1 Nuclear Radiation (continued)

Get It? Explain why the penetrating power of gamma rays is

greater than the penetrating power of alpha or beta particles.

Gamma rays have greater penetrating power than alpha or beta particles
primarily because they are electromagnetic waves with no mass or charge,
allowing them to travel long distances through matter before being absorbed or
scattered. This characteristic makes gamma rays particularly hazardous in terms
of radiation exposure and necessitates robust shielding measures in
environments where they are present, such as in medical imaging, industrial
radiography, and nuclear power applications.

CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

1. List the different types of radiation and their charges.

- Alpha radiation:+2e - Beta-minus radiation:-e - Beta-plus radiation:+e - Gamma radiation: 0

2. Compare the subatomic particles involved in nuclear and chemical reactions.

Subatomic particles involved in nuclear reactions are α,β and γ while in chemical reactions valence electrons as
subatomic particles are involved

3. Explain how you know whether the reaction is chemical or nuclear when an atom
undergoes a reaction and attains a more-stable form.

The given reaction in which an atom attains a more stable form is a nuclear reaction. This is because the
increased stability of the atom indicates a change in the nucleus, which is not seen in chemical reactions that
only involve electron rearrangements.
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4. Calculate The approximate energy values in Table 2 are given in units of MeV.
Convert each value into joules using the following conversion factor: 1 MeV = 1.6×10-13 J.
we convert them to Joules using the conversion factor 1MeV=1.6*10^-13J
The energy values in Joules are: 3.5MeV:5.6*10^-13J
, 5.0MeV:8.0*10^-13J
,2.7MeV:4.32*10^-13J

5. Summarize Make a time line that summarizes the major events that led to the
understanding of alpha, beta, and gamma radiation.
In 1895, Mr. Wilhelm Roentgen discovered X-rays. He realized that there is an invisible ray of light when electrons are bombarded into a certain material. At
the same time, Mr. Henri Becquerel discovered that uranium salts produced spontaneous emission even if the salt is not exposed to light. The Curie couple,
Marie and Pierre, coined the activity "radioactivity," and the rays emitted by the material as "radiation." They observed this because they also experimented
with Becquerel's sample. After those discovery of radiation, a lot of scientist followed the steps of the aforementioned scientists. Mr. Ernest Rutherford who
was also famous for his gold foil experiment in discovering the existence of nucleus in an atom, had an experiment that also discovered the different types of
radiation.

Mr. Rutherford tried to figure out if an electric field will have an effect on radiation. He had an experiment set up where he let the radiation pass on a slit to
isolate the ray into a thin line emission and passed it through an electric field. Positively and negatively charged plate are placed on opposite sides of the ray
pathway. Just like in his gold foil experiments, there is also a detecting screen on the end of the line.

There, he discovered that the ray of radiation had split into three sections. He discovered that there is a particle that bended upward to the positively charged
plate. Therefore, the particle must be negatively charged which we now call the beta (β) particle. Then there is also a particle that bended downward towards
the negatively charged plate. Therefore, the particle must be positively charged which we now call the alpha (α) particle. Lastly, there is a ray that remained on
its straight pathway. There might be a particle in radiation that did not have a charge at all, which we now call gamma (γ) rays.
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 2 Radioactive Decay (continued)
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS
12. Describe what happens to unstable nuclei.
Unstable nuclei undergo various decay processes to reach a more stable state, including alpha decay, beta decay, and gamma
decay. In alpha decay, the nucleus emits an alpha particle, resulting in a change in both atomic mass and atomic number. Beta
decay involves the conversion of a neutron into a proton or vice versa, accompanied by the emission of a beta-minus or beta-plus
particle. Gamma decay involves the emission of high-energy photons called gamma rays, which reduce the energy of the excited
nucleus to a more stable state without changing the atomic mass or atomic number.

13. Explain how you can predict whether or not an isotope is likely to be stable if you
know its number of neutrons and protons.

To predict an isotope's stability, first calculate its neutron-to-proton ratio (N/Z) and compare it to the expected stable N/Z ratios for
similar atomic numbers. Then, check if the isotope has magic numbers of protons, neutrons, or both (2, 8, 20, 28, 50, 82, 126). If
the N/Z ratio is close to the expected stable value and the isotope has magic numbers, it is likely to be stable; otherwise, it is more
likely to be unstable and undergo radioactive decay.

