practices and mitigating the impact of droughts. In numerous instances, the funding allocated by the SDRF
3. Managing Seismic and Landslide Risks in Ten Hill States. and NDRF is likely to prove inadequate. In such scenarios,
Funding Framework and Capacity Building 105

both the Union and State Governments may encounter in collaboration with international financial institutions,
limitations in procuring disaster funds solely from these the utilization of crowdfunding platforms, and leveraging
sources. Therefore, it becomes imperative for governments corporate social responsibility initiatives. Anticipatory
to explore additional avenues for mobilizing financial development of these financial mechanisms and instruments
resources, such as the issuance of reconstruction bonds, is crucial, as it enables governments to identify and opt for
the establishment of contingent credit or standby facilities more cost-effective solutions.
Fig. 7.3: Alternate Sources of Funding Recommended by 15th Finance Commission

C
PS
Other Recommendations of the 15th • First assessment to ascertain humanitarian and relief
_U
nt
Finance Commission needs.

ge
A
• Second assessment to cover damage, loss, and

-@
Annual Report: Generate an annual national-level report

recovery needs.
ID
detailing all allocations, expenditures, key achievements,

am
and results against various Sendai Framework for Disaster Post Disaster Needs Assessment (PDNA): Utilize the
gr
Risk Reduction (SFDRR) indicators. Post Disaster Needs Assessment (PDNA) as a standard
le
Te
Dedicated Capacity and Online System: Allocate methodology for post-disaster assessments.
dedicated capacity for managing the National Disaster Disaster Database Establishment: Establish a Disaster
Risk Management Fund (NDRMF) and State Disaster Risk Database as a special initiative. Include disaster
Management Fund (SDRMF), emphasizing the purpose assessments, fund allocation details, expenditures,
of utilisation. Set up an online system for the release of preparedness, and mitigation plans in the database.
fund allocations, expenditures, and outstanding balances Assistance to Women Members of Households: Disburse
for each state. assistance to women members of households, ensuring
Two-Stage Assessment for NDRF Allocation: Conduct a cash assistance is transferred in a way that provides
two-stage assessment for NDRF allocation: women access to funds.
OTHER FUNDS
PM National Relief Fund(1948) PM Cares Fund(2020)
The Prime Minister’s National Relief Fund (PMNRF) was Keeping in mind the need for having a dedicated
established entirely with public contributions and does not fund with the primary objective of dealing with any
get any budgetary support. kind of emergency or distress situation, like posed
PMNRF accepts voluntary contributions from Individuals, by the COVID-19 pandemic, and to provide relief to
Organizations, Trusts, Companies and Institutions etc.
the affected, a public charitable trust under the name
of ‘Prime Minister’s Citizen Assistance and Relief in
Emergency Situations Fund (PM CARES Fund)’ has been
set up in 2020.

The resources of the PMNRF are now utilized primarily to The fund consists entirely of voluntary contributions
render immediate relief to families of those killed in natural from individuals/organizations and does not get any
calamities like floods, cyclones, earthquakes, etc. and to the budgetary support.
victims of the major accidents and riots. PM CARES Fund has been exempted under FCRA and
The corpus of the fund is invested in various forms with can accept foreign donations. This is consistent with
scheduled commercial banks and other agencies. PMNRF, which has received foreign contributions since
Disbursements are made with the approval of the Prime 2011.
Minister. Donations to the PM CARES Fund would qualify for 80G
PMNRF has not been constituted by the Parliament. benefits for 100% exemption under the Income Tax Act,
The fund is recognized as a Trust under the Income Tax Act of 1961.
and the same is managed by the Prime Minister or multiple It will also qualify to be counted as Corporate Social
delegates for national causes. Responsibility (CSR) expenditure under the Companies
Donations to the Fund would qualify for 80G benefits for Act, 2013.
100% exemption under the Income Tax Act, of 1961.
It will also qualify to be counted as a Corporate Social
Responsibility (CSR) expenditure under the Companies Act,
2013.
Capacity Building Role and

DISASTER MANAGEMENT
Responsibilities in India
CAPACITY BUILDING
To develop parameters/guidelines under which NIDM
Capacity building is an ongoing process that equips officials, has to function.
stakeholders and the community to perform their functions International Cooperation including preparation/
in a better manner during a crisis/disaster. In the process finalization of MoUs in the field of disaster management
of capacity building the administration should include with various countries, and their implementation, visits
elements of human resource development, i.e., individual of foreign delegations for bilateral meetings, etc.
training, organizational development such as improving the
C
To coordinate with International Organizations such as

PS

functioning of groups and organizations and institutional
_U
UNDRR, UNDP, UNICEF, UNOCHA, UNFPA, IORA, BRICS,

nt
development. At the national level, The National Institute

ge
of Disaster Management (NIDM) is the capacity-building SCO, BIMSTEC, ADPC, ADRC, G20, World Bank, SAARC,
A
-@
arm and the States have disaster management cells in the ASEAN, etc.
ID
State Administrative Training Institutes that perform the Nomination of officers of NDMA as guest lecturers or
am
gr
function of capacity-building for effective and efficient participants for attending International and National
le
Te
disaster management. There are a number of other training Workshops / Seminars / Training / Meetings, Forums / etc.
institutes which are engaged in training and capacity building Implementation of various projects of Capacity Building
in the area of disaster management. on Disaster Management (DM), DRR, and Disaster
Goals of Capacity Building Response in collaboration with State governments/
UTs and Centre for Disaster Management, LBSNAA,
Competence to respond to disasters in time and
Mussoorie.
effectively.
Monitoring of implementation of the National Disaster
Competence to ensure that development programmes
Management Guidelines on School Safety Policy – 2016
and projects do not create new disaster vulnerabilities.
in all schools of India.
Competence to undertake effective disaster mitigation
Monitoring of DM Exhibition & Mock Drills in all Schools
measures.
of AMRUT Cities (500).
Competence to reconstruct better than before.
Processing of proposals of partial financial support for
Competence to engage in recovery as an opportunity for organizing events on disaster-related subjects receives
improved and inclusive development. various Departments of GoI/State Govts. and Institutions
Capacity to identify resilience features and build resilience such as IITs, JNU, FICCI, CII, TIFAC and NGOs etc.
Ability to link with development, climate change and
disaster risk reduction Efforts By NDMA For Capacity Building
Recognition of transboundary risks and building capacity At the Policy and Plan Level
Ability to identify new emerging local challenges –climate Strengthening of SDMA/DDMA: The NDMA executed
change, pandemic, heat wave, cold wave, coastal erosion the ‘Strengthening of State Disaster Management
etc. Authorities (SDMAs) and District Disaster Management

Authorities (DDMAs)’ scheme, investing Rs. 42.5091 • Legal status: The National Disaster Management
crores from June 1, 2015, to March 31, 2018. The Authority (NDMA) has issued the Guidelines on
initiative aimed to enhance disaster management in 28 the Incident Response System (IRS) under Section
states and 6 Union Territories through MoUs, excluding 6 of the DM Act, 2005 for effective, efficient and
Tamil Nadu and Delhi. comprehensive management of disasters in India.
National Platform for DRR: The Government of India The vision is to minimize loss of life and property
acknowledges the importance of inclusive decision- by strengthening and standardizing the disaster
making in disaster management, leading to the response mechanism in the country.
establishment of the National Platform for Disaster Mock Exercises: To instil a preparedness mindset
Risk Reduction (NPDRR) in 2013. Chaired by the Union in communities and first responders, NDMA, in
Home Minister, it includes various stakeholders, collaboration with vulnerable states, initiated Mock
fostering dialogue, sharing experiences, and promoting Exercises. These exercises aim to assess and improve
cooperation in Disaster Risk Reduction. disaster management plans, identify resource gaps, and
Sustainable Reduction in DR: In collaboration with enhance awareness.
five states – Assam, Bihar, Jammu & Kashmir, Himachal Common Alerting Protocol Based Integrated Alert
Pradesh, and Uttarakhand – NDMA executed the System (Sachet): It aims for rapid disaster alert
“Sustainable Reduction in Disaster Risk” project from dissemination. It integrates Alert Generating Agencies
June 2016 to March 2020. The initiative aimed to enhance (IMD, CWC, etc.), Alert Disseminating Agencies (TSPs,
community and local self-government preparedness TV, Social media, etc.), and Disaster Management
in 10 vulnerable districts. Activities included forming Authorities, monitored nationally and at the state level.
DM Teams, conducting workshops, updating disaster NDMA funds this project, with Pan India implementation
management plans, and organizing awareness programs sanctioned after a successful Tamil Nadu pilot. The Center
and mock drills. for Development of Telematics (C-DOT) is executing the
project until March 31, 2024.
Mitigation Level Capacity Building Measures
Trauma Care: In partnership with Jai Prakash Narayan
Incident Response System
Apex Trauma Centre (JPNATC), NDMA conducted a pilot
C
PS
• About: The Incident Response System (IRS) is an Advanced Trauma Life Support project from May 2012 to
_U
effective mechanism for reducing ad-hoc measures in

nt
May 2013, training medical professionals in trauma care,

ge
response. It envisages a composite team with various

A
initially focusing on vulnerable states.

-@
Sections to attend to all the possible response

Chemical, Biological, Radiological and Nuclear
ID

requirements. It also emphasizes the need for
am
Emergencies: NDMA implemented a “Mobile Radiation

proper documentation of various activities for better
gr
Detection System” project, equipping and training

le
Te
planning, accountability and analysis.

police personnel in select cities to manage radiological
Standardized emergencies in public spaces. The project provides PPEs
Approach and radiation detectors, including vehicle-mounted Go-
NoGo meters.
Specialized
Training At Administration & Coordination Level
NDMA –IGNOU Pilot Project: In partnership with IGNOU,
Incident NDMA executed a pilot project for capacity building
Response Organizational
Flexibility
in disaster management for Government Officials,
System
(IRS) Panchayati Raj Institutions, and Urban Local Bodies. This
involved conducting 8 Face-to-Face Training Programs
Revised across 54 districts in 11 hazard-prone states.
Roadmap
Lal Bahadur Shastri National Academy of
Administration: In collaboration with the Centre for
Implementation
Period and Disaster Management, LBSNAA, Mussoorie, NDMA
Funding conducts a pilot project to train IAS/Central Service
officers in disaster management.
Fig 7.4: Features of Incident Response System
• Purpose: This will greatly help in reducing chaos and Capacity Gaps In Disaster Management
confusion during the response phase. Everyone will Policy level: Policy-level capacity gaps in disaster
know what needs to be done, who will do it and who management may include insufficient integration of
is in command. DRR concepts, inadequate legal frameworks, limited

coordination mechanisms, and a lack of comprehensive Challenges In Disaster Management
policies addressing emerging threats. Capacity Building
Resource Constraints: Limited funding and resources
IGNITE YOUR MIND hinder comprehensive training programs.
Rapidly Changing Nature of Disasters: Evolving threats
Imagine being trapped in the darkness and like extreme weather events, heat waves, and biological
silence for 17 days. How would that experience disasters demand continuous updates to training.
change your perspective on life, risk, and human Example: COVID-19 highlighted the need for adaptable
connection? training programs.
Community Engagement: Involving communities face
Management level: Management-level capacity gaps in obstacles like cultural differences. Example: Local
disaster management include insufficient coordination, workshops involving residents in risk identification may
limited decision-making skills, inadequate communication be hindered by language barriers.
strategies, and challenges in implementing comprehensive Climate Change Complexity: Increasing climate-related
and effective response plans. disasters require adaptive capacity building. Example:
Operational level: Operational-level capacity gaps in Monsoon Mayhem, 2023 in India demanded a high
disaster management include inadequate training, degree of capacity to handle the disaster.
insufficient resources, coordination challenges, and
limited preparedness measures, hindering effective Way Forward
response and recovery efforts during emergencies. Mainstreaming Disaster Risk Reduction into
Development: Regularly assess risks to inform land-use
Empowering Panchayati Raj Institutions for planning, infrastructure development, and livelihood
Disaster Preparedness and Management programs, prioritizing risk reduction and resilience
Current Challenges: Government agencies currently building. Support initiatives that build infrastructure and
bear sole responsibility for disaster management, develop livelihoods that can withstand the impacts of
limiting local participation and community resilience. climate change and natural disasters.
C
PS
This centralized approach increases dependence Advocating for Risk-informed Policies and Legislation:
_U
nt
on the government and hinders effective disaster Advocate for policies that mandate DRR measures,
ge
preparedness at the local Gram Panchayat level.

