Unit - 2

Requirements Modeling: Scenarios,

Information, and Analysis Classes
Requirements Analysis
 Requirements analysis
 specifies software’s operational characteristics
 indicates software's interface with other system elements
 establishes constraints that software must meet
 Requirements analysis allows the software engineer
(called an analyst or modeler in this role) to:
 elaborate on basic requirements established during earlier
requirement engineering tasks
 build models that depict user scenarios, functional
activities, problem classes and their relationships, system
and class behavior, and the flow of data as it is
transformed.
A Bridge

system
description

analysis
model

design
model
Rules of Thumb
 The model should focus on requirements that are visible within
the problem or business domain. The level of abstraction
should be relatively high.
 Each element of the analysis model should add to an overall
understanding of software requirements and provide insight into
the information domain, function and behavior of the system.
 Delay consideration of infrastructure and other non-functional
models until design.
 Minimize coupling throughout the system.
 Be certain that the analysis model provides value to all
stakeholders.
 Keep the model as simple as it can be.
Domain Analysis
 Define the domain to be investigated.
 Collect a representative sample of applications in
the domain.
 Analyze each application in the sample.
 Develop an analysis model for the objects.
Elements of Requirements Analysis
 Scenario-Based Modeling
“[Use-cases] are simply an aid to defining what exists
outside the system (actors) and what should be
performed by the system (use-cases).” Ivar Jacobson
(1) What should we write about?
(2) How much should we write about it?
(3) How detailed should we make our
description?
(4) How should we organize the description?
 What to Write About?
 Inception and elicitation—provide you with the information you’ll
need to begin writing use cases.
 Requirements gathering meetings, QFD, and other
requirements engineering mechanisms are used to
 identify stakeholders
 define the scope of the problem
 specify overall operational goals
 establish priorities
 outline all known functional requirements, and
 describe the things (objects) that will be manipulated by the
system.
 To begin developing a set of use cases, list the functions or
activities performed by a specific actor.
 How Much to Write About?
 As further conversations with the stakeholders
progress, the requirements gathering team
develops use cases for each of the functions noted.
 In general, use cases are written first in an informal
narrative fashion.
 If more formality is required, the same use case is
rewritten using a structured format similar to the
one proposed.
Use-Cases
 a scenario that describes a “thread of usage” for
a system
 actors represent roles people or devices play as
the system functions
 users can play a number of different roles for a
given scenario
 Developing a Use-Case
 What are the main tasks or functions that are performed by the
actor?
 What system information will the the actor acquire, produce or
change?
 Will the actor have to inform the system about changes in the
external environment?
 What information does the actor desire from the system?
 Does the actor wish to be informed about unexpected changes?
Use-Case Diagram (1)
SafeHome

Access camera
surveillance via the cameras
Internet

Configure SafeHome
system parameters

homeowner

Set alarm
Use-Case Diagram (2)
Activity Diagram (Notations)

Supplements the use case

by providing a graphical
representation of the flow
of interaction within a
specific scenario
Activity Diagram

Supplements the
use case by
providing a
graphical
representation of
the flow of
interaction within
a specific scenario
Swimlane Diagrams

Allows the modeler

to represent the flow
of activities
described by the use-
case and at the same
time indicate which
actor (if there are
multiple actors
involved in a specific
use-case) or analysis
class has
responsibility for the
action described by
an activity rectangle
 Data Modeling
 If software requirements include the need to create,
extend, or interface with a database.
 or if complex data structures must be constructed
and manipulated.
 The software team may choose to create a data
model as part of overall requirements modeling.
 Data Modeling
 examines data objects independently of processing
 focuses attention on the data domain
 creates a model at the customer’s level of
abstraction
 indicates how data objects relate to one another
 What is a Data Object?
 a representation of almost any composite information that must
be understood by software.
 composite information—something that has a number of different
properties or attributes
 can be an external entity (e.g., anything that produces or
consumes information), a thing (e.g., a report or a display), an
occurrence (e.g., a telephone call) or event (e.g., an alarm), a role
(e.g., salesperson), an organizational unit (e.g., accounting
department), a place (e.g., a warehouse), or a structure (e.g., a
file).
 The description of the data object incorporates the data object
and all of its attributes.
 A data object encapsulates data only—there is no reference
within a data object to operations that act on the data.
 Data Objects and Attributes
A data object contains a set of attributes that act as
an aspect, quality, characteristic, or descriptor of the
object

