Training Course On Seawee - Rumput Laut

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Work Plan Implementation ASEAN/SF/88/GEN/6

(General)

ASEAN/SF/88/GEN/6 November 1988

REPORT ON THE TRAINING COURSE ON SEAWEED FARMING


Jointly sponsored by
ASEAN/UNDP/FAO
Regional Small-Scale Coastal
Fisheries Development Project

(RAS/84/016) and
Regional Seafarming Development
and Demonstration Project

(RAS/86/024)

Manila, Philippines

2-21 May 1988

Hosted by
Bureau of Fisheries and Aquatic
Resources Department of Agriculture

With the cooperation of the

Marine Science Institute,


College of Science

University of the Philippines


Quezon City

ASEAN/UNDP/FAO
Regional Small-Scale Coastal
Fisheries Development Project
Manila, Philippines 1988
NOTICE OF COPYRIGHT

The copyright in this publication is vested in the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United
Nations. This publication may not be reproduced, in whole or in part, by any method of process,
without written permission from the copyright holder. Applications; for such permission with a
statement of the purpose and extent of the reproduction desired, should be made through and
addressed to the Project Coordinator, ASEAN/UNDP/FAO Regional Small-Scale Coastal Fisheries
Development Project, P. O. Box 1184, Makati Post Office, Makati, Metro Manila or 3rd Floor, Arcadia
Building, 860 Quezon Avenue, Quezon City, Philippines.
TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page
I SUMMARY REPORT....................................................................................................1
1. Background and purpose .........................................................................................3
2. Sponsors ..................................................................................................................3
3. Place and duration of the training ............................................................................3
4. Participation .............................................................................................................4
5. Programme ..............................................................................................................4
6. Implementation of the training course ...................................................................... 4
6.1 Lectures and practical exercises.............................................................................4
6.2 Field trips.................................................................................................................5
6.3 Country/institution report ........................................................................................5
6.4 Discussions .............................................................................................................5
7. Evaluation of the training course..............................................................................4
8. Closing ceremony ....................................................................................................6
II LECTURE AND PRACTICAL EXERCISES .................................................................. 7
Lecture 1 Coastal resources of Asia-Pacific: Environmental aspects (Abstract
only)
by Edgardo D. Gomez.....................................................................9
Lecture 2 Status of seaweed production and utilization in Asia
by Gavino C. Treno, Jr. ...................................................................10
Lecture 3 Seaweed ecology: Influence of environmental factors on the
structure, phenology and distribution of seaweed communities
by Gavino C. Trono, Jr. ...................................................................14
Lecture 4 An introduction to the seaweeds: Their characteristics and economic
importance
by Rhodora Azanza-Corrales..........................................................17
Lecture 5 How to identify seaweeds: Use of dichotomous keys
by Edna T. Ganzon-Fortes..............................................................26
Lecture 6 Inventory and assessment of economically important seaweed
stocks
by Miguel D. Fortes .........................................................................31
Lecture 7 The taxonomy of commercially important seaweeds in the
Philippines and tropical Asian-Pacific region
by Gavino C. Trono, Jr. ...................................................................47
Lecture 8 Production of economically important seaweeds through culture and
harvesting of natural stocks
by Gavino C. Trono, Jr. ................................................................... 59
Lectures 9 and 12 Seaweed industry in the Philippines
by Maximo A. Ricohermoso ............................................................ 71
Lecture 10 Progress and problems in seaweed culture
by Gavino C. Trono, Jr. ................................................................... 76
Lecture 11 Polyculture of seaweeds with marine animals
by Edgardo D. Gomez and Rhodora Azanza-Corrales ................... 81