A
establish accountability for preparedness and response,

-@
Need for Local Capacity Building: Immediate disaster and promote risk-informed development. Campaign
ID
response often faces delays due to formalities, for dedicated disaster preparedness budgets and
am
gr
resulting in significant damage. Building local capacity international assistance programs to ensure access to
le
Te
at the Gram Panchayat level is essential, necessitating resources for capacity building.
a shift from the current top-down approach to a more Empowering Youth and Marginalized Groups: Actively
efficient, effective system. engage youth and marginalized communities in DRR
Crucial Role of Panchayats: Recognizing the vital role planning and implementation through inclusive and
of panchayats, the Commission emphasises making participatory approaches. Design programs that address
them the nodal agency for relief and rehabilitation. the specific needs and vulnerabilities of women, children,
This can enhance planning, coordination, and
persons with disabilities, and other marginalized
monitoring, improving overall disaster intervention.
populations.
Proactive Involvement in Disaster Management:
Investing in Resilient Infrastructure and Early Warning
Panchayati raj institutions can proactively engage
in all aspects of disaster management, including Systems: Analyze potential threats and vulnerabilities
prevention, mitigation, preparedness, response, to inform critical infrastructure upgrades (e.g., roads,
restoration, rehabilitation, and reconstruction. bridges, communication networks) for improved
Their involvement is crucial in activities like rescue disaster resistance. Utilize technology to establish
operations, relief distribution, and risk mitigation. accessible and effective early warning systems
Financial Mechanisms and Decentralized Approach: tailored to local hazards, ensuring timely and clear
The Commission suggests State Governments allocate communication of warnings.
a reasonable amount from the SDRF and SDMF to Fostering Inter-institutional Collaboration and
districts, promoting a decentralized approach to disaster Coordination: Build strong relationships between
management. While acknowledging challenges in government agencies, NGOs, the private sector, and
resource allocation, empowering panchayats remains a academia to facilitate resource sharing, expertise
cornerstone in effective disaster management. exchange, and joint planning. Clearly delineate the roles

and responsibilities of all stakeholders at local, regional, local initiatives. Build a network of volunteers trained
and national levels to ensure a coordinated and efficient in first aid, search and rescue, evacuation, and basic
response. needs distribution to provide immediate support during
Localized, Culturally Relevant Education and disasters.
Awareness: Brochures, infographics, and workshops
focusing on prevention, early warning systems, and CONCLUSION
emergency preparedness should be tailored to local India’s journey towards disaster resilience hinges on robust
contexts and translated into relevant languages. Employ capacity building. Investing in training, research, and early
radio, local media, mobile apps, and community-based warning systems will empower communities and institutions
training sessions led by trusted local voices to reach all to anticipate, prepare for, and respond effectively to disasters.
demographics effectively. Building resilient infrastructure, coupled with community
Empowering Local Leadership and Volunteer Networks: engagement and financial preparedness will further enhance
Equip trusted individuals with skills in disaster the government’s proactive approach, safeguarding lives
preparedness and response leadership to spearhead and livelihoods in the face of inevitable hazards.
C
PS
_U
nt
ge
A
-@
ID
am
gr
le
Te

International Cooperation 8
dedication to global and regional disaster management in a
INTRODUCTION
more concise manner.
India has played an important role in global initiatives on
disaster management. With multi dimensional initiatives HYOGO FRAMEWORK OF ACTION
and expertise, India is taking a leading role in strengthening
In January 2005, a global conference on Disaster Risk Reduction
regional cooperation among South Asian countries for
took place in Kobe, Japan, drawing representatives from 168
reducing disasters, furthermore, it has hosted the SAARC
countries. During this event, the Hyogo Framework of Action (HFA)
Disaster Management Centre in New Delhi. Committed 2005-2015 was adopted to work globally towards sustainable
to the Hyogo Framework of Action, India diligently works reduction of disaster losses in lives and in the social, economic
towards achieving the goals set under it through systematic and environmental assets of communities and countries. The
and sustained efforts under the five priority action areas framework outlined three strategic goals and identified five
mentioned in the framework. This demonstrates India’s priority action areas:
Three Strategic Goals

C
1. Enhanced Integration into 2. Institutional Development

PS
3. Incorporation of Risk Reduction

_U
Sustainable Development: The primary and Capacity Strengthening: A in Emergency Programs: The
nt
objective under the HFA involves more key goal is the development and HFA underscores the systematic
ge
effectively integrating disaster risk reinforcement of institutions,

A
incorporation of risk reduction

-@
reduction into sustainable development mechanisms, and capacities at approaches into the design and
ID
policies, planning, and programming all levels, particularly at the implementation of emergency
am
across all levels, with a special community level. The aim is to preparedness, response, and
gr
emphasis placed on prioritizing disaster systematically contribute to recovery programmes during

le
Te
prevention, mitigation, preparedness, building resilience to hazards the reconstruction of affected

and vulnerability reduction. within communities. communities.
Fig. 8.1: Three Strategic Goals of Hyogo Framework
Five Priority Action Areas

National and Local Priority for Disaster Risk Reduction: Ensure that disaster risk reduction is a national and a local
1 priority with a strong institutional basis for implementation.
Risk Identification, Assessment, and Monitoring: Countries are encouraged to focus on identifying, assessing, and
2 monitoring disaster risks, while also enhancing early warning systems to improve preparedness.
Knowledge, Innovation, and Education for Safety Culture: The HFA advocates for the utilization of knowledge, innovation,
3 and education to foster a culture of safety and resilience at all levels within communities and nations.
Addressing Underlying Risk Factors: Efforts should concentrate on reducing the underlying risk factors that contribute
4 to the vulnerability of communities to disasters.
Strengthening Disaster Preparedness: Strengthen disaster preparedness for effective response at all levels.
5
Fig. 8.2: Five Priority Action Areas under the Hyogo Framework
Key Initiatives Based on Priority Action of Hyogo Framework for Disaster Reduction
Key Initiatives based on Priority Action of Hyogo Framework for Disaster

Country/Region Challenges Encountered
Reduction
Make Disaster Risk Reduction a Priority: Madagascar has established a Challenges may arise
National Platform for Disaster Reduction, fostering collaboration among in coordinating diverse
government departments, NGOs, media, donors, and the UN. This platform stakeholders effectively.
conducts training, enhances preparedness through cyclone refuges, and is
Madagascar
finalizing an Early Warning System. There is an ongoing effort to integrate
disaster risk reduction with poverty reduction in the Poverty Reduction
Strategy Paper (PRSP). Noteworthy achievements include improved
preparedness with cyclone refuges.
Know the Risks and Take Action: Cuba excels in hurricane preparedness Continuous maintenance of
with a sophisticated Early Warning System. Alerts are issued 72 hours before the Early Warning System is
Cuba a storm, evacuation plans are checked 48 hours before landfall, and targeted crucial for sustained success.
warnings are issued 12 hours before. Success stories include effective
evacuations during hurricanes Charley and Ivan in 2004, resulting in zero
casualties during the latter.
Build Understanding and Awareness: Residents of Simeulue showcase the Challenges may include
Simeulue power of local knowledge for disaster preparedness. Passed down through ensuring the continuity of
(Indonesia) generations, early warning signs of natural hazards are imparted within passing down local knowledge
communities. Success stories include minimal casualties (seven people) to future generations.
during the Indian Ocean tsunami.
Reduce Risk: Building resilience is prioritized in Bam, Iran, to mitigate the Challenges involve enforcing
Bam, Iran impact of unsafe buildings and lax building codes. The devastating 2003 stricter building codes to
earthquake underscored the importance of safe buildings. Success stories prevent significant loss of life
C
PS
include heightened awareness of safe construction practices. and property.

_U
nt
Be Prepared and Ready to Act: Japan prioritizes disaster preparedness Challenges including the
ge
A
Japan with an annual Disaster Prevention Day involving the public and emergency ongoing need for regular
-@
workers nationwide drills. Success stories include Japan’s reputable practice and continuous
ID
earthquake preparedness. improvement in disaster

am
gr
preparedness.
le
Te
SENDAI FRAMEWORK
The Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction
2015-2030, a landmark agreement within the post-2015
development agenda, offers Member States tangible
strategies to safeguard development achievements against
the threat of disasters. It puts in place 4 clear priorities for
action and 7 global targets for the substantial reduction of
disaster risk.
Endorsement and Origin: It has been endorsed by the
UN General Assembly after the 2015 Third UN World
Conference on Disaster Risk Reduction (WCDRR)
Goal: To prevent new disasters and reduce existing
disaster risk through the implementation of integrated
and inclusive economic, structural, legal, social, health,
cultural, educational, environmental, technological,
political and institutional measures that prevent and
reduce hazard exposure and vulnerability to disaster,
increase preparedness for response and recovery, and
thus strengthen resilience. Fig. 8.3: Targets of Sendai Framework

Upgrade From Hyogo: The Sendai Framework agreements, such as The Paris Agreement on Climate
covers technological hazards, in addition to natural Change, The Addis Ababa Action Agenda on Financing
hazards, which represent an evolution compared to its for Development, the New Urban Agenda, and ultimately
predecessor, the Hyogo Framework for Action. These the Sustainable Development Goals.
technological hazards include chemical/industrial Shared Responsibility: It recognizes that the State
hazards further to radiological, nuclear, biological, and has the primary role to reduce disaster risk but that
others. responsibility should be shared with other stakeholders
Integration with 2030 Agenda: The Sendai Framework including local government, the private sector and other
collaborates seamlessly with other 2030 Agenda stakeholders.
Four Priority Themes of the Sendai Framework

Understanding disaster risk: Disaster risk management should be based on an understanding of disaster risk in all its
dimensions of vulnerability, capacity, exposure of persons and assets, hazard characteristics and the environment. Such
1 knowledge can be used for risk assessment, prevention, mitigation, preparedness and response.
Strengthening disaster risk governance to manage disaster risk: Disaster risk governance at the national, regional and
global levels is very important for prevention, mitigation, preparedness, response, recovery, and rehabilitation. It fosters
2 collaboration and partnership.
Investing in disaster risk reduction for resilience: Public and private investment in disaster risk prevention and reduction
through structural and non-structural measures is essential to enhance the economic, social, health and cultural resilience
3 of persons, communities, countries and their assets, as well as the environment.
Enhancing disaster preparedness for effective response and to “Build Back Better” in recovery, rehabilitation and
reconstruction
The growth of disaster risk means there is a need to strengthen disaster preparedness for response, take action in
C
anticipation of events, and ensure capacities are in place for effective response and recovery at all levels. The recovery,
PS
rehabilitation and reconstruction phase is a critical opportunity to build back better, including through integrating disaster
_U
4
nt
risk reduction into development measures.

ge
A
-@
Fig. 8.4: Four Priority Themes of Sendai Framework

ID
am
gr
le
Te
Number of deaths, missing persons

and persons affected by disaster per
100,000 people
Direct disaster economic loss in relation to

global gross domestic product (GDP)
Direct disaster economic loss in relation to
global GDP, including disaster damage to critical
infrastructure and disruption of basic services
Number of countries with national and local

disaster risk reduction strategies
Proportion of local governments that adopt

and implement local disaster risk reduction
strategies in line with the Sendai Framework
for Disaster Risk Reduction 2015-2030
Fig. 8.5: Link between Sendai Framework 7 Targets and SDGs
Actions Taken By India for Sendai Landmark Changes in Financing: India implemented
Framework financing changes, addressing the full spectrum of
Increased Funding for Disaster Risk Reduction: India has disaster risk management needs. State and local
prioritized disaster risk reduction, significantly boosting governments now access substantial funds for enhanced
funding. Approximately $6 billion is allocated for risk capabilities.
mitigation (2021-2025), with an additional $23 billion for Success in Reducing Loss of Lives: India reduced cyclone-
preparedness, response, and recovery. related fatalities to under 2% in a decade. Ambitious

programs target further risk reduction from various infrastructure, improved financing, response capacities,
hazards. and ecosystem-based approaches.
Early Warning System Improvements: The Common Coalition for Disaster Resilient Infrastructure: Co-
Alerting Protocol integration enhances early warning leading with the U.S., India drives transformation in
systems, reaching all 1.3 billion citizens with geo-targeted infrastructure planning, design, and construction for
long-term resilience.
alerts in regional languages.
Humanitarian Assistance and Global Cooperation:
G20 Working Group and Priorities: India, as G20
India exemplifies global cooperation by providing swift
president, established a Working Group on Disaster Risk assistance to Turkiye and Syria after recent disasters. This
Reduction. Priorities include early warning, resilient aligns with SDGs, emphasizing global unity.
Difference Between the Hyogo Framework and Sendai Framework

Aspect Hyogo Framework (HFA) Sendai Framework
Time Frame 2005-2015 2015-2030
Global Conference Origin Second UN World Conference on Disaster Third UN World Conference on Disaster Risk
Risk Reduction (2005), Kobe, Japan Reduction (2015), Sendai, Japan
Strategic Goals Three goals, including integration into Emphasizes substantial reductions in disaster risk
sustainable development
Priority Action Areas Five areas, e.g., national and local priorities, Four themes: understanding risk, improving
risk identification governance, investing in reduction, preparedness
and early warning
Integration with Advocated for integration into sustainable Seamless integration with various 2030 Agenda
Development Agendas development policies agreements (Paris Agreement, Addis Ababa Action
Agenda, New Urban Agenda, SDGs)
Responsibility Emphasis Emphasized integrating disaster risk Acknowledges state’s primary role but emphasizes
C
PS
reduction into development policies shared responsibility

_U
nt
Humanitarian Assistance No specific details provided Exemplifies global cooperation through humanitarian
ge
and Global Cooperation assistance aligning with SDGs

A
-@
ID
Post Sendai Initiatives the NDRF has been strengthened through state-of-the-
am
art training and equipment enhancements. The creation

gr
In alignment with its commitment to the Sendai Framework,

le
Te
the Government of India has undertaken significant of the National Disaster Response Reserve (NDRR) with a
initiatives to strengthen disaster risk reduction and response dedicated fund of Rs.250 crore (2020) further empowers
strategies. the NDRF to maintain essential emergency goods and
Hosting of AMCDRR 2016 and Commitments: The Asian services.
Ministerial Conference on Disaster Reduction (AMCDRR), Regional Cooperation and Knowledge Sharing:
held in November 2016 in India marked a pivotal step. India’s commitment to regional cooperation is evident
The adoption of the ‘New Delhi Declaration’ and the through initiatives such as hosting the SAARC Disaster
‘Regional Action Plan for Implementation of the Sendai Management Centre and participation in the SAARC
Framework’ demonstrated collective commitment in the Disaster Management Exercise (SAADMEX) 2015. Efforts
Asia-Pacific region. Outcomes from AMCDRR will guide to share expertise, particularly after the Japan Earthquake
the implementation of the Sendai Framework. in 2011 and the Nepal earthquake in 2015, reflect India’s
Priority Actions and Financial Support: The Government commitment to disaster response collaboration.
issued a set of priority actions aligned with the Sendai Capacity Building and Institutional Strengthening: Efforts
Framework’s goals to all State Governments. During to augment capacity building include collaborations
the Asian Ministerial Conference on Disaster Reduction with institutions like Jawaharlal Nehru University for
(AMCDRR) 2016, India extended a grant of US $1 million the establishment of a Centre for Excellence in Disaster
to the United Nations Office for Disaster Risk Reduction Research and Resilience Building. The formation of the
(UNISDR) to effectively implement the Sendai Framework National Disaster Response Force Academy and the
in the Asian region. allocation of funds for infrastructure development training
Strengthening National Disaster Response Force (NDRF): underscore India’s commitment to mainstreaming Disaster
Recognizing the importance of a robust response force, Risk Reduction (DRR).