object: automobile
attributes:
make
model
body type
price
options code
 What is a Relationship?
 Data objects are connected to one another in different
ways.
 A connection is established between person and car
because the two objects are related.
• A person owns a car
• A person is insured to drive a car
 The relationships owns and insured to drive define
the relevant connections between person and car.
 Several instances of a relationship can exist
 Objects can be related in many different ways
 ERD Notation
Database can be represented using the notations. In ER diagram,
many notations are used to express the cardinality.

(0, m) (1, 1)
ERD Notation

One common form:

(0, m)
object1 relationship object 2
(1, 1)

attribute
Another common form:

object1 relationship
object 2
(0, m) (1, 1)
Building an ERD
 Level 1—model all data objects (entities) and
their “connections” to one another
 Level 2—model all entities and relationships
 Level 3—model all entities, relationships, and
the attributes that provide further depth
The ERD: An Example
request
Customer places
for service
(1,1) (1,m)
(1,1)
standard (1,n) work
task table generates
order
(1,1) (1,1) (1,1)
selected work (1,w)
consists
from
(1,w) tasks of

(1,i)
materials lists
 Data-flow diagram (DFD)

A data-flow diagram (DFD) is a way of graphically

representing a flow of a data of a process or a system
(usually an information system). The DFD also provides
information about the outputs and inputs of each entity
and the process itself.
 DFD Symbols
There are four basic symbols that are used to represent
a data-flow diagram.
Process
 A process receives input data and produces output with
a different content or form. Processes can be as simple
as collecting input data and saving in the database, or it
can be complex as producing a report containing
monthly sales of all retail stores in the northwest region.
 Every process has a name that identifies the function it
performs.
 The name consists of a verb, followed by a singular
noun.
 DFD Symbols
Process (Example)
 Apply Payment
 Calculate Commission
 Verify Order

 Notation
DFD Symbols
Process (Example)
 DFD Symbols
Data Flow
 A data-flow is a path for data to move from one part of
the information system to another. A data-flow may
represent a single data element such the Customer ID or
it can represent a set of data element (or a data
structure).
Example:
 Customer_info (LastName, FirstName, SS#, Tel #, etc.)
 Order_info (OrderId, Item#, OrderDate, CustomerID,
etc.).
 DFD Symbols
Data Flow

Notation
 Straight lines with incoming arrows are input data flow
 Straight lines with outgoing arrows are output data flows
 DFD: Example
Food Ordering System
Context DFD (Level 0)
 It only shows the top level.
 At this level, there is only one visible process node
that represents the functions of a complete system in
regards to how it interacts with external entities.
Some of the benefits of a Context Diagram are:
1. Shows the overview of the boundaries of a system
2. No technical knowledge is required to understand with the simple
notation
3. Simple to draw, amend and elaborate as its limited notation
 DFD: Example
Food Ordering System
Context DFD (Level 0)