Lecture 13 Field and laboratory techniques in the collection, preservation and
preparation of marine benthic algae for herbarium and for identification
by Edna T. Ganzon-Fortes 86
III COUNTRY REPORTS 89
India Status of seaweed culture in India
by V.S.K. Chennubhotla 91
Indonesia The development of seaweed culture in Kepulavan Seribu, Jakarta
by Darjamuni 99
Report on Eucheuma culture production in Bali Province, Indonesia, 1987
by Ketut Kiteartika 100
Korea, Rep. of Current situation of seaweed aquaculture development in Korea
by Jung Jin-Tae 101
Malaysia Seaweed farming in East Malaysia
by Arman Shah Ambo Dalli 129
Philippines Seaweed industry of the Philippines
by Rizalina M. Legasto 131
People's Rep. Marine Phycoculture in China
by Wang Feijiu 134
Thailand Gracilaria culture in Thailand
by Suchat Tachanaravong 136
IV ANNEXES 143
Annex 1 List of participants 145
2 List of lecture topics and corresponding lecturers, practical
works, field visits and details of the schedule of activities 148
3 List of training staff 151
4 Remarks of Dr. Edgardo D. Gomez
Professor and Director, Marine Science Institute, College of Science,
University of the Philippines 152
5 Address of Mr. Tengku Ubaidillah
FAO Representative, Manila 154
6 Pooled results of the training 157
7 Closing remarks of Mr. Justo R. Montemayor Assistant Director,
Bureau of Fisheries and Aquatic Resources 165
8 Closing statement of Dr. Gavino C. Trono, Jr.
Professor, Marine Science Institute, College of Science
University of the Philippines 166
9 The importance of seaweed resources and the need for seaweed training
by Dr. Herminio R. Rabanal, Keynote speaker 167
10 Impressions of the participants of the
Training Course on Seaweed Farming
by Dr. V.K.S. Chennubhotla, Participant from India 169
PART I
SUMMARY REPORT
REPORT OF THE TRAINING COURSE ON SEAWEED FARMING
1. BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE
knowledge about seaweeds and acquire
The importance of seaweeds as a
practical skills in seaweed farming techniques,
marine resource has recently been
processing and marketing.
emphasized due to the increasing demand for
them as food and raw materials in the The course consisted of lectures and
manufacture of industrial colloids, e.g., agars, field training on the culture of Eucheuma,
carrageenan and alginates which find varied Caulerpa and Gracilaria, assessment and
uses in industries. In addition, the production rational utilization of natural stocks of
of seaweeds through culture is now economic species such as Sargassum, post-
recognized as a very productive alternative harvest and quality control of the produce and
source of livelihood and employment field study visits to existing farms. Basic
especially in developing countries in tropical lectures on the biology and* ecology of
Asia where a large portion of the shallow seaweeds as well as methods on the
coastal fishery resources have been or are identification and preparation of seaweed
being depleted. With some exception, the materials for research were also included as
present seaweed production in the tropics background information.
comes from the harvesting of wild stocks
which if not regulated can result to the 2. SPONSORS
depletion of these stocks. Thus, it is necessary The training course was sponsored
that culture and/or management of local stocks jointly by the ASEAN/UNDP/FAO Regional
should be developed for the economic species Small-Scale Coastal Fisheries Development
to enhance and maintain their productivity. Project (RAS/84/016) and the Regional
The farming and gathering of economic Seafarming Development and Demonstration
species of seaweeds are labour-intensive form Project (RAS/86/024). The Bureau of Fisheries
of activities which can help increase and Aquatic Resources (BFAR), Department
employment opportunities among the coastal of Agriculture and the Marine Science Institute
communities and thus play an important role in (MSI), College of Science, University of the
enhancing their socio-economic conditions. Philippines at Quezon City were joint hosts to
The general ecology and productivity of the training course.
shallow subtidal areas have been shown to
greatly improve upon the introduction of 3. PLACE AND DURATION OF THE
seaweed farming. Additionally, the introduction TRAINING
of a management scheme for the gathering of
The training was implemented from
local stocks shall also help conserve them.
May 2-21, 1988, All lectures and laboratory
The training of fishery extension activities were conducted at the Marine
workers, farm managers and future seaweed Science Institute at Diliman campus of the
farmers in the practical methods of culturing University of the Philippines at Quezon City.
economic species on Eucheuma, Gracilaria Additional field practice were conducted at the
and Caulerpa, will promote further expansion Bolinao Marine Laboratory at Bolinao,
of seaweed farming; on the inventory and Pangasinan, Luzon and at the farm of Marine