14. Describe the forces acting on the particles within a nucleus and explain why
neutrons are the glue holding the nucleus together.

The particles within a nucleus, protons and neutrons, experience the strong nuclear force and the electromagnetic force. The
strong nuclear force acts between nucleons, providing an attractive force that holds the nucleus together, while the
electromagnetic force causes repulsion between protons, destabilizing the nucleus. Neutrons play a vital role as the "glue" holding
the nucleus together, as they contribute to the strong nuclear force without participating in the electromagnetic repulsion. This
balance of forces ensures nuclear stability.

15. Predict the nuclear equation for the alpha decay of radium-226 used on the tips of
older lightning rods.

The nuclear equation for the alpha decay of radium-226 used in older lightning rods is:
Copyright © McGraw-Hill Education

This means that radium-226 undergoes alpha decay, emitting an alpha particle, to form radon-222.

16. Calculate how much of a 10.0-g sample of americium-241 remains after four
half-lives. Americium-241 is a radioisotope commonly used in smoke detectors and
has a half-life of 430 y.

After four half-lives, 0.625 grams of americium-241 remain in the 10.0-g sample.

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2 Radioactive Decay (continued)
17. Calculate After 2.00 y, 1.986 g of a radioisotope remains from a sample that had
an original mass of 2.000 g.

a. Calculate the half-life.

b. How much of the radioisotope remains after 10.00 y?

a. The half-life of the radioisotope is approximately years. b. After 10.00 years, approximately g of the
radioisotope remains.

18. Graph A sample of polonium-214 originally has a mass of 1.0 g. Express the mass
remaining as a percent of the original sample after a period of one, two, and three
half-lives. Graph the percent remaining versus the number of half-lives.
Approximately how much time has elapsed when 20% of the original sample
remains? The half-life of polonium-214 is 163.7 μs.

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 3 Nuclear Reactions (continued)
Get It? Explain The opening page of the module states that,
“Energy from the Sun is at the heart of life on Earth.” Explain the link
between the Sun’s temperature and the release of such an enormous
amount of energy.

Energy from the sun

is renewable because it is readily available and we can use whenever we want.
Energy from oil is nonrenewable because it takes millions of years to make it
again as opposed to the sun which is always there.

CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

22. Explain why energy is released when nucleons combine to form an atom but is
needed to break a nucleus apart.

energy is released when nucleons combine to form a nucleus due to the conversion of mass into energy
(binding energy) governed by Einstein's equation. This process increases the stability of the nucleus.
Conversely, energy is required to break apart a nucleus because external energy input is needed to overcome
the strong nuclear force holding the nucleons together. These principles underlie the energy dynamics in
nuclear reactions and the stability of atomic nuclei.
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23. Compare and contrast nuclear fission and fusion.

Nuclear fission is the splitting of a heavy nucleus, like Uranium-235, into smaller nuclei, releasing neutrons,
gamma radiation, and energy with harmful radioactive waste as a byproduct. In contrast, nuclear fusion occurs
when light nuclei, such as hydrogen isotopes deuterium and tritium, combine into a heavier nucleus (e.g.,
helium), emitting massive energy and a neutron in a cleaner process but requiring extreme temperature and
pressure conditions.

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3 Nuclear Reactions (continued)
24. Describe the process that occurs during a nuclear chain reaction and explain how
to monitor a chain reaction in a nuclear reactor.

A nuclear chain reaction is a continuous series of fission reactions where neutrons released from the initial reaction trigger further
fission events, producing a massive amount of energy. This process primarily uses isotopes of uranium (U-235) or plutonium
(Pu-239). To sustain a chain reaction, a sufficient concentration of unstable nuclei (fuel) and proper configuration are needed. In a
controlled reactor, this is achieved using moderators to slow neutrons and control rods to absorb neutrons and adjust the reaction
rate. Monitoring tools, such as neutron detectors, temperature sensors, and pressure sensors, help maintain a safe and efficient
chain reaction in a nuclear reactor. Control rods are also used to fine-tune the reaction rate by absorbing more or fewer neutrons.