of technology in resource planning, e.g., India Disaster
The Nairobi Declaration (2021)
Resources Network (IDRN), the creation of e-platform
The Nairobi Declaration, adopted by African ministers and
to map expertise and resources on highly specialized
heads of delegations on November 19, 2021, emphasized the
need to deliver commitments on the Programme of Action aspects of disaster response and to increase the efficacy
(PoA) for implementing the Sendai Framework for Disaster of early warning systems for all major hazards through
Risk Reduction (SFDRR), 2015-2030. The PoA outlines how the application of technology.
Africa aims to implement SFDRR on the continent. Build on local capacity and intiative: Such efforts reduce
risk and create opportunities for local development
ASIAN MINISTERIAL CONFERENCE and sustainable livelihoods. Localization of disaster risk
ON DISASTER REDUCTION reduction will also ensure that good use is made of the
(AMCDRR) traditional best practices and indigenous knowledge.
Ensure that the opportunity to learn from a disaster
The conference was Hosted by India in November 2016
and resulted in the adoption of the ‘New Delhi Declaration must not be wasted: After every disaster there is a need
and ‘Regional Action Plan for Implementation of the Sendai to undertake research studies to understand the best
Framework.’ Here the Prime Minister of India presented a practices and learn lessons to improve the policy and
10-point agenda on Disaster risk reduction. disaster governance.
All development sectors must imbibe the principles Develop a network of universities to work on disaster-
of disaster risk management: It basically means that related issues: It will be helpful to develop a network
Development should focus on reducing disaster risks and of universities and academic institutions to work on
not creating them.
disaster-related aspects. As part of this network, different
Work towards risk coverage for all starting from poor
universities could specialize in multi-disciplinary research
households to SMEs to multinational corporations
on disaster issues most relevant to them.
to nation-states: In this context, there is a need for
the development of disaster insurance mechanisms Utilize the opportunities provided by social media and
C
PS
for home-owners in disaster-prone area, parametric mobile technologies for disaster risk reduction: Social
_U
nt
insurance for weather and climate-related disasters, and media is transforming disaster response, it is helping
ge
A
insurance products to cover major infrastructure projects response agencies in quickly organizing themselves
-@
ID
• The government has some schemes having risk and enabling citizens to connect more easily with
am
coverage in consideration which include Jan Dhan authorities.

gr
le
Yojana, Suraksha Bima Yojana, Fasal Bima Yojana

Te
Bring about greater cohesion in international response

(crop insurance) etc. to disasters: Disasters’ impacts are huge and so are
Women’s leadership and greater involvement should the needs to be prepared for and respond strategically.
be central to disaster risk management: We need a Across the globe, countries face disasters similar in
large number of women volunteers, engineers, masons nature and sometimes across the countries. It requires
and building artisans to participate in post-disaster coordinated and unified response by affected countries.
reconstruction and promote women’s Self Help Groups
(SHGs) which can assist in livelihood recovery. There is a COALITION FOR DISASTER
need to include women in NDRF and SDRF, and to train
RESILIENT INFRASTRUCTURE
elected women representatives at the local level under
development.
(CDRI)
Invest in risk mapping globally: With a shared CDRI was first proposed by Indian Prime Minister Narendra
understanding of the nature and severity of disaster Modi during the 2016 Asian Ministerial Conference on
risks globally, their impacts can be mitigated with better Disaster Risk Reduction held in New Delhi. CDRI represents
planning and preparedness. This requires undertaking a collaborative effort involving national governments,
multi-hazard risk assessments and developing maps for United Nations programs and agencies, development banks,
all major hazards in a standardized format to facilitate academic institutions, and the private sector. This partnership
disaster risk reduction. is dedicated to collectively addressing the challenges
Leverage technology to enhance the efficiency of associated with integrating resilience into infrastructure
disaster risk management efforts: This requires the use systems and related developments.

Core Objectives:
• Resilience Advocacy: The CDRI strives to advocate for
PARIS AGREEMENT (2015) AND
the resilience of both new and existing infrastructure DISASTER RISK MANAGEMENT
systems against climate and disaster risks, aligning to
The Paris Agreement is a crucial global treaty designed to
support sustainable development.
tackle climate change and enhance the world’s ability to
• Global Consultation: With over 35 countries actively respond to its effects. It aims to keep global warming well
participating in consultations, the coalition seeks
below 2 degrees Celsius, ideally limiting it to 1.5 degrees
to achieve a measurable reduction in infrastructure
Celsius compared to pre-industrial levels.
losses from disasters on a global scale.
• SDG Alignment: The CDRI aligns its efforts with the Key Provisions for Disaster Management
Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), aiming to Loss and Damage Framework: The agreement
contribute to universal access to basic services, acknowledges the irreversible losses and damages
prosperity, and the creation of decent work. vulnerable nations are experiencing due to climate
Standardization and Regulation: The coalition endeavours change. It establishes a framework for global cooperation
to standardize designs, processes, and regulations to address these losses and aid in recovery efforts.
about infrastructure creation and management. This • In November 2022 After intense negotiations at COP
approach is geared towards enhancing the resilience of 27, representatives of the UNFCCC’s member states
infrastructure systems. agreed to set up the Loss & Damage fund.
Non-binding Nature: It is essential to underscore that the Technology Transfer and Capacity Building: Developed
CDRI operates as a partnership without imposing rights nations are encouraged to share technology and
and obligations on its members. The decisions, policies, knowledge with developing countries. This support
and standards set by the coalition are not binding on the helps these nations adapt to climate change and build
participating nations. resilience to disasters.
Inauguration and Location: It was launched by Prime Global Stocktake: Every five years, countries gather to
Minister Modi in September 2019 at the UN Climate evaluate collective progress towards the agreement’s
C
Action Summit, the CDRI’s Secretariat is situated in New goals. This includes assessing adaptation initiatives and
PS
Delhi, India.
_U
strategies for reducing disaster risks.

nt
Platform for Knowledge Exchange: Functioning as

ge

A
-@
a platform for knowledge generation and exchange, Operationalisation of a Loss and Damage Fund
ID
the CDRI is committed to developing both country-

The COP28 climate conference in Dubai began on a
am
specific and global plans to advance disaster-resilient

promising note, approving one of the most keenly awaited
gr
le
infrastructure.
Te
decisions – the operationalisation of a loss and damage

Support and Capacity Development: The CDRI plays a fund for developing countries – on the first day. About
pivotal role in providing member countries with technical $475 million was immediately committed to the fund,
support, capacity development, research, knowledge with the European Union pledging nearly $275 million,
management, and advocacy. This comprehensive support and hosts UAE promising another $100 million.
framework aims to facilitate and enhance investments in
disaster-resilient infrastructure systems. Paris Agreement and Disaster Risk
Management
CDRI and Headquarters Agreement (HQA) Call for Increased Coherence: There is a clear mandate
The Union Cabinet has approved the ratification of the for heightened coherence in countries’ approaches to
Headquarters Agreement (HQA) between the Government climate and disaster risk reduction. Current interventions
of India (GoI) and the Coalition for Disaster Resilient often operate in administrative silos, leading to missed
Infrastructure (CDRI), signed on August 22, 2022. This synergies and duplicated efforts.
approval enables the granting of exemptions, immunities, Shared Objectives: Climate change adaptation (CCA)
and privileges outlined in Section 3 of the United Nations and disaster risk reduction (DRR) interventions
(Privileges & Immunities) Act, 1947. By ratifying this inherently share common objectives like building
agreement, the CDRI gains an independent and international resilience, reducing risk, and preparing for future climate
legal status. This status allows it to function more efficiently impacts. Both aim to safeguard lives, infrastructure,
on the global stage, carrying out its responsibilities with and livelihoods from extreme weather events and slow-
increased effectiveness. The agreement essentially onset climate changes. However, they are frequently
establishes a framework for the CDRI to operate globally, developed and implemented separately, hindering their
enjoying certain legal benefits and protections. potential impact.

Government Recognition and Initiatives: Governments working together to make communities stronger
are increasingly acknowledging the advantages of against both gradual climate changes and sudden
greater coherence in CCA and DRR. This recognition is disasters. It’s like building a strong house and getting
evident in the development of joint strategies and the
it ready for storms. Coherence uses the same tools
implementation of processes that facilitate coordination
across these two policy areas. and materials for both, so the house can withstand
Coherence between Climate Change Adaptation various challenges. Combining efforts for the best
(CCA) and Disaster Risk Reduction (DRR): This means results saves time, money, and lives.
Aligned visions, goals and priorities Strengthened technical

Policy frameworks and institutional
on CCA and DRR in national capacities to assess the risks
arrangements supportive of the
development plans and strategies, and opportunities, to identify
implementation of aligned objectives
providing a framework for pursuing and prioritise CCA and DRR
on CCA and DRR
operational coherence. measures and to finance them
Strategic Operational Technical
Fig. 8.6: Types of Coherence under Paris Agreement
• Disaster Response Systems: Enhance national and
G20 DISASTER RISK REDUCTION global disaster response systems to effectively address
WORKING GROUP the escalating frequency and intensity of disasters.
• Ecosystems-Based Approaches: Encourage increased
G20 nations confront significant exposure to disaster risks, application of ecosystems-based approaches to
with an estimated Annual Average Loss amounting to $218 disaster risk reduction.
billion. This constitutes a substantial 9% of their average annual
investment in infrastructure. Although G20 Leaders have Contributions Made By India At G20
intermittently acknowledged the importance of disaster risk Established G20 Working Group on DRR (2023)
reduction and resilience in their declarations, a comprehensive
C
Embraced the theme of “One Earth, One Family, One

PS
and sustained focus on the issue has been lacking. Future”

_U
nt
Establishment of the G20 Disaster Risk Reduction Advocated for community empowerment in recognizing
ge
A
Working Group: To remedy this gap, a new working vulnerabilities and preparing for disasters
-@
group on Disaster Risk Reduction has been instituted

ID
Encouraged G20 members to harness technology for

under India’s Presidency.
am
more efficient preparedness and response strategies

gr
• Objective: The primary objective is to cultivate

le
Called for robust international collaboration in research,

Te
collaborative endeavors among G20 countries, knowledge sharing, and resource mobilization for DRR
engage in multidisciplinary research, and facilitate the initiatives
exchange of best practices in disaster risk reduction.
Rationale for the Working Group: Recognizing the WORLD BANK’S EPIC FRAMEWORK
universal impact of disasters and the collective jeopardy
they pose to our shared future, the establishment of the Hydro-climatic hazards, like floods and droughts, can be
working group underscores the Presidency’s commitment managed to prevent disasters. Despite progress in the
to the theme of ‘Vasudhaiva Kutumbakam’ – ‘One Earth, last decades, the magnitude of the challenge is still not
One Family, One Future.’ fully grasped. Over 2 billion people over the period 1995–
Priorities & Expected Outcomes: Aligned with the 2015 have been affected by floods and droughts, causing
overarching principles of the Sendai Framework for significant economic and social costs. Given the urgency
Disaster Risk Reduction, the proposed priorities for the of staying ahead of the changing climate, the World Bank,
G20 group of countries within the working group are as with support from Deltares, a Netherlands-based research
follows: institute, has put forward a new perspective to better
• Global Early Warning Systems: It aims for global manage these risks – the EPIC Response framework (Enable,
coverage of Early Warning Systems for all hydro- Plan, Invest, Control).
meteorological disasters. The framework is being piloted by the World Bank-supported
• Infrastructure Resilience: Increase commitment to Assam Integrated River Basin Management Program. The
making infrastructure systems disaster and climate- program seeks to reduce the vulnerability of Assam’s people
resilient. to climate-related disasters and help the state develop its
• Financial Frameworks: Strengthen national financial substantial water resources in an integrated and sustainable
frameworks for disaster risk reduction. manner.

Program Formulation: Drawing from the assessments,
the UN devised the “Tsunami Recovery Programme” to
IGNITE YOUR MIND actively contribute to the recovery and reconstruction
efforts in the affected states.
Could you think international non-governmental
organizations (INGOs) can navigate the delicate Working Group Initiatives: The UNDMT, in conjunction
balance between providing crucial disaster with the National Disaster Management Authority
management assistance and respecting the (NDMA), has collaboratively established a working
sovereignty and agency of the affected nations? group. This group is dedicated to initiate pilot projects
that address various facets of disaster management.
UNITED NATIONS AGENCIES UN Office for Disaster Risk Reduction

RELATED TO DISASTER (UNDRR)
MANAGEMENT The UNDRR provides timely, efficient, and well-
coordinated support to governments during disasters.
Several United Nations (UN) organizations focus on disaster UNDRR also facilitates the coordination of UN assistance
management. Some have direct ties to the main UN body, to the government, focusing on long-term recovery,
while others have emerged from the Asian region, prone disaster mitigation, and preparedness initiatives.
to earthquakes and cyclones. India actively contributed to UNDRR oversees and coordinates diverse disaster-
their establishment and maintains membership as a full-time related activities, offering technical advice and material
participant. assistance from UN agencies.
Evolution into UNDRR: Earlier known as UNISDR, now
United Nations Disaster Management
it known as the United Nations Office for Disaster
Team (UNDMT) In India Risk Reduction (UNDRR). It builds on lessons from the
The United Nations Disaster Management Team (UNDMT) International Decade for Natural Disaster Reduction
in India consists of various UN agencies, including FAO (1990–1999). The UNDRR incorporates principles from
C
(Food and Agriculture Organization), ILO (International

PS
the Yokohama Strategy and the Geneva Mandate on

_U
Labour Organization), UNDP (United Nations Development Disaster Reduction.

nt
ge
Programme), UNESCO (United Nations Educational, Scientific

A
Key Areas of UNDRR’s Work:

-@
and Cultural Organization), UNFPA (United Nations Population • Climate Adaptation: Integrating disaster risk
ID
Fund), UNHCR (United Nations High Commission for Refugees), reduction into climate adaptation.
am
UNICEF (United Nations Children’s Fund), WFP (World Food

gr
• Relief Investments: Increasing investments in

le
Te
Programme), and WHO (World Health Organization). disaster relief.