assessment of local stocks of useful seaweeds Colloids (Philippines) Inc. at Danajon Reef,
shall promote and enhance the productivity Northern Bohol. Additional field visits were
and conservation of these species. It is for made at the Caulerpa farm of Mr. Berame at
these reasons that this regional training was Calawisan, Mactan Island, Cebu and the
organized and implemented. processing plant of Marine Colloids (Phils.)
Inc. at Mandaue, Cebu.
This training course was designed to
develop and promote qualified expertise in 4. PARTICIPATION
seaweed farming to help in food production, A total of 18 trainees from seven
provide cash crops and open new alternative countries attended the course. Thirteen out of
employment to enhance the socio-economic the 18 participants were from the ASEAN
welfare of coastal communities as well as offer countries; Indonesia, Malaysia, Philippines
practical training on seaweed farming and and Thailand while three were from the
management of natural stocks of economically Peoples' Republic of China, one from India
important seaweed species; improve technical and two from South Korea. Of the 18, twelve
were supported by RAS/84/016 and the rest representatives of seaweeds (Practicum 1) as
by the RAS/86/024. well as identify the seaweed specimens
The names, designations and utilizing the keys and references (Practicum 2
addresses of the participants are listed in and 3). The effects of the physico-chemical
Annex 1. factors on the structure and distribution of
seaweed communities was also discussed
5. PROGRAMME
(Lecture 3) to enhance the perception and
The training programme consisted of
understanding of the participants on the
lectures on the various aspects of seaweeds
ecology of the seaweeds.
as a resource and methods of cultivation of
economic species, field and laboratory Because the ultimate goal of the
demonstrations, field hands-on practice, and training was to produce and encourage
visits to existing farms and processing plant. expertise to go into resource development
The list of the lectures/lecturers, work on seaweeds, the environmental aspects
practical exercises and details of the schedule of such development (Lecture 1) and the
of activities are found in Annex 2. evaluation of the status of the resource and
the potential areas for development (Lecture
6. IMPLEMENTATION OF THE
2) were also emphasized in the lectures. In
TRAINING COURSE
addition, they were also exposed and trained
The training course was designed, (Lecture 6 and Practicum 7) in the scientific
planned and implemented by the Technical method of sampling and assessment of
Director, Training Coordinator and the Training natural stocks of economic species (Lecture
Staff. The Technical Coordinator was assisted 6), a basic requirement in natural stock
by a number of technical staff and assistants. management for conservation purposes.
A complete list of the training staff, their
The major coverage of the course dealt
designations and addresses are found in
primarily with the potential target species for
Annex 3.
seaweed farming development (Lecture 7), the
The opening ceremony was brief. The production of seaweeds through culture and
Technical Director officially opened and gave gathering of natural crops (Lecture 8), the
the overview of the training course. Dr. E.D. post-harvest practices and processing of
Gomez, Director, Marine Science Institute seaweed products (Lecture 9), problems
gave a brief opening remarks (Annex 4); Mrs. related to seaweed production (Lecture 10),
M.N. Delmendo, Project Coordinator the Eucheuma industry (Lecture 12), and the
presented the participants; Mr. J.R. potentials of polyculture of seaweed with
Montemayor, Assistant Director, Bureau of marine animals (Lecture 11). In order to
Fisheries and Aquatic Resources introduced develop and/or enhance the skills of the
the guest speaker and Mr. Tengku Ubaidillah, participants in the farming of seaweeds,
FAO Representative in the Philippines gave hands-on field training in and/or study visits in
the keynote address. His opening address is in operational farms of Eucheuma and Caulerpa
Annex 5. (Practicum 4 and 5) and field demonstration
on the field culture of Gracilaria (Practicum 6)
6.1 Lectures and practical exercises
were undertaken. The participants also made
Basic lectures on the identification, study visit to the processing plant for
biology, ecology and economic importance of carrageenan (Field Visit 1) to observe the
seaweeds were made as primary requirement post-harvest handling and processing of
in the training to provide the participants with Eucheuma. The discussion of farming of
adequate, background and baseline economic species such as Eucheuma,
information, with the intention of bringing to a Gracilaria and Caulerpa dealt mainly on the
certain common level such knowledge among selection of sites, methods of culture,
the participants because of their highly varied management and problems associated with
background on the subject. The participants production. The list of lectures and practical