25. Explain how nuclear fission can be used to generate electric power.
Nuclear fission generates electric power by inducing a controlled chain reaction in a nuclear reactor. The energy
released heats a coolant, which transfers heat to water, converting it into steam. The steam flows through a turbine
connected to a generator, converting thermal energy into electrical energy. Finally, the electricity is transmitted through
power lines and distributed to consumers.

26. Formulate an argument supporting or opposing nuclear power as your state’s
primary power source. Assume the primary source of power currently is the
burning of fossil fuels.
In favor of replacing fossil fuels with nuclear power, the benefits of nuclear energy include: reduced greenhouse
gas emissions, reliability, and higher energy density. Concerns about safety, radioactive waste management,
and costs can be mitigated by modern reactor designs, advanced storage facilities, and decreasing the initial
investment over time. When compared to fossil fuels, nuclear power has a smaller environmental footprint,
more abundant resources, and can contribute to energy independence. Given these advantages and
advancements, nuclear power has the potential to provide a cleaner and more sustainable energy source for
our state, combating climate change and improving energy security for our citizens.

27. Calculate What is the energy change (∆E) associated with a change in mass (∆m)
of 1.00 mg?

Copyright © McGraw-Hill Education

The energy change ∆E associated with a change in mass ∆m of 1.00 mg is approximately 9.00*10^10 Joules.
This is calculated using Einstein's equation E=mc^2and converting the mass to kilograms.

28. Interpret Graphs Use the graph in Figure 14 to answer the following questions.
56
a. Why is the isotope ​ 26 ​Fe highest on the curve?
b. Are more stable isotopes located higher or lower on the curve?
c. Compare the stability of Li-6 and He-4.

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4 Applications and Effects of Nuclear Reactions (continued)
30. Describe several methods used to detect and measure radiation.

Several methods are used to detect and measure radiation, including Geiger-Muller counters, scintillation
detectors, dosimeters, and cloud chambers. Geiger-Muller counters measure ionizing radiation by counting the
electrical current produced by ionized gas. Scintillation detectors measure radiation by using special materials
that emit light when struck by charged particles or photons, with the emitted light intensity proportional to the
energy of incident radiation. Dosimeters measure an individual's exposure to radiation over time by using
materials that emit light when heated or stimulated by light, making the emitted light proportional to the
absorbed radiation dose. Cloud chambers use a supersaturated vapor to detect ionizing radiation through
visible trails formed by the condensation of vapor around ionized air molecules. Each detection method has its
advantages and limitations, so it's essential to understand and choose the most suitable technique for the
application.

31. Compare and contrast s omatic and genetic biological damage.

Somatic biological damage refers to damage to body cells or somatic cells, including those in organs, skin, muscles, and bones. Its
implications are generally limited to the individual experiencing the damage, not affecting future generations. For example, a burn would only
affect the individual, not their offspring. Common causes include UV radiation from the sun, chemical exposure, and physical trauma. Genetic
biological damage, on the other hand, pertains to damage to reproductive or germ cells, such as sperm or egg cells. This type of damage can
lead to genetic mutations, potentially affecting not only the individual but also their offspring and future generations. This can result in various
congenital disorders or malformations. Common causes include exposure to ionizing radiation, certain infections during pregnancy, and
inherited genetic defects. In essence, the difference between somatic and genetic biological damage lies in the type of cells affected and the
potential consequences, with the potential for genetic biological damage to impact future generations being a significant distinction.

32. Explain w
 hy it is safe to use radioisotopes to diagnose medical problems.

Radioisotopes are considered safe for diagnosing medical problems due to several factors: low doses used to minimize potential
damage to healthy tissues, the selection of radioisotopes with short half-lives to reduce long-term effects, targeted accumulation
to limit overall exposure, continuous advancements in technology to detect lower radiation levels, and the consideration of risk vs.
benefit in each case. These safety factors make radioisotopes an essential tool in modern medicine.

33. Calculate A lab worker receives an average radiation dose of 21 mrem each
month. Her allowed dose is 5,000 mrem/y. On average, what fraction of her yearly
dose does she receive?

The lab worker receives, on average, approximately 5.04% of her allowed yearly radiation dose.

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34. Interpret Data Look at the data in Table 6. Suppose someone is exposed to the
maximum values listed for average annual radiation from the ground, from
buildings, and from the air. What fraction would the person receive of the minimum
short-term dose (25 rem) that causes a temporary decrease in white blood cell
population?

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