Primary Objectives of UNDMT in India • Resilient Infrastructure: Building disaster-resilient
To ensure prompt, effective and concerted country-level cities, hospitals, and schools.
support to a governmental response in the event of a • Global Readiness: Enhancing global readiness for
disaster, at the central, state and sub-state levels, future calamities.
To coordinate UN assistance to the government to long- UNDRR Global Assessment Report: The UN Global
term recovery, disaster mitigation and preparedness, Assessment Report on Disaster Risk Reduction (GAR) is
To coordinate all disaster-related activities, technical
released every two years by UNDRR. It combines inputs
advice and material assistance provided by UN agencies, from nations, public and private sectors, and disaster-
as well as to take steps for optimal utilisation of resources related research. Focuses on understanding systemic
by UN agencies. risk, measuring risk, and promoting cooperation for
better risk governance.
Collaboration with Nodal Ministries Key Findings of GAR 2019:
The UNDMT maintains a close partnership with the nodal • Identified Threats: Points out threats like air
ministries of member agencies, providing support following pollution, diseases, earthquakes, drought, and
established procedures. This collaborative effort includes climate change.
significant initiatives such as: • Investment Impact: Urges a yearly investment of $6
Joint Assessments: In partnership with the Asian billion in Disaster Risk Reduction (DRR) for projected
Development Bank and World Bank, the UNDMT benefits of $360 billion.
conducted thorough assessments in the aftermath of the • SDG Progress Warning: Warns of risks slowing progress
2004 tsunami and the 2005 Kashmir Earthquake. on UN Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs).

• Vulnerability Disparities: Countries with limited United Nations Disaster Assessment and
capacity face higher losses relative to GDP. Coordination (UNDAC)
• Call to Action: Urges governments to shift focus from Purpose and Establishment: UNDAC, a team of
disaster management to risk reduction through the disaster management professionals funded by
member governments, the United Nations Office for
Sendai Framework. the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs (OCHA),
UNDRR and India: India faced economic losses of $80 United Nations Development Programme (UNDP), and
billion from 1998 to 2017 due to disasters. In March operational UN Agencies, assist the UN and affected
governments in early-phase emergencies.
2019, India launched a UN-backed initiative involving the
Team Composition and Function: Comprising
Private Sector to reduce disaster exposure and economic multinational disaster/emergency managers, UNDAC
losses. rapidly assesses priority needs and coordinates
UNDRR and ARISE India: ARISE is a network of private
international relief efforts on-site.
Deployment of UNDAC Officers: Trained officers, known
sector entities aligning with the Sendai Framework. ARISE
as Active members, serve a two-year contract and can be
facilitates data exchange, experiences, and projects at swiftly deployed for rapid assessments and coordination
local and regional levels. in disaster-affected countries.
Engagement of Other UN Agencies In Disaster Risk Reduction (DRR)
Agency Headquarters Disaster Reduction Goal
Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) Rome, Italy Aims to reduce vulnerability to disasters for
people before, during, and after such events, as an
integral part of its broader disaster management
approach.
International Labour Organization (ILO) Geneva, Switzerland Strives to minimize the impact of disasters on
C
PS
employment and income, promoting measures

_U
to reduce risks for livelihoods and supporting

nt
ge
efficient post-disaster recovery.

A
-@
ID
International Telecommunication Union Geneva, Switzerland Works to strengthen emergency communications

am
(ITU) for the prevention and mitigation of disasters.

gr
le
Te
Office of the United Nations High Geneva, Switzerland Emphasizes integrating a human rights-based
Commissioner for Human Rights (OHCHR) approach into Disaster Risk Reduction (DRR) and
related programs.
United Nations Environment Programme Nairobi, Kenya Aims to reduce the impact of natural hazards
(UNEP) on vulnerable communities through sound
environmental management.
United Nations Educational, Scientific and Paris, France Assists member states in building capacities to
Cultural Organization (UNESCO) withstand and cope with natural and human-
induced disasters.
United Nations Human Settlements Nairobi, Kenya Aims to increase investment in disaster risk
Programme (UN-HABITAT) reduction, address root causes of disasters, and
build a culture of prevention.
United Nations Development Programme New York, USA Supports disaster-prone countries in developing
(UNDP) comprehensive risk reduction programs,
strengthening institutional and legislative systems,
and promoting community-level preparedness.

United Nations Children’s Fund (UNICEF) New York, USA Develops a global framework for disaster
reduction, with a focus on protecting vulnerable
groups, especially children and women.
World Food Programme (WFP) Rome, Italy Aims to strengthen compliance with the Hyogo
Framework for Action (HFA) and mainstream
Disaster Risk Reduction (DRR) at all levels within
the organization.
World Health Organization (WHO) Geneva, Switzerland Supports countries in building capacity in risk
reduction and emergency preparedness.
International Search and Rescue Advisory

GLOBAL FACILITY FOR DISASTER
Group (INSARAG)
RISK REDUCTION (GFDRR)
Global Network: INSARAG, operating under the United
Nations, encompasses over 90 countries (till December About: GFDRR is a global partnership established in 2006
2023) and disaster response organizations. Established and hosted by the World Bank Group. Supported by 20
in 1991 after the 1988 Armenia earthquake, INSARAG countries and 11 international organizations, it collaborates
focuses on urban search and rescue (USAR) issues, with over 400 partners at sub-national, national, regional,
setting standards and methodologies for international
and international levels.
USAR teams in earthquake response.
GFDRR will focus on four priority areas in the strategy
Membership: Countries or organizations with
international urban search and rescue response capacity period (2021-2025):
or those prone to earthquakes can join INSARAG. India, a Priority Area One: Evidence and knowledge on effective
member of INSARAG Asia Pacific Regional Group, actively disaster and climate resilience approaches are generated
C
PS
participates in international and regional meetings. and shared for improved policy and practice.
_U
nt
Indian instructors contribute to mock exercises organized Priority Area Two: Reducing Risk and Mainstreaming
ge
A
by INSARAG. Disaster Risk Management.

-@
ID
India’s Role: India chaired the INSARAG Asia Pacific Priority Area Three: Financial Preparedness to Manage
am
Regional Group in 2005-06, organizing meetings and the Disaster and Climate Shocks.
gr
le
UNDAC Refresher Course. INSARAG Guidelines provide

Te
Priority Area Four: Disaster Preparedness and Resilient

direction for search and rescue teams in international
Recovery.
disaster response operations, covering phases such as
preparedness, activation, operation, reassignment/ Financial Goals: GFDRR aims to leverage at least an additional
stand-down, and return to home base. US$30 billion in resilience investments over the next five
years (2021 to 2025). GFDRR plans to support mainstreaming
USAR Exercises: INSARAG conducts regional USAR
disaster risk management across eight sectors, anticipating
simulation exercises and awareness training courses
annually. These events, hosted by earthquake-prone leveraging at least US$500 million in each sector, including
countries, allow the practice of disaster response but not limited to agriculture, education, health, transport,
coordination methodologies outlined in the INSARAG energy, water, and urban development.
Guidelines. The INSARAG Asia-Pacific Earthquake Business Lines: GFDRR operates through three main business
Response Exercise in 2011 was held in Agra, India from lines to achieve development objectives globally, regionally,
4-6 May. and nationally:
Track Objective Target Focus
I To strengthen and reorganize ISDR processes Global and regional partnerships Increased outreach
II To mainstream Disaster Risk Reduction (DRR) in Low to medium-income countries Sectoral projects (e.g., health,
Development education, research)
III Standby Recovery Financing Facility (SRFF) for Low-income countries Standby facility for accelerated
Accelerated Disaster Recovery disaster recovery

building initiatives. The aim is to foster better cooperation
ASEAN REGION FORUM (ARF) and understanding among countries for a comprehensive
Establishment and Membership: The ASEAN Regional approach to disaster management.
Forum (ARF) was established in 1994, with 27 member Core Functions of SAARC Disaster Management Centre:
countries (as of December 2023), including India since The SAARC Disaster Management Centre (SDMC) serves
1996. The ARF Unit in Jakarta, Indonesia, has been as a hub for disaster-related functions in SAARC countries.
It focuses on documentation, analysis, and dissemination
operating since June 26, 2004.
of disaster-related data and information, conducts
Key Initiatives related to disaster Management educational initiatives, develops training modules,
• Disaster Relief Work Plan: The ARF Disaster Relief provides policy assistance, organizes workshops and
Work Plan outlines priorities and activities for conferences, and collaborates with other SAARC centres
regional collaboration in disaster response and relief. for enhanced program synergies.
These priorities include networking and information
sharing, rapid deployment and acceptance of
IGNITE YOUR MIND
assistance, and interoperability and civil-military
coordination in humanitarian operations. Picture a scenario where cultural diplomacy is
• ARF Inter-Sessional Meeting on Disaster Relief (ISM integrated into disaster response efforts between
on DR): It provides a platform for ARF participants India and its neighbouring nations. Do you think
to discuss, share best practices, and advance the exchange of cultural insights and practices
cooperation on disaster management issues. enhances the effectiveness of collaborative
• ARF Disaster Relief Exercises (ARF DiREx): disaster management?
DiREx exercises focus on improving civil-military
coordination, communication, and deployment of CRITICAL ANALYSIS OF
resources during disaster response operations. INTERNATIONAL COOPERATION
AND RESPONSE TO DISASTER
C
SAARC DISASTER MANAGEMENT

PS
_U
CENTRE (SDMC) Challenges in International Disaster

nt
ge
Response and Cooperation

A
-@
Formation and Membership (1987): Established on 8

Diverse Priorities and Capabilities: Developed nations
ID
December 1985, the South Asian Association for Regional

prioritize technological solutions, while developing
am
Cooperation (SAARC) is a collaborative union of South

gr
nations focus on immediate relief, which leads to

le
Asian countries, consisting of Afghanistan, Bangladesh,

Te
mismatched support and inefficient resource allocation.

Bhutan, India, Maldives, Nepal, Pakistan, and Sri Lanka
Political and Logistical Hurdles: Complexities like
(till December 2023). SAARC’s headquarters are located
bureaucratic procedures, visa restrictions, and
in Kathmandu set up on 17 January 1987.
communication infrastructure delays delay international
The inception of SAARC Disaster Management Centre
assistance deployment.
(SDMC) (2006): In October 2006, the SAARC Disaster
Cultural Differences and Communication Gaps:
Management Centre (SDMC) was established within
Misunderstandings and communication barriers impede
the premises of the National Institute of Disaster collaboration between international responders and
Management in New Delhi. The Director of SDMC is local communities.
concurrently the Executive Director of the NIDM. Unsustainable Dependency: Excessive reliance on
Mandate and Responsibilities: SDMC holds the international aid discourages local capacity building,
responsibility of serving all eight SAARC Member hindering long-term resilience.
Countries by offering policy advice and facilitating Accountability and Transparency: Challenges in
capacity-building services. This includes strategic responsible resource use post-disaster chaos.
learning, research, training, system development, and
the exchange of information. The primary focus is on Advantages of International Cooperation
effective disaster risk reduction (DRR) and management Leveraging Expertise and Resources: International
in South Asia. collaboration provides access to skills, technology, and
Collaboration and Network Development: The Centre has resources, improving disaster response and recovery.
proactively developed networks with various organizations Facilitating Knowledge Exchange: Cross-border sharing
and institutions in South Asian countries. This collaboration of knowledge enhances preparedness, prevention
spans research, documentation, training, and capacity- strategies, and disaster management.