were made to understand the different kinds exercises are found in Annex 2.
and importance of seaweeds (Lecture 4) as a 6.2 Field trips
resource; they were also taught how to
recognize them (Lectures 5 and 13). In order A total of 11 days were spent on field
to enhance the learning capability of the trips to Cebu, Bohol and Bolinao, Pangasinan
participants on the subject they were asked to in which all the participants were required to
familiarize themselves with the different attend. The first leg of the trip was a visit to
Marine Colloids (Philippines) Inc. (MCPI) methodologies and their significance and
where the participants listened to the lecture relevance to practical exercises were made
on post-harvest preparation and processing of prior to the actual field hands-on activities.
Eucheuma and an observation tour of the During such review or discussion, the
processing plant MCPI in Mandaue, Cebu. participants were made aware of the
This was followed by the field trip to Danajon importance of these activities to seaweed
Reef, Northern Bohol where the Eucheuma production, management and conservation.
farm of MCPI is located. The participants
7. EVALUATION OF THE TRAINING
listened to a review lecture on the various
COURSE
stages in the farming of Eucheuma such as
site selection, building of the farm, preparation The evaluation of the training course
of seedlings and planting, maintenance of the was made during the last day of the training
farm, and harvesting and drying. This was period. The participants were supplied with
followed by hands-on practicum on these evaluation questionnaires for them to record
various activities. The rest of the time was their perceptions and opinions on both the
spent in visits and hands-on training in technical and non-technical aspects of the
different farms within the area. training course. Some participants did not fully
answer the questions. The results of the
The third field trip was conducted at
evaluation were pooled and are included in
Bolinao, Pangasinan. Field activities consisted
this report as Annex 6.
of hands-on exercises on the field culture of
Gracilaria and Caulerpa and the field exercise Examination of the evaluation results
in the inventory and stock assessment of showed that as a whole the primary objectives
natural stocks of seaweeds. These activities of the training course have been achieved. A
were done on the reef fronting the Bolinao more detailed examination of the sectoral
Marine Laboratory of the Marine Science components of the evaluation results revealed
Institute, University of the Philippines. some interesting insights on the conduct and
Exercises on the collection and preparation of the technical level of the training, the
herbarium materials of seaweeds for research differences in the professional background,
was also done utilizing the facilities in the the individual idiosyncracies, and ability of the
laboratory. The list of practical exercises and participants to communicate or understand
schedule of field trips and major activities is in English as the medium of instruction.
Annex 2.
The large spread in the number of
6.3 Country/institution report respondents to some questions relating to the
The participants of each participating technical level of training reflects the highly
country were required to submit and deliver a mixed representation among the participants.
country experience report on seaweed 8. CLOSING CEREMONY
resource development. The reports were
delivered during two special evening sessions. The closing of the training course took
The purpose of the country reports was to place on May 20, 1988. Mr. Justo R. Monte-
share with the other participants information mayor, Assistant Director, BFAR delivered the
on the seaweed farming and relevant activities closing remarks (Annex 7) while Dr. G.C.
from each of the participating countries. The Trono, Jr., Technical Director delivered the
country reports are included here as Part III of closing statement on the training course
the report. (Annex 8). The graduates from the ASEAN
and Non-ASEAN countries were presented by
6.4 Discussions Mr. J.R. Montemayor. This was followed by
A period of discussion was the awarding of certificates. Mrs. M.N.
programmed after each lecture. The Delmendo, Project Coordinator introduced the
participants were encouraged to ask questions guest speaker, Dr. Herminio R. Rabanal, who
or clarifications on certain points of interest, delivered the keynote address (Annex 9). A
comments and additional information on the representative of the participants gave a
topic in relation to their own country response to the training programme and
experience. The question and answer and impressions in the conduct of the course
discussion sessions were also done during the (Annex 10).
country/institution reports session.
A brief discussion or review of the
PART II
LECTURE AND PRACTICAL EXERCISES
Lecture 1
COASTAL RESOURCES OF ASIA-
PACIFIC: ENVIRONMENTAL ASPECTS1