Supplier, Kitchen, Manager and Customer are the entities who will interact with the
system. In between the process and the external entities, there are data flow (connectors)
that indicate the existence of information exchange between the entities and the system.
 DFD: Example
Food Ordering System
Level 1 DFD
Level 1 DFD, is the decomposition (i.e. break down) of
the Food Ordering System process shown in the context
DFD.
 DFD: Example
Food Ordering System
Level 1 DFD
 Data-flow diagram (DFD)
Points to remember
 Process labels should be verb phrases; data stores are represented by
nouns
 A data store must be associated to at least a process
 An external entity must be associated to at least a process
 Don't let it get too complex; normally 5 - 7 average people can manage
processes
 DFD is non-deterministic - The numbering does not necessarily indicate
sequence, it's useful in identifying the processes when discussing with
users
 Data stores should not be connected to an external entity, otherwise, it
would mean that you're giving an external entity direct access to your data
files
 Data flows should not exist between 2 external entities without going
through a process
 A process that has inputs but no outputs is considered to be a black-hole
process
Class-Based Modeling
 Class-based modeling represents:
 objects that the system will manipulate
 operations (also called methods or services) that will
be applied to the objects to effect the manipulation
 relationships (some hierarchical) between the objects
 collaborations that occur between the classes that are
defined.
 The elements of a class-based model include
classes and objects, attributes, operations, CRC
models, collaboration diagrams and packages.
 Identifying Analysis Classes
 Examining the usage scenarios developed as part of the
requirements model and perform a "grammatical parse”
 Classes are determined by underlining each noun or noun
phrase and entering it into a simple table.
 Synonyms should be noted.
 If the class (noun) is required to implement a solution, then it is
part of the solution space; otherwise, if a class is necessary only
to describe a solution, it is part of the problem space.
 But what should we look for once all of the nouns have
been isolated?
 Manifestations of Analysis Classes
 Analysis classes manifest themselves in one of the following ways:
• External entities (e.g., other systems, devices, people) that produce or
consume information
• Things (e.g, reports, displays, letters, signals) that are part of the
information domain for the problem
• Occurrences or events (e.g., a property transfer or the completion of a series
of robot movements) that occur within the context of system operation
• Roles (e.g., manager, engineer, salesperson) played by people who interact
with the system
• Organizational units (e.g., division, group, team) that are relevant to an
application
• Places (e.g., manufacturing floor or loading dock) that establish the
context of the problem and the overall function
• Structures (e.g., sensors, four-wheeled vehicles, or computers) that define
a class of objects or related classes of objects
Potential Classes
 Retained information. The potential class will be useful during analysis
only if information about it must be remembered so that the system
can function.
 Needed services. The potential class must have a set of identifiable
operations that can change the value of its attributes in some way.
 Multiple attributes. During requirement analysis, the focus should be on
"major" information; a class with a single attribute may, in fact, be
useful during design, but is probably better represented as an attribute
of another class during the analysis activity.
 Common attributes. A set of attributes can be defined for the potential
class and these attributes apply to all instances of the class.
 Common operations. A set of operations can be defined for the potential
class and these operations apply to all instances of the class.
 Essential requirements. External entities that appear in the problem
space and produce or consume information essential to the operation
of any solution for the system will almost always be defined as classes
in the requirements model.
Defining Attributes
 Attributes describe a class that has been
selected for inclusion in the analysis model.
 build two different classes for professional baseball
players
• For Playing Statistics software: name, position, batting
average, fielding percentage, years played, and games
played might be relevant
• For Pension Fund software: average salary, credit
toward full vesting, pension plan options chosen,
mailing address, and the like.
Defining Operations
 Do a grammatical parse of a processing
narrative and look at the verbs
 Operations can be divided into four broad
categories:
 (1) operations that manipulate data in some way
(e.g., adding, deleting, reformatting, selecting)
 (2) operations that perform a computation
 (3) operations that inquire about the state of an
object, and
 (4) operations that monitor an object for the
occurrence of a controlling event.
CRC Models
 Class-responsibility-collaborator (CRC) modeling
[Wir90] provides a simple means for
identifying and organizing the classes that are
relevant to system or product requirements.
Ambler [Amb95] describes CRC modeling in
the following way:
 A CRC model is really a collection of standard index
cards that represent classes. The cards are divided
into three sections. Along the top of the card you
write the name of the class. In the body of the card
you list the class responsibilities on the left and the
collaborators on the right.
CRC Modeling
Class:
Class:
Description:
Class:
Description:
Class:FloorPlan
Description:
Responsibility:
Description: Collaborator:
Responsibility: Collaborator:
Responsibility: Collaborator:
Responsibility: Collaborator:
defines floor plan name/type
manages floor plan positioning
scales floor plan for display
scales floor plan for display
incorporates walls, doors and windows Wall
shows position of video cameras Camera
Class Types
 Entity classes, also called model or business classes, are
extracted directly from the statement of the problem (e.g.,
FloorPlan and Sensor).
 Boundary classes are used to create the interface (e.g.,
interactive screen or printed reports) that the user sees and
interacts with as the software is used.
 Controller classes manage a “unit of work” [UML03] from start to
finish. That is, controller classes can be designed to manage
 the creation or update of entity objects;
 the instantiation of boundary objects as they obtain information from
entity objects;
 complex communication between sets of objects;
 validation of data communicated between objects or between the
user and the application.
Responsibilities
 System intelligence should be distributed across classes
to best address the needs of the problem
 Each responsibility should be stated as generally as
possible
 Information and the behavior related to it should reside
within the same class
 Information about one thing should be localized with a
single class, not distributed across multiple classes.
 Responsibilities should be shared among related
classes, when appropriate.
Collaborations
 Classes fulfill their responsibilities in one of two ways:
 A class can use its own operations to manipulate its own
attributes, thereby fulfilling a particular responsibility, or
 a class can collaborate with other classes.
 Collaborations identify relationships between classes
 Collaborations are identified by determining whether a class
can fulfill each responsibility itself
 three different generic relationships between classes [WIR90]:
 the is-part-of relationship
 the has-knowledge-of relationship
 the depends-upon relationship
Composite Aggregate Class
Player