Fostering Global Solidarity: International cooperation similar vulnerabilities allows for faster response, joint
attracts financial support for reconstruction and training exercises, and tailored solutions.
development efforts. Promoting Cultural Sensitivity and Communication:
Enhanced Coordination and Communication: Training responders in cultural awareness and effective
Collaborative platforms and communication networks communication is crucial for building trust and ensuring
streamline information sharing and coordination. successful collaboration with affected communities.
Building Resilience and Reducing Risk: International Prioritizing Transparency and Accountability:
cooperation supports long-term risk reduction strategies, Implementing robust monitoring and evaluation
infrastructure development, and community-based mechanisms ensures responsible resource use and builds
resilience initiatives. trust among international partners.
Way Forward
Strengthening Global Coordination Mechanisms: CONCLUSION
Establishing robust platforms like the UN Office for In the face of escalating natural hazards and the intricate
Disaster Risk Reduction (UNDRR) and the G20 Working web of interconnected risks, international cooperation in
Group on Disaster Risk Reduction (DRR) facilitates disaster management is no longer a luxury, but a necessity.
collaboration and joint action. This promotes shared knowledge, swift response, and
Investing in Local Capacity Building: Prioritizing local unwavering solidarity, where borders fade and humanity
expertise, infrastructure, and resource building in stands united against the forces of nature. This chapter
international aid ensures long-term sustainability and has explored the multifaceted dimensions of this global
reduces dependence on external assistance. endeavor, delving into the exchange of best practices, the
Encouraging Regional Collaboration: Fostering coope- deployment of rapid response teams, and the crucial role of
ration within geographically proximate regions with technology in bridging geographical divides.
C
PS
_U
nt
ge
A
-@
ID
am
gr
le
Te

Climate Change and Disaster 9
inter and intra national. Climate-related disaster risk is defined
INTRODUCTION
as the expected value of losses, often represented as the
Human activities, principally through emissions of greenhouse likelihood of occurrence of hazardous events multiplied by
gases, have unequivocally caused global warming, with the impacts (effects on lives, livelihoods, health, ecosystems,
global surface temperature reaching 1.1°C above 1850- economies, societies, cultures, services, and infrastructure),
1900 in 2011-2020. Global greenhouse gas emissions have
if these events occur. Climate change can increase disaster
continued to increase, with unequal historical and ongoing
contributions arising from unsustainable energy use, land risk in a variety of ways - by altering the frequency and
use change, lifestyle change and consumption as well as intensity of hazard events, affecting vulnerability to hazards,
production patterns across regions, among individuals and and changing exposure patterns.
With Every Increment of Global Warming, Regional Changes in Mean Climate

and Extremes Become More Widespread And Pronounced
The last time global surface temperature was sustained
2011-2020 was around at or above 2.5°C was over 3 million years ago
1.1°C warmer than
1850-1900
C
PS
_U
nt
ge
A
-@
a) Annual hottest-day temperature change Annual hottest day temperature is projected to increase most urbanisation
(1.5-2 times the GWL) in some mid-latitude and semi-arid further intensifies
ID
change(°C)
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 regions, and in the South American Monsoon region. heat extremes
am
gr
le
Te
b) Annual mean total column soil moisture change Projections of annual mean soil moisture largely follow
profections in annual mean precipitation but also show
change (s)
-1.5 -1.0 -0.5 0 0.5 1.0 1.5 some differences due to the influence of evapotranspiration.
small absolute changes

c) Annual wettest-day precipitation change Annual wettest day precipitation is projected to increase may appear large as
in almost all continental regions, even in regions where % or s changes in dry
change (%)
-40 -30 -20 -10 0 10 20 30 40 projected annual mean soil moisture decline. regions
Fig 9.1: Impact of Rising Temperature of Globe

mosquitoes to breed and spread diseases like malaria
LINKAGE BETWEEN CLIMATE
and dengue fever. Changes in rainfall patterns can also
CHANGE AND DISASTERS
lead to outbreaks of waterborne diseases.
According to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Sea level rise: Coastal flooding events could threaten
Change, an increase of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere
assets worth up to 20% of the global GDP by 2100.
will probably boost temperatures over most land surfaces,
though the exact change will vary regionally. More Wildfire: By 2030, fire season could be three months
uncertain—but possible—outcomes of an increase in longer in areas already exposed to wildfires.

global temperatures include increased risk of drought and Glacial Lake Outburst Floods: Climate change is causing
increased intensity of storms, including tropical cyclones glaciers to melt at an alarming rate, leading to the
with higher wind speeds, a wetter Asian monsoon, and,
formation of new glacial lakes. These lakes are often
possibly, more intense mid-latitude storms.
unstable and can burst their banks, sending a torrent of
Climate-related disasters have almost doubled compared to
water and debris down into valleys below.
the previous twenty years. This has exacerbated inequalities
within and among different nations, with those contributing Lightning: Warmer air holds more moisture, creating
least to global emissions often experiencing the worst supercharged storm clouds that unleash more frequent
impacts of the climate emergency. and intense lightning strikes. Rising temperatures also
alter wind patterns, leading to more erratic storm
Climate Change As A Disaster Risk
tracks and increasing the chances of lightning strikes in
Driver
unexpected areas. This potent combination is expected
Cyclones: Warmer ocean temperatures are providing
to make lightning a more common and dangerous threat
more energy for tropical storms, hurricanes, and
C
PS
typhoons. These storms are becoming more intense in the years to come.
_U
nt
and unpredictable, causing greater damage when they

ge
A
IPCC SIXTH ASSESSMENT

-@
make landfall.
ID
Drought: Climate change is altering weather patterns, REPORT: CLIMATE

am
CHANGE AND DISASTER

gr
leading to more frequent and severe droughts. These

le
Te
droughts can devastate agriculture, leading to food MANAGEMENT

shortages and economic hardship. The number of
people suffering extreme droughts across the world In the near term, every region in the world is projected
could double in less than 80 years to face further increases in climate hazards, increasing
Floods: More intense rainfall events and melting glaciers multiple risks to ecosystems and humans. Hazards and
are contributing to an increase in floods. These can associated risks expected in the near term include an
cause widespread damage to infrastructure, homes, and increase in heat-related human mortality and morbidity ,
livelihoods. food-borne, water-borne, and vector-borne diseases, and
Heatwave: Heat stress from extreme heat and humidity mental health challenges, flooding in coastal and other low-
could annually affect 1.2 billion people by 2100.
lying cities and regions, biodiversity loss in land, freshwater
Creating New Disaster Risks: Climate change is also
and ocean ecosystems, and a decrease in food production
contributing to new types of disasters, such as landslides
in some regions. Cryosphere-related changes in floods,
triggered by melting permafrost and coastal erosion due
landslides, and water availability have the potential to lead
to rising sea levels. These emerging risks pose additional
challenges for disaster preparedness and response. to severe consequences for people, infrastructure and the
Infectious diseases: Climate change is creating conditions economy in most mountain regions. The projected increase
that are favourable for the spread of infectious in frequency and intensity of heavy precipitation will increase
diseases. For example, warmer temperatures can allow rain-generated local flooding.

a) Risk of 0% 0.1 1 5 10 20 40 60 80 100%
species losses
Percentage of animal
1
Projected temperature conditions
species and seagrasses above the estimated historical
exposed to potentially (1850-2005) maximum mean
dangerous temperature annual temperature experienced by
conditions1,2 each species, assuming no species
relocation.
2
Includes 30,652 species of birds,
mammals, reptiles, amphibians, marine
fish, banthic marine invertebrates, krill,
cephalopods, corals, and seagrasses.
b) Heat-humidity 0 days 1 10 50 100 150 200 250 300 365 days

risks to human
health
Historical 1991-2005
Days per year where 3
Projected regional impacts utilize a global threshold beyond which daily mean surface air temperature and relative humidity
C
PS
combined temperature may induce hyperthermia that poses a risk of mortality. The duration and intensity of heatwaves are not presented here. Heat-
_U
and humidity conditions related health outcomes vary by location and are highly moderated by socio-economic, occupational and other non-climatic
nt
pose a risk of mortality to determinants of individual health and socio-economic vulnerability. The threshold used in these maps is based on single study
ge
individuals3 that synthesized data from 783 cases to determine the relationship between heat-humidity conditions and mortality drawn
A
-@
largely from observations in temperate climates.

ID
c) Food production -35% -30 -25 -20 -15 -10 -3 +3 +10 +15 +20 +25 +30 +35%
am
impacts
gr
le
Te
c1) Maize yield4

Change (%) in yield 4
Projected regional impacts reflect biophysical responses to changing temperature,, precipitation, solar radiation, humidity, wind,
and CO2 enhancement of growth and water retention in currently cultivated areas. Models assume that irrigated areas are not
water-limited. Models do not represent pests, diseases, future agro-technological changes and some extreme climate responses.
Areas with little or no

c2) Fisheries yield5 production, or not assessed
Change (%) in
Areas with model disagreement
maximum catch
potential
5
Projected regional impacts reflect fisheries and marine ecosystem responses to ocean physical and biogeochemical conditions
such as temperature, oxygen level and net primary production. Models do not represent changes in fishing activities and some
extreme climatic conditions. Projected changes in the Arctic regions have low confidence due to uncertainties associated with
modelling multiple interacting drivers and ecosystem responses.
Fig. 9.2: Predicted Impact of Climate change on Various Aspects
Challenges To Managing Climate-Induced provide accurate early warnings and plan evacuation
Disasters strategies. Example: The monsoon in India in 2023
Limited Predictability: Climate-induced disasters often arrived in Mumbai and Delhi at the same time, which
have unpredictable patterns, making it difficult to hadn’t happened in more than 50 years.

Increased threat to Vulnerable Populations: Vulnerable
Is it a first extreme event?
communities, including low-income populations and
marginalised groups, are disproportionately affected • Analysis conducted by the Council on Energy,
by climate-induced disasters due to inadequate Environment, and Water (CEEW) indicate that
infrastructure, limited access to resources, and social India has witnessed over 478 extreme events
inequalities. Approximately 250 million people in since 1970, with a notable acceleration in their
India are vulnerable to climate change impacts, with frequency after 2005.
the poorest populations (Like Coastal and hilly area • The period from 1970 to 2005 recorded an
communities, small farmers etc) facing the highest risk. average of 250 extreme events, while the post-
Increased Frequency and Intensity: Climate change is 2005 period witnessed a surge to 310 extreme
causing more frequent and intense disasters, making events and associated occurrences.
it challenging to predict, prepare and respond to these
Climate Change as Culprit:
events effectively.
• Land temperature rises, as it has been due to
Urbanisation and Infrastructure Development: Rapid
global warming, the atmosphere heats up too.
urbanisation and poorly planned infrastructure in
vulnerable areas increase the exposure and vulnerability This in turn increases the atmosphere’s capacity
of population to climate-induced disasters. The urban to hold moisture and also its rate of absorption
population in India is projected to reach 814 million by of moisture. When this happens in a conducive
2050, exacerbating vulnerabilities to climate-induced environment, like one where a low-pressure area
disasters. Example: Cyclone Yaas in 2021 hit Odisha, has been formed, it creates a situation favourable
flooding low-lying areas due to poorly maintained for a high rate of rainfall in certain pockets.
drainage systems, and exposing the risk of unplanned • Also, Global Warming causes increased
development in disaster-prone zones. evaporation resulting from rising global surface
Lack of Comprehensive Risk Assessment: Inadequate and ocean temperatures.
understanding of the comprehensive risks, including Future Risk:
secondary and cascading effects, can result in insufficient
• The Ministry of Earth Sciences report, ‘Assessment
C
preparation and response strategies. Example: The

PS
of Climate Change over the Indian Region,’

_U
2013 Uttarakhand floods in India revealed the lack of

nt
highlights that future monsoonal rainfall is

ge
comprehensive risk assessment, leading to inadequate

A
-@
preparation for extreme rainfall events (Ministry of projected to become more intense and affect
ID
Home Affairs). larger areas due to increased atmospheric

am
Policy Gaps and Implementation Deficits: Gaps in moisture content resulting from temperature rise.
gr

le
policies, along with challenges in implementing and Previous Warning:

Te
enforcing existing regulations, can undermine effective • The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change
disaster risk reduction and climate adaptation measures. (IPCC) report, ‘Weather and Climate Extreme
Example: In India, a 2021 study published in the journal Events in a Changing Climate,’ had already warned
‘Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics’ reflected that by of increased summer and monsoon precipitation,
the end of the century, lightning frequency is set to rise
along with a 20 percent surge in extreme rainfall
by between 10% and 25%, while its intensity is expected
events on the Indian subcontinent.
to increase by between 15% and 50%. But lightning is
not considered as a disaster by the Indian Government.
How To Manage Climate-Induced
Monsoon Mayhem 2023
Overview
Disasters
• In August, the southern peninsula received Early Warning Systems:
104% more rainfall than normal while in central • With timely warnings, people can take early action by
India, the rainfall was 78% more than normal. blocking up doors with sandbags to anticipate floods,
• The Karnataka state received an average rainfall of stockpiling resources, or in some extreme cases,
224 mm against the normal downpour of 59 mm. evacuating from their homes.
• In Kerala’s Wayanad district, the departure from
• Example: In Bangladesh, even as climate change
normal rainfall was 400% between August 8
becomes more severe, the number of deaths from
and 14 while Malappuram received 500% more
rain than usual in the same period. cyclones has fallen by 100-fold over the past 40 years,
due mainly to improved early warnings.

There are multiple opportunities for scaling up climate action
a) Feasibility of climate responses and adaptation, and potential of mitigation options in the near-
term
Climate responses and Mitigation options Potential contribution to
adaptation options net emission reduction, 2030
Solar
Wind
Energy reliability (e.g diversification,
access, stability) Reduce methane from coal, oil and gas
Resilient power systems Bioelectricity (includes BECCS)
Improve water use efficiency Geothermal and hydropower
Nuclear
Fossil Carbon Capture and Storage (CCS
Efficient livestock systems

Improved cropland management Reduce conversion of natural ecosystems
Water use efficiency and water resource
management Carbon sequestration in agriculture
Biodiversity management and Ecosystem restoration,
ecosystem connectivity afforestation, reforestation
Agroforestry Shift to sustainable healthy diets
Sustainable aquaculture and fisheries Improved sustainable forest managemer.
Forest-based adaptation
Reduce methane and N₂O in agriculture
Integrated coastal zone management
Reduce food loss and food waste
Coastal defence and hardening
Efficient buildings
Sustainable urban water management Fuel efficient vehicles
Sustainable land use and urban planning Electric vehicles
Green infrastructure and ecosystem Efficient lighting, appliances
services and equipment
Public transport and bicycling
Biofuels for transport
Efficient shipping and aviation
Enhanced health services (e.g. WASH, Avoid demand for energy services
nutrition and diets)
C
Onsite renewables
PS
_U
Risk spreading and sharing Fuel switching

nt
ge
Social safety nets Reduce emission of fluorinated gas

A
-@
Climate services, including Early Warning Energy efficiency

Systems Material efficiency
ID
Disaster risk management Reduce methane from

am
waste/wastewater
Human migration
Construction materials substitution
gr
le
Planned relocation and resettlement Enhanced recycling

Te
Livelihood diversification Carbon capture with

utilisation (CCU) and CCS
Feasibility level and synergies Confidence level in potential feasibility Net lifetime cost of options:
with mitigation and in synergies with mitigation Costs are lower than the reference 50-100 (USD per tCO2-eq)
High Medium Low High Medium Low 0-20 (USD per tCO2-eq) 100-200 (USD per tCO2-eq)
Insufficient evidence 20-50 (USD per tCO2-eq Cost not allocated due to high
variability or lack of data
Fig 9.3: Opportunities for Scaling up the Climate Action

Ecosystem Restoration: Nature-based solutions, like drive to ensure the private sector is aware of climate
urban forest restoration and mangrove protection, offer risks, projections and uncertainties.
climate resilience. In cities, restoring urban forests cools • Example: Concepts like ‘Sponge cities’ (They are
the air and reduces heat waves. urban areas with abundant natural areas such as
• In high altitudes, re-greening mountain slopes protects trees, lakes and parks) which are embraced by cities
communities from climate-induced landslides and like Shanghai, New York and Cardiff.
avalanches. The Miyawaki afforestation method is Water Supplies and Security:
one of the best examples of Ecosystem Restoration. • Adaptation of water and sanitation infrastructure
is vital for the resilience of societies and natural
Climate-resilient infrastructure:
environments to increasing numbers of disasters.
• Climate-resilient infrastructure refers to assets like roads
• Investing in efficient irrigation and urban water
and bridges that withstand extreme climate impacts. management is crucial.
• Tools for encouraging investments in climate-resilient • The Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction
infrastructure include regulatory standards like emphasises water management as essential for
building codes, spatial planning frameworks such reducing the occurrence and impacts of water-
as vulnerability maps, and a strong communication related disasters.

Long-Term Planning:
To adopt a climate friendly and a cleaner path than
• National Adaptation Plans are crucial for strategic
the one followed hitherto by others at corresponding
adaptation prioritisation. Examining climate
level of economic development.
scenarios and vulnerability assessments aids long-
term planning. To reduce Emissions Intensity of its GDP by 45
percent by 2030, from 2005 level [UPDATED].
• Example: Launching of national action plan on
climate change by India which focuses on building To achieve about 50 percent cumulative electric
national S&T capacities in the area of climate change. power installed capacity from non-fossil fuel-based
energy resources by 2030, with the help of transfer
International Efforts To Mitigate Climate of technology and low-cost international finance
Change including from Green Climate Fund (GCF) [UPDATED].
UNFCCC: To create an additional carbon sink of 2.5 to 3 billion
• The United Nations Framework Convention on tonnes of CO2 equivalent through additional forest
Climate Change, adopted in 1992, is the overarching and tree cover by 2030.
legal framework for international cooperation on To better adapt to climate change by enhancing
climate change. investments in development programmes in
• It serves as the foundation for subsequent agreements sectors vulnerable to climate change, particularly
like the Paris Agreement. agriculture, water resources, Himalayan region,
• COP28 Declaration on Climate Change and Health coastal regions, health and disaster management.
which enshrines a collective commitment to increase To mobilize domestic and new & additional funds
investment and actions to drive resilience in countries from developed countries to implement the above
and communities affected by conflict, fragility or mitigation and adaptation actions in view of the
humanitarian crisis. resource required and the resource gap.
Kyoto Protocol: To build capacities, create domestic framework
• Adopted in 1997, it was the first legally binding and international architecture for quick diffusion of
agreement requiring developed countries to reduce cutting edge climate tecthnology in India and for joint
C
greenhouse gas emissions by specific targets.

PS
collaborative R&D for such future technologies.

_U
• While superseded by the Paris Agreement, it This update to India’s existing NDC is a step forward
nt
ge
remains relevant for its focus on emissions reduction towards our long term goal of reaching net-zero by 2070.
A
-@
strategies for developed countries.

ID
Paris Agreement: Best Practices Adopted Worldwide To

am
• Adopted in 2015, it is the primary global framework Counter Such Events

gr
le
for climate action.

Te
Imposing Carbon Taxes

• Its main goal is to hold global temperature rise below
• Purpose: Minimize greenhouse gas emissions by making
2°C (ideally 1.5°C) compared to pre-industrial levels,
thus mitigating future extreme weather events. major producers pay for environmental damage.
• Each signatory sets Nationally Determined • Example: Sweden, an early adopter in 1991, achieved
Contributions (NDCs) outlining their emission a 27% reduction in emissions.
reduction targets and mitigation strategies. Cap and Trade Mechanism
• Purpose: Government program capping private-sector
India’s Nationally Determined Contributions emissions, trading permits for the right to emit.
(NDCs) • Example: California’s 2013 program led to a 10%
The Paris Agreement requires each Party to prepare, reduction in emissions by 2018.
communicate and maintain successive nationally Clean Energy Standards
determined contributions (NDCs) that it intends to achieve.
• Purpose: Encourage low-emission energy sources,
Parties shall pursue domestic mitigation measures, with
like solar or wind power, to reduce electricity-related
the aim of achieving the objectives of such contributions.
In August 2022, India updated its NDCs. emissions.
• Example: To decrease emissions, around two-thirds
To put forward and further propagate a healthy and
sustainable way of living based on traditions and values of U.S. states have implemented clean energy
of conservation and moderation, including through a standards—laws that encourage utility companies
mass movement for ‘LIFE’– ‘Lifestyle for Environment’ to generate a certain percentage of their electricity
as a key to combating climate change [ UPDATED] from low-emission energy sources, such as solar or
wind power.

Adaptation Policies the intermediary zones may be regarded as the
• Purpose: Governments address worsening extreme most fragile and unstable belt on account of the
weather events by implementing policies to increase interplay of glacial and fluvial (dominated by rivers
resilience. and streams) processes.
• Example: The U.S.’s Low-Income Home Energy • Sun Shadow regions: Most human settlements are
Assistance Programme aids vulnerable communities located on north-to-easterly directed valley slopes,
during climate-related events. which see less solar insolation(sun-shadow slopes).
Thus, these areas have seen prolonged glacial activity
THE HIMALAYAN PLUNDER- A CASE that resulted in gentler, deeply weathered slope
covered with thick fluvioglacial debris. The debris
STUDY comprises large boulders set in a mixture of clay and
The last few decades have recorded rapid and magnified pebble-sized rock fragments. Landslides and some
natural catastrophes across the world, with scientists linking amount of creep (slow, downslope movement of
such extreme events with global warming. The Himalayas soil and earth materials) are common on such slopes
have recorded such calamities like earthquakes, avalanches, primarily due to the permanent wetness of the
cloud-bursts, intense rainfall landslide lake outburst floods ground, however, the areas turn to a “sinking zone”
(LLOFs are breaching of lakes formed by obstructions due to or debris slide due to excessive ground saturation
landslides), and glacial lake outburst floods in their most clubbed with unscientific surficial loading, slope
furious forms; ground studies indicate a warming climate as modification and toe removal or erosion. Several
the cause. areas of Himachal Pradesh, like Kothi near Manali,
Prashar Lake Rari village near Bajaura in Beas valley
The Plunder Manifests in Various Forms and Reckong Peo, Urni in Kinnaur district are on such
slopes.
Chaien Deforestation: Greedy loggers strip away the green cloak
Purnagiri Mandir
Vishnuprayag
of the mountains, leading to soil erosion, flash floods,
Joshimath Community
and habitat loss.
C
Joshimath Health Center

PS
Narshing Mandir Joshimath

• Example: Rampant deforestation in Himachal
_U
SUN SHADOW SLOPE

nt
Nau Ganga Toe

Pradesh, for tourism and road projects weakens
ge
A
slopes, triggering landslides like the July 2023 Shimla

-@
SUN FACING SLOPE

tragedy.
ID
am
Tourism Onslaught: According to reports, tourism has

gr
increased by between 50 and 60 percent since the

le
Te
Fig.9.4: Sun Shadow Slope

1990s. This has caused extensive deforestation and
Construction in Most Fragile regions: The warming unsustainable construction in the mountain areas which
climate has the maximum impact in the areas trigger disasters. Tourism also adds to waste generation
intermediate between glaciated and non-glaciated in the absence of adequate treatment and disposal
terrain—these are the areas that receive snowfall as systems, plying of more vehicles and construction.
well as rainfall. It is pertinent to mention that most of Unsustainable Water Management: Over Extraction of
the disastrous catastrophes, including the Kedarnath groundwater and lack of rainwater harvesting systems
floods of 2013, the Chamoli flash floods of 2021 and in Ladakh’s cold deserts threaten water security and
the subsidence in Joshimath, have occurred in such agricultural productivity.
intermediary climatic zones. The Consequences of Himalayan Plunder
• Why construction in intermediary Zones?: Such
Livelihoods Lost: Disruptions to natural resources and
intermediary climatic zones, with picturesque glacial ecosystems threaten the livelihoods of millions who
landscape and easy access offers a natural choice depend on the Himalayas for agriculture, forestry, and
for tourism and subsequent developments. With tourism.
the sudden change in topographic altitudes and
Land Sinking: Sitting atop ancient glacial debris, the
availability of perennial sources of water, such places
region had been this is correct in context of the event
also offer the best suitable sites for the development following it. In January 2023, Joshimath was hit by a
of river valley projects. geological phenomenon known as land subsidence,
• Hazard Prone: While the entire Himalayan region which is a gradual settling, or sinking of the surface
is fragile due to its immature topography under due to the removal of water, oil, natural gas, or mineral
continued active erosional and weathering processes, resources from the ground.

Water Woes: Shrinking glaciers and disrupted water Following Good Practices: Engineers and contractors
flows spell water scarcity for millions downstream, do acquire some practical knowledge, but we must
jeopardising agriculture and drinking water supplies. find a way to ensure that this is scientifically tested,
Disaster Dominoes: Increased vulnerability to natural documented and converted into manuals for both safety
disasters like floods, landslides, and earthquakes puts and proper construction processes.
millions of lives at risk.
Empower Communities: The Van panchayats should be
Biodiversity in Peril: The unique plants and animals of the
Himalayas, many already endangered, face habitat loss expanded by implementing the Community Forest Rights
and fragmentation, pushing them towards extinction. provision of the Forest Rights Act. The local governments
must be given powers sanctioned by the 73rd and 74th
WAY FORWARD Constitutional Amendments to decide on the use of all
natural resources, including streams and rivers.
Prioritise Sustainable Development: Upslope areas
Understanding the Vulnerability: Local geography needs
should be investigated for landslide and avalanche or
debris flow, to avoid deadly incidents like the landslides to be considered for every aspect of development. The
in Boi and Batseri, Himachal Pradesh, which occurred solution is to understand the science of nature, not just
last year. Downslope or valley establishments must, at use science for development.
the same time, be checked for risk of high-level floods
due to cloud bursts, Glacial Lake Outburst Floods (GLOFs) CONCLUSION
or Landslide Lake Outburst Floods (LLOFs).
Policy caution: A policy mandating geological inputs The compounding effects of climate change pose
during pre-construction, construction stage and post- unprecedented challenges to human and natural ecosystems,
construction monitoring of proposed or existing impacting economic activities and posing severe threats to
settlements and projects is also needed. livelihoods. While efforts to combat climate change have
Responsible Tourism: Himalayan states must introduce escalated at regional, national, and subnational levels, the
legislations for enforcing building codes, a ban on major
C
rapid compounding of climate change impacts necessitates

PS
activities and projects in fragile zones and geologically

_U
urgent and comprehensive action. Without a concerted

sustainable surface connectivity projects. Immediate
nt
ge
measures include planning and practising for rapid global response, India and other nations will continue to
A
-@
response, evacuation, monitoring and early warning bear the brunt of extreme weather events, risking lives,
ID
systems and technologies, with participation from people. infrastructure, and socio-economic stability.
am
gr
le
Te

Covid-19 and
Disaster Management 10
“We are facing a global health crisis unlike any in the 75-
year history of the United Nations. One that is killing people, Job Losses and Unemployment: Millions bore the
brunt of job losses, with sectors like tourism (76%),
spreading human suffering, and upending people’s lives”.
hospitality (41%), and retail (21%) experiencing
-Antonio Guterres significant downturns (Centre for Monitoring Indian
Economy, 2020). The unemployment rate skyrocketed
INTRODUCTION to 23.5% in May 2020, pushing an estimated 122
million people out of work (World Bank, 2023).
Cases of novel coronavirus (nCoV) were first detected in Supply Chain Disruptions: Global lockdowns snarled
supply chains, with import delays of up to 40% and
China in December 2019, with the virus spreading rapidly to
export contractions exceeding 30% (Federation of
other countries across the world. This led WHO to declare Indian Export Organizations, 2020).
a Public Health Emergency of International Concern (PHEIC) Inflation: This choked raw material availability and
triggered a 7.3% spike in inflation, further squeezing
on 30 January 2020 and to characterize the outbreak as a
household budgets (Reserve Bank of India, 2020).
pandemic on 11 March 2020. While news reports primarily
focused on rising case numbers and overwhelmed hospitals,
what unfolded in India was a story far more complex. It COVID-19 AS A DISASTER
C
PS
wasn’t just a health crisis, but a social, economic, and even

_U
Meaning of Disaster: Section 2 (d) of the DM Act states

nt
ge
existential disaster playing out across the fabric of a diverse that a disaster means a “catastrophe, mishap, calamity
A
-@
nation. This chapter delves into the unique challenges and or grave occurrence in any area, arising from natural or
ID
man-made causes.”
am
triumphs of India’s response to this unprecedented event,

gr
Invoking the NDMA Provisions: In March 2020 the

le
examining the effectiveness of disaster management

Te
government of India imposed a 21-day national lockdown.