PlayerHead PlayerBody PlayerArms PlayerLegs

Associations and Dependencies
 Two analysis classes are often related to one
another in some fashion
 In UML these relationships are called associations
 Associations can be refined by indicating multiplicity
(the term cardinality is used in data modeling
 In many instances, a client-server relationship
exists between two analysis classes.
 In such cases, a client-class depends on the server-
class in some way and a dependency relationship is
established
Multiplicity
Wall

1 1 1

is used to build is used to build

1..* 0..* is used to build 0..*

WallSegment Window Door

Dependencies

DisplayWindow Camera

<<access>>

{password}
Analysis Packages
 Various elements of the analysis model (e.g., use-cases,
analysis classes) are categorized in a manner that
packages them as a grouping
 The plus sign preceding the analysis class name in each
package indicates that the classes have public visibility
and are therefore accessible from other packages.
 Other symbols can precede an element within a
package. A minus sign indicates that an element is
hidden from all other packages and a # symbol indicates
that an element is accessible only to packages contained
within a given package.
Analysis Packages
package name

Environment
+Tree
+Landscape
+Road
+Wall
+Bridge
+Building RulesOfTheGame
+VisualEffect
+Scene +RulesOfMovement
+ConstraintsOnAction

Characters

+Player
+Protagonist
+Antagonist
+SupportingRole
Reviewing the CRC Model
 All participants in the review (of the CRC model) are given a subset of the CRC
model index cards.
 Cards that collaborate should be separated (i.e., no reviewer should have
two cards that collaborate).
 All use-case scenarios (and corresponding use-case diagrams) should be
organized into categories.
 The review leader reads the use-case deliberately.
 As the review leader comes to a named object, she passes a token to the
person holding the corresponding class index card.
 When the token is passed, the holder of the class card is asked to describe the
responsibilities noted on the card.
 The group determines whether one (or more) of the responsibilities satisfies
the use-case requirement.
 If the responsibilities and collaborations noted on the index cards cannot
accommodate the use-case, modifications are made to the cards.
 This may include the definition of new classes (and corresponding CRC
index cards) or the specification of new or revised responsibilities or
collaborations on existing cards.