strategies in the face of an invisible enemy. This marks the first time since the law came into being
that the NDMA provisions have been invoked. Sections 6
Data-Wise and 10, under which the lockdown order was issued, give
Death and Vaccine in the World: According to the NDMA powers to prepare national plans for disaster
WHO, as of December 2023, there have been management and ensure its implementation through
77,23,86,069 confirmed cases of COVID-19, the state disaster management authorities in a uniform
including 69,87,222 deaths. As of November 2023, manner.
a total of 13,59,57,21,080 vaccine doses have been Role of National Executive Committee: Section 10 of
administered worldwide. The Disaster Management Act deals with the powers
Death & Vaccine in India: According to the Home and functions of this national executive committee.
Ministry in India, till 3 February 2024, the Total This section also empowers the National Executive
Vaccination of people had been 2,20,67,87,087. Committee to lay down guidelines for or give directions
While total cases were 4,50,25,951 death numbers to, the concerned Ministries or Departments of the
are near 5,33,454. Government of India, the State Governments and the
GDP Contraction: India’s GDP plummeted by a State Authorities regarding measures to be taken by
staggering 7.3% in FY 2020-21, translating to a real them in response to any threatening disaster situation
GDP loss of Rs. 9.22 lakh crore (Ministry of Statistics or disaster. It is under this section that the Union
and Programme Implementation, 2023). Home Ministry has been issuing guidelines for the
containment of Covid-19.
Economic Impact
CHALLENGES FACED BY INDIA
Daily Wage Earners
Healthcare: The worst-affected nations, Italy, the United • Precarious livelihoods: Informal, day-to-day work
States, and China have 3.2, 2.8, and 4.3 hospital beds per across sectors like street vending and housekeeping
1000 inhabitants, respectively. In comparison, India had came to a standstill, leaving many without income
just about 0.55 beds per 1,000 inhabitants. Furthermore, and food security.
the overall ICU capacity is less than a million. India has • Limited access to government assistance: Informality
a doctor-patient ratio of 1:1445 compared to the WHO often excludes them from social safety nets, making
standard of 1:1000. A similar predicament happens for them particularly vulnerable during crises.
other health workers such as paramedics and nurses.
Economic slowdown and recession: The pandemic
Population density: India is the second most populous triggered a severe economic slowdown, with GDP
country in the world, with high population densities in growth plunging and unemployment rising significantly.
some areas, especially in major cities such as Mumbai Businesses across various sectors suffered massive
and Delhi. losses.
Poverty and illiteracy: Poverty is a huge issue in India as, Disruption of supply chains and trade: Lockdowns
after Nigeria, India has the poorest people in the world. and travel restrictions disrupted global supply chains,
India’s literacy rate is 74.04%, with rates changing by impacting trade and further weakening the economy.
state. The great majority of the population is illiterate,
Stress on public finances: Increased healthcare
semi-literate, or uneducated. They are completely
expenditure and economic relief measures put pressure
unaware of a COVID-19-like outbreak and the necessary
on government finances, limiting resources for other
preventative actions.
crucial sectors.
IMPACT OF COVID-19 Environmental Impact

Reduced air and water pollution: Strict lockdowns led to
Social Impact temporary improvements in air and water quality due to
C
PS
Women: Women shouldered the burden of increased reduced industrial activity and vehicular emissions.
_U
household chores and childcare due to school closures Increased waste generation: Increased reliance on
nt

ge
and lockdowns, adding to their pre-existing workload. single-use masks and medical disposables led to a surge
A
-@
Lockdowns and economic stress led to a rise in reported in waste generation, posing environmental challenges.
ID
cases of domestic violence and exploitation. Disruption of waste management systems: Lockdowns
am

gr
Children: Lockdowns disrupted education, mental and resource constraints disrupted waste management
le
Te
health, and nutrition, affecting disadvantaged children, systems, leading to potential environmental pollution.
and causing increased anxiety, stress, and social isolation. Impact on wildlife and biodiversity: Movement
Economic hardships exacerbated family tensions and restrictions affected wildlife corridors and potentially
exploitation risks. impacted biodiversity, though long-term studies are
Migrant Workers: A survey by Azim Premji University needed for clear assessment.
estimated that 82% of migrant workers lost their jobs Focus on sustainable solutions: The pandemic sparked
during the pandemic. A 2021 report by the International interest in adopting sustainable practices like waste
Labour Organization (ILO) revealed that India witnessed reduction and renewable energy, offering potential long-
the highest internal labour migration movements across term environmental benefits.
the world due to the pandemic.
Older adults: COVID-19 has led to higher mortality INDIA’S RESPONSE
rates in older adults, increased social isolation, limited
healthcare access, and economic vulnerabilities,
Successes
Early Activation and Swift Action
particularly for those reliant on pensions or informal
work, highlighting the need for improved mental and • NDMA and SDMAs: The swift activation of the National
Disaster Management Authority (NDMA) and State
emotional well-being.
Disaster Management Authorities (SDMAs) ensured
People with disabilities: The pandemic has exacerbated a coordinated response across government agencies,
accessibility challenges for people with disabilities, healthcare units, and local bodies.
leading to increased reliance on caregivers, mental health • Travel restrictions: Early travel restrictions, including
issues, and economic vulnerabilities, as lockdowns and international flight suspensions and visa limitations,
social distancing measures overlook their needs. helped delay the virus’s entry and spread.

• Risk assessment and preparedness: NDMA’s early risk Areas for Improvement
assessment and activation of emergency response Inconsistent Implementation
plans laid the groundwork for subsequent actions. • Urban-rural disparities: The lockdown exposed gaps
Nationwide Lockdown in accessibility of essential services and enforcement
• Flattening the curve: While controversial, the initial between urban and rural areas, particularly in slums
nationwide lockdown provided crucial time to: and remote locations.
Increase hospital bed capacity and critical care • Vulnerable groups: Implementation challenges
infrastructure. affected marginalized communities like migrant
Train medical personnel and establish contact workers, daily wage earners, and minority groups
tracing mechanisms. disproportionately.
Increase awareness and implement containment
Supply Chain Disruptions
measures. • PPE and medical supplies: Dependence on global
• Graded Unlock Policy: The phased unlocking of supply chains led to shortages of personal protective
lockdown restrictions based on risk assessment and equipment (PPE) and medical supplies, highlighting
data-driven decision-making ensured a gradual easing the need for domestic production capabilities.
of restrictions while safeguarding public health.
• Essential goods distribution: Logistical bottlenecks
Leveraging Existing Networks and disruptions in essential goods distribution
• ASHA workers: Leveraging the vast network of ASHA networks during lockdowns posed challenges for
workers for awareness campaigns, health checks, accessing basic necessities.
and essential service delivery in rural areas proved
Healthcare Infrastructure Gaps
invaluable.
• Rural healthcare access: The pandemic exposed
• Anganwadi workers: Similarly, Anganwadi workers
limitations in rural healthcare infrastructure, including
played a crucial role in disseminating information,
insufficient hospital beds, medical personnel, and
addressing specific needs like childcare, and
critical care facilities.
supporting vulnerable families.
• Uneven distribution of resources: Urban-rural
Digital Innovations
C
and inter-state disparities in healthcare resources

PS
• Aarogya Setu App: The Aarogya Setu App facilitated

_U
highlighted the need for equitable distribution and

nt
contact tracing, self-assessment, and access to

investment in rural health systems.
ge
A
essential resources, promoting proactive individual

-@
engagement. Misinformation and Stigma

ID
• Co-WIN Vaccinator App: A Vaccine registration • Widespread misinformation: The pandemic saw
am
a surge in misinformation, hindering awareness

gr
and information platform for Online platforms

le
campaigns and vaccine uptake. Countering

Te
streamlined vaccine registration, appointment

booking, and information dissemination, enhancing misinformation with accurate and accessible
accessibility and efficiency. information remains crucial.
Targeted Policy Interventions • Stigma against infected individuals: Social stigma
• PMGKAY: Initiatives like Pradhan Mantri Garib Kalyan associated with COVID-19 hampered contact
Yojana (PMGKY) provided financial aid and essential tracing efforts and caused undue emotional distress
supplies to vulnerable populations, mitigating for affected individuals. Promoting empathy and
economic hardship during lockdowns. addressing stigma through public awareness
campaigns and community engagement are essential.
• Other targeted policies: Tailored schemes for specific
sectors like agriculture, micro, small and medium Focus on Long-Term Resilience
enterprises (MSMEs), and tourism helped cushion • Disaster preparedness: Investing in long-term
the economic blow for vulnerable groups. disaster preparedness plans and infrastructure
upgrades for future epidemics and other potential
threats is vital.
IGNITE YOUR MIND • Social safety nets: Strengthening social safety nets
and livelihood diversification policies can better
India’s strict lockdown, while effective in flattening equip vulnerable communities to withstand future
the curve, had a devastating impact on the shocks.
informal economy and daily wage earners. Can
• Community engagement: Building resilience requires
you think of a few future disaster management
active community engagement in preparedness
strategies to achieve a better balance between
measures, risk reduction strategies, and information
protecting lives and livelihoods?
dissemination.
Covid-19 and Disaster Management 133

State-Level Measures Steps Taken by Administration
Delhi Financial Package: The Kerala government announced a
Rs. 20,000 crore financial package to manage the crisis.
Challenges: Delhi’s dense population and high density
make it challenging to contain COVID-19 spread. The Contact Tracing: The government is conducting “contact
migrant population, many of whom work in informal tracing” to isolate potentially infected individuals.
sectors, is also vulnerable. The city’s international travel Screening And Testing: Route maps are being published,
and connecting flights make it a potential entry point. urging people to contact the health department for
The Nizamuddin Markaz outbreak in 2020 highlighted the screening and testing.
challenges of controlling COVID-19 in religious gatherings. Contact Isolation: Local government officials and ASHA
The spread of fake news has also contributed to social health workers are assisting in finding infected individuals
unrest and division. and ensuring their contacts are isolated.
Social mobilization: It has been implemented, providing
Steps Taken by Administration communities with essential epidemiological information.
Delhi’s 5T Plan for COVID-19 Response Adequate supply of essential commodities: Particularly
• Testing: Delhi conducted 696 tests/million till April food and medicines, has been ensured, especially for
13, 2020. vulnerable sections of society.
• Tracing: Planned to trace individuals who come into
contact with a positive patient. Chandrapur’s Colour-coded Passes System
• Treatment: Planned for 8000 hospital beds to handle While Maharashtra is responsible for more deaths
up to 30,000 active cases. in the country than other states in comparison.
• Teamwork: The state collaborated with technology Chandrapur district in the east of Maharashtra has
professionals, doctors, and nurses. recorded low instances of death.
• Tracking and Monitoring: Actively monitored the To maintain it that way, the district administration has
implementation of the 5T programme. implemented a one-of-a-kind pass system that aims
• Technology: The Delhi Government released the to establish social distance by allocating days on
C
“Assess Koro Na” application to perform door-to- which one member of a family can leave.
PS
_U
door surveys in COVID-19 containment zones. The For instance, the 22,000 families in Ballarpur municipal
nt
acquired data is promptly transferred to the servers corporation — the second largest city in the district —
ge
A
and analysed. The control centres will access this

-@
have been divided into five groups. Each group has

data and make timely choices to meet demands
ID
been assigned a colour-coded pass

am
such as ambulance services, medical experts, and • Pink, Blue, White, Yellow and Green
gr
so on.
le
• which specifies the dates on which the pass-holder

Te
Relief Work: Free food for ration card holders and 2000 can go out to buy groceries and other essential
food coupons distributed to the poor. items.
Support for impacted transport service providers: Rs The passes in Chandrapur, which has around 85,000
5,000/- each to their bank accounts. families, are not colour-coded (they are all white),
Operation SHIELD: The Delhi Government declared it to but the concept is the same- the population has been
control the virus’s spread in the city’s 21 containment separated into six categories, and the passes define
zones or hotspots. the dates for each group.
Leadership: CM and state administration ensured the The district’s 15 blocks, which have a combined
efficient execution of the plan. population of 26 lakh people, had asked to implement
this system and to hire ASHA (Accredited Social
Closures and Restrictions: Schools, colleges, cinema
Health Activist) personnel to enforce it.
halls, offices, and shopping malls closed.
Kerala
Challenges ROLE OF DISASTER
First COVID-19 patient: In India was a medical student MANAGEMENT ACT 2005
from Wuhan, China. The state authorities were left with Enabling Rapid Response: The Act’s focus on quick
little time to prepare for the rising cases. action and flexible decision-making facilitated the
Inflow from outside: Tourism inflows, both domestic and swift activation of the National Disaster Management
international, are a potential infection source. Authority (NDMA) and State Disaster Management
Inadequate test kits: Especially needed earlier than in Authorities (SDMAs), enabling coordinated responses at
other states, posed a challenge. national and state levels.

Legal Framework for Containment Measures: The Act NDMA’s Role in Controlling COVID-19 in
provided legal backing for implementing lockdown India
restrictions, establishing quarantine zones, and enforcing The National Disaster Management Authority (NDMA)
physical distancing measures, crucial for controlling the played a crucial role in coordinating and strategizing India’s
virus spread. response to the COVID-19 pandemic. Its contributions can be
Resource Mobilization and Allocation: The Act broadly divided into policy and guidelines and coordination
empowered the government to access and utilize funds and implementation:
from the State Disaster Response Fund (SDRF) and
Policy and Guidelines
National Disaster Response Fund (NDRF) for emergency
Developing comprehensive guidelines: NDMA issued
procurement of medical supplies, PPE kits, and setting
National Guidelines for Management of the COVID
up temporary hospital infrastructure.
Pandemic covering various aspects of the pandemic,
Disaster Management Expertise and Infrastructure: including risk assessment, surveillance, quarantine,
The existing network of disaster management personnel and isolation protocols. These guidelines were regularly
were mobilized for tasks like contact tracing, community updated based on evolving situations and best practices.
awareness campaigns, and logistics management, Training and resource development: NDMA created
leveraging their expertise and resources. training modules for healthcare workers, volunteers,
Risk Assessment and Planning: The Act’s emphasis and administrators on pandemic preparedness and
on risk assessment and disaster preparedness proved response. Additionally, it facilitated the development of
valuable in planning future phases of the pandemic educational materials for public awareness campaigns.
response, including vaccination drives and managing Procurement and distribution of resources: NDMA
potential future waves. played a key role in procuring and distributing essential
Challenges and Limitations medical equipment like PPE kits, ventilators, and oxygen
concentrators, ensuring efficient resource allocation
Unconventional Disaster: COVID-19’s unique nature
across states.
as an invisible, long-term threat tested the traditional
C
International collaboration: NDMA actively collaborated

PS
scope of the DMA designed for sudden, natural disasters.

_U
with international organizations like WHO and UN

nt
Adapting existing frameworks to this novel situation

ge
agencies to share best practices, access technical

A
posed challenges.
-@
expertise, and secure additional resources for India’s

Focus on Emergency Response: The Act’s emphasis
ID
fight against the pandemic.

am
on immediate response measures left long-term

gr
Coordination and Implementation

le
recovery and rehabilitation of affected communities less

Te
addressed, requiring additional policy interventions. Providing technical and financial support: NDMA offered
technical and financial assistance to State Disaster
Implementation Discrepancies: Variations in
Management Authorities (SDMAs) for implementing
enforcement and resource allocation across different
COVID-19 response measures. This included supporting
states highlighted the need for stronger inter-state
the establishment of isolation facilities, testing centres,
cooperation and equitable distribution of resources. and healthcare infrastructure upgrades.
Task force formation: NDMA established dedicated task
Effectiveness of Various Lockdown Measures, forces focusing on specific areas like logistics, medical
Containment Strategies and Vaccination Drives response, and communication. These task forces
facilitated coordinated action and decision-making
Vaccination Impact: A research focuses on
across different departments and agencies.
vaccination-related policies and provides a detailed
analysis of COVID-19 metrics. Vaccination efforts, National-level monitoring and guidance: NDMA closely
including boosters, greatly reduce the number of monitored the pandemic situation across the country
cases, hospitalisations, and fatalities. through data analysis and regular consultations with
Lockdowns and Containment procedures: According experts. Based on these insights, it provided real-time
to government assessments, lockdown and restriction guidance and recommendations to SDMAs and other
procedures effectively limit the virus’s transmission. stakeholders.
By spring 2020, lockdowns had affected more than half Guidelines for Vaccination: NDMA collaborated with the
of the world’s population, proving their widespread Ministry of Health to develop the national vaccination
usage as a containment method. program, including priority groups, vaccine allocation
strategies, and vaccine hesitancy management.

Role of State Disaster Management Mask-making a philanthropic activity: 1339 Mission
Authorities (SDMAs) Shakti SHGs with experience in stitching garments and
producing jute items have committed to undertake
Implementation on Ground Level
mask-making as a philanthropic activity.
Enforcement of containment measures: SDMAs were
Mask and Livelihoods: 6.5 million reusable face masks
responsible for implementing lockdown and containment
were produced and sold at nominal prices to frontline
measures within their jurisdictions, including movement
restrictions, curfews, and quarantine protocols. workers. Another 0.3 million masks were distributed free
of cost by SHGs among the poor and the vulnerable to
Coordination with local authorities: SDMAs worked
contain the pandemic. This promoted the livelihoods of
closely with district administrations, municipalities, and
rural women.
other local bodies to ensure effective implementation of
COVID-19 response initiatives on the ground. Mumbai’s Dharavi Model
Healthcare infrastructure management: SDMAs The ‘Dharavi model’ of COVID-19 management and the
managed COVID-19 infrastructure within their states, vaccination drive have helped contain the second wave in
overseeing the establishment and operation of isolation the area, according to officials.
facilities, testing centres, and healthcare facilities Quarantine centres were set up in schools, colleges,
dedicated to the pandemic response. parks, hostels, and community halls to house those
State-specific action plans: SDMAs adapted the NDMA’s segregated post-screening.
national guidelines to develop state-specific action plans Visiting doctors instilled confidence in people, leading to
tailored to their local contexts and risk levels. self-identification of symptoms.
Three private hospitals were acquired for treatment, and
BEST PRACTICES IN INDIA the Sion public hospital was designated for COVID-19.
Odisha: Women Leading from the Front to Clinics indicated where screening drives should be
Contain the Pandemic carried out, with 50-60% positive cases identified
through screening and testing.
Mission Shakti: In Odisha, 7 million women of Mission
C
PS
Shakti have taken the lead in the fight against COVID-19. Integrated Medical Practitioners (IMP) played a
_U
nt
They have helped contain the spread of the virus and significant role, sharing potential COVID patients with
ge
A
provided various community services. experienced allopathic doctors for advice.

-@
Community members played a stellar role in creating

ID
Mo Jeevan pledge: SHGs helped implement the ‘Mo

am
Jeevan’ pledge to all habitations across the state, educating containment zones, barricading areas, and promoting
gr
precautionary messages.
le
15.3 million persons to break the chain of contact. Many

Te
of them have also helped spread awareness about social Police used drones to check gatherings distribute food,
distancing and safety in rural areas. and spread awareness.
The model that worked for Dharavi
Positive
Hospital
isolation
centres
Large-scale Quarantining Testing for

screening COVID-19
patients Quarantine
Negative centres
Fig. 10.1: Dharavi Model of COVID-19 Management
Rajasthan’s Bhilwara, ‘Ruthless Containment Model
Bhilwara, Rajasthan, has implemented a “ruthless containment” model to break the chain of novel Coronavirus
transmission.
The containment model involved isolation of the district, screening in the city and rural areas, and sending people
showing symptoms to home quarantine.
The district administration also acquired hotels, resorts, hostels, and Dharamshala to arrange 1,500 quarantine beds and
14,400 normal beds.
During the ongoing “all-down curfew”, essential items were being delivered to city residents.

BEST PRACTICES IN THE WORLD
Strategy Country Best Practices
First Elimination then New Zealand It got the country through the first 18 months of the pandemic until vaccines
Mitigation Strategy became widely available, giving it very low Covid-19 mortality rates. Life
expectancy actually increased during this period. Protecting public health
has also been good for protecting the economy, resulting in relatively good
economic growth and low unemployment.
Robust Surveillance and South Korea Tracked contacts using mobile phone data and deployed rapid test kits.
Contact Tracing
Transparent and Consistent Singapore Held regular press conferences and launched public awareness campaigns,
Communication leading to high public trust in government measures.
Strengthening Healthcare Taiwan Stockpiled medical supplies and trained healthcare workers, enabling a
Infrastructure rapid response to outbreaks and maintaining low case fatality rates.
Targeted Social Support Costa Rica Launched a broad cash transfer program(Star Program) for vulnerable
Programs households, mitigating the economic impact of lockdowns and reducing
poverty rates.
Prioritization of Vulnerable Ireland Provided healthcare workers with priority access to personal protective
Groups equipment (PPE) and implemented dedicated testing protocols for frontline
staff.
Emphasis on Mask-Wearing Japan Achieved near-universal mask-wearing compliance (>90%) through public
and Hygiene Practices awareness campaigns and social norms.
C
PS
Data-Driven Decision-Making Israel Launched a national contact tracing app with high user adoption, informing
_U
targeted isolation measures and reducing transmission effectively.

nt
ge
A
-@
ID
SO HOW WE CAN MANAGE SUCH Sonu Sood, once primarily known as a Bollywood
am
gr
DISASTERS IN THE FUTURE? actor, became a beacon of hope and compassion

le
Te
during the COVID-19 pandemic. His humanitarian

Strategic and Tactical Response efforts ranged from opening his hotel to healthcare
Prioritize evidence-based decision-making: Align public workers to providing food for thousands through the
health measures with expert recommendations and Shakti Annadanam initiative. He facilitated the return
adapt strategies as the situation evolves. of stranded migrant workers to their homes, arranged
Balance urgent response measures with long-term employment opportunities, and even supported
economic and social considerations: Minimize disruption students with scholarships and free mobile phones
and foster sustainable recovery. for online education. Mr. Sood also organized flights
Tailor responses to specific regions and communities to bring back Indian students stranded abroad and
based on their needs and vulnerabilities: Avoid a one- tirelessly worked to provide hospital beds, medicines,
size-fits-all approach. and oxygen to those in need.
Communication and Collaboration
Community engagement: Involve local communities
Clear and consistent communication: Ensure transparent
and timely communication of risks, safety protocols, in planning, implementing, and monitoring disaster
and government initiatives to build public trust and response measures, leveraging their knowledge and
compliance. This will control vaccine hesitancy and the resilience.
fake news menace.
• For example, In Brazil people formed “solidarity
Enhanced inter-agency coordination: Improve
networks” to distribute food, hygiene products, and
collaboration between different government
departments, healthcare agencies, and research information to residents, often using improvised
institutions for rapid and effective response. communication channels like WhatsApp groups.

Strengthening Infrastructure and Systems India and internationally to contribute to global disaster
Invest in healthcare infrastructure. Strengthen public preparedness and response.
health systems, including hospitals, medical supplies, Unpredictability as the New Normal: Disaster prediction
and personnel training, to be better prepared for future is difficult, even with advances in information technology.
medical emergencies. Natural disasters are becoming more unpredictable due
Develop robust early warning systems. Implement to climate change. Disaster management techniques must
effective early warning systems and risk assessment tools evolve to meet the changing world of unpredictability.
to predict and prepare for potential disasters, including
climate-related events. IGNITE YOUR MIND
Utilize technology for data collection, analysis, and
communication. Use technology to efficiently monitor During the COVID-19, People faced acute scarcity
the situation, allocate resources, and coordinate of Basic needs such as hospital beds, medicines
response efforts. In this sector, the government has done and even graveyards. Can we develop flexible
significantly well with innovations such as Arogya Setu healthcare systems that can rapidly expand and
and CO-WIN. adapt to accommodate sudden increases in
patient needs during future pandemics?
Addressing Social and Economic
Challenges
Continuously adapt and evolve. Embrace a flexible and
Focus on vulnerable populations: Pay special attention
adaptable approach to disaster management, constantly
to the needs of marginalized communities, women,
updating systems and strategies based on new challenges
children, and those with disabilities. Ensure equitable
and emerging threats.
access to resources and support during and after
disasters. Humanity at its Core- Empathy and Compassion: The
humanitarian approach is key to disaster management.
Economic resilience and livelihood protection:
C
Victims deserve empathy and assistance. Addressing

PS
Implement financial support programs and social safety

_U
nets to mitigate the economic impact of disasters on socioeconomic inequities and inclusion is important.
nt
ge
vulnerable groups and businesses. The PM Garib Kalyan • Incidents such as spraying disinfectants on migrants
A
-@
Yojana was a good step in this direction. could be avoided in future.

ID
am
Building community resilience: Invest in long-term

CONCLUSION
gr
programs that enhance community preparedness,

le
Te
empower individuals, and promote sustainable COVID-19 has been termed the highlight these words in
livelihoods for better recovery from future disasters. orange Event, as it was unprecedented, came as a surprise
Learning from Experience and changed the lives of people in numerous aspects. As a
Conduct thorough evaluations. Analyze the strengths
disaster, it was new for the administrators to deal with a crisis
and weaknesses of the COVID-19 response to identify at such scale and longevity. Thus, it should be remembered
areas for improvement and inform future disaster that the nature of disaster is unpredictable and humans
management strategies. should be ready for all kinds of events. At the same time,
Share knowledge and best practices. Disseminate mitigation and care for nature are of utmost importance to
lessons learned and successful interventions within restrict hazards from becoming disasters.

Te
le
gr
am
ID
-@
A
ge
nt
_U
PS
C

Disaster Management

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Disaster Management

Uploaded by

Document Information

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Disaster Management

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Te

COMPREHENSIVE LEARNING SERIES FOR

Physics Wallah Publication

Mobile App: Physics Wallah (Available on Play Store)

permission from the author or publisher.

In the interest of the student community:

content to bring quality and clarity to the students.

Underlying Causes Dynamic Pressure Trigger Event

Fig 1.1: Hazard and Vulnerability turning into Disaster

influenced by physical, social, economic, and environmental damaged

to be affected by hazards. Vulnerability relates to several damaged

factors, including: Mitigation: The National Society for Earthquake Technology

Fig. 1.3: Risk Assessment

Different Approaches of Managing Risk

Approach Description Examples

Understanding Disaster Risk 3

Hazard and Exposure Vulnerability Lack of Coping Capacity

Natural Anthropogenic Socio- Vulnerable

Earthquake Mine Physical

Cyclone and surge Accidents Under Access

Categories Landslide Sanitation

Components Shocks Reduction Access

Fig. 1.4: Factors igniting Risk Probability

and causing approximately US$2.97 trillion in global

any area, arising from natural or man made causes, or by

of climate-related events surged from 3,656 (1980-1999)

Etymology to 6,681 (2000-2019).

Understanding Disaster Risk 5

Since 1991, two-thirds of disaster victims have been from

cyclones such as Cyclone Amphan, on the other side

developing countries, contrasting with a mere 2% from

developed nations. This stark difference underscores the

• Insufficient disaster risk management: It was one of

heightened vulnerability of developing nations to large-

of life and excessive infrastructure damage during

 Rising Challenge: According to the UNDRR, by 2030, with

the cold snap, and also contributed to the high losses

current climate projections, the world will face some 560

caused by the Central Vietnam floods.

ensuring proactive and effective management.

like food, clothing, shelter, medicines, and other necessities.

The goal is to restore a sense of normalcy to the affected

Pre-disaster community’s life as much as possible.

Disaster boats and helicopters played a crucial role in rescuing

fostering “social capital” for effective recovery. The

1990-1999 1999 2015

Sendai Framework emphasizes “build back better” in

ELEMENTS OF DISASTER MANAGEMENT

The three phases, encompassing preparedness and risk

SDG TARGETS RELATED TO DISASTER RISK REDUCTION

progressively improve land and soil quality.

reduction, and management of national and global health risks.

Disaster Management Cycle 9

Developments in India • Holistic Approach: The act emphasizes a proactive,

incorporates disaster preparedness, emphasizing the prevention-oriented strategies, aiming to conserve

development. It mandates each state to adopt a

planning scheme for mitigation, institutionalizing it into

zones and causing deep earthquakes. Alternatively,

the country is affected by droughts and famine while the

new crust forms at mid-ocean ridges, producing

Rising Challenge: According to the UNDRR, by 2030, with

Global Data: Transform boundaries: When plates grind past each

Earthquakes: All earthquakes do not cause tsunamis.

Community Awareness Gap: Inadequate awareness buoy protection.

Structural Mitigation Measures

Storm surges: Coastal areas are vulnerable to flooding

Kandi Basin West Bengal: GSI recommended the

High tide impeding drainage