by

Edgardo D.
Gomez2

ABSTRACT
This lecture was delivered orally. No hand-out was distributed.
As the most productive zone of the ocean, the coastal zone has been exploited
heavily in the Asia-Pacific region. Being the closest to land and, therefore, the most
accessible to man, the coastal zone and its resources are also the most vulnerable to
pollution and other influences that result in the degradation of the coastal environment.
Recent studies in Southeast Asia have indicated same trends. The destruction of
naturally productive ecosystems such as coral reefs and mangrove swamps continues as
a serious concern. The disposal of wastes, particularly sewage, is a growing problem
near many population centers, sometimes correlated with negative public health effects.
While various pollutants such as oil and heavy metals are evident in some localized
areas such as industrial centers, chlorinated hydrocarbons are more widespread and
need to be monitored.
As a whole the region shows a growing awareness of marine environmental
problems and some measures are being undertaken to address the concerns.
The environmental aspects dealing with contamination of marine environments
and problems related to the development of the seaweed industry were discussed in
general. Marine water pollution and levels of contamination in seaweeds were also
discussed. Areas of research and development programmes towards appropriate
management of the coastal resources in this region were given.

1
The paper is not available; for inquires write to the author,
0
Professor and Director, Marine Science Institute, College of Science, University of the Philippines Diliman, Quezon
City, Philippines.
Lecture 2
STATUS OF SEAWEED PRODUCTION AND UTILIZATION IN ASIA
by

Gavino C. Trono,
Jr.1

I. INTRODUCTION
Table 1. Principal seaweed genera of
Due to the archipelagic nature of many economic potentials in developing
Asian countries, it is inevitable that a significant countries in Asia
portion of the population is located along the
coastal areas. The lives of the people in these Country Genera Uses Status of
areas are therefore, intimately associated with production
the sea and its resources. Due to their distance
1.Philippine Caulerp food pond
from urban and industrial centers, the people in
the farflung coastal areas are not benefited by
lt crops
wild
modern development. Codium food wild crops
Sargassalginate wild crops
Coastal areas in many Asian countries Porphyr food wild crops
Gelidiell agar wild crops
are characterized by well-developed coral reef Gracilar agar, wild crops
which originally support rich fishery resources. Eucheu carragee mariculture
The rapid increase in population and its food
concomitant increasing demands for fishery
Hypnea food wild crops
2 Indonesia Gracilar agar wild crops
products, however, are exerting a tremendous Eucheu carragee wild crops
pressure on the productivity of these mariculture
resources. As a result, many of the coastal Gelidiell agar, wild crops
Hypnea carragee wild crops
areas are at present experiencing the ill effects food
of overexploitation. Alternative sources of food Caulerp food wild crops
and livelihood for the coastal inhabitants are Acanthofood wild crops
therefore necessary. 3.Singapor Eucheu carragee wild crops
Gracilar agar wild crops
With a few exceptions, the seaweeds Sargassalginate wild crops
are among the coastal resources which have 4.Brunei Gracilar agar wild crops
not been developed in many countries in Asia. 5.East Porphyr food wild crops
Many species of seaweeds with high economic Sargassalginate wild crops
value are found in the shallow reefs and bays. Eucheu carragee wild crops
The principal genera of seaweeds presently Caulerp food wild crops
being utilized in Asia are listed in Table 1. The Gracilar agar wild crops
production of seaweeds offer a good 6.West Gracilar agar wild crops
alternative as source of food and cash income Malaysia ia
7.Thailand Gracilar agar wild crops
for the coastal inhabitants. Porphyr food wild crops
8.Vietnam Gracilar agar wild crops
Sargassalginate wild crops
9.Hong Sargassalginate wild crops
Porphyr food wild crops
1Taiwan Gracilar agar pond
Porphyr food mariculture

1
Professor, Marine Science Institute, College of Science, University of the Philippines,
Diliman Quezon City, Philippines and Training Director, Seaweed Farming Training
Course, 2-21 May 1988.
Country General Uses Status of production from 1967 to 1972 while Malaysia
production and South Vietnam did not produce any from
1960 to 1973.

11. Sri Gracilaria agar wild crops


Table 2. World production of seaweeds
Lanka (1960 and 1973) and estimated value (1973)
Porphyra food wild crops
Estimated
wild crops, value1 at
12. India Gracilaria agar
maricultur Country Production first-hand
e '000 tons sale US$
Gelidiella agar wild crops wet weight million
1960 1973 1973
Sargassu alginate wild crops Japan 387 645 563.0
m China (250) (700) 130.0
Hypnea carrageen wild crops Korea, Rep. of 30 224 45
an .0
U.S.A. (91) (126) 1.9
13. Burma Gracilaria agar wild crops
Gelidium agar wild crops Brazil (1) (103) 2.0
' U.S.S.R. (55) (100) 5.8
Sargassu alginate wild crops Ireland (69) (44) 1.3
m Norway 70 75 0.9
Gracilaria agar wild crops France 46 60 1.2
14.
Spain 16 47 3.4
Pakistan
Gelidium agar wild crops Canada 13 40 2.0
Mexico 16 37 1.0
Hypnea carrageen wild crops U.K. 18 24 0.4
an Chile 7 27 1.2
Porphyra food wild crops South Africa (24 (24) 1.0
)
Argentina 1 24 1.2
2. WORLD SEAWEED PRODUCTION Portugal (10 (20) 1.5
Although there are no accurate data on the
)
world production of seaweeds yet it is apparent Denmark 16 11 0.5
that total world seaweed production is sizeable Morocco 17 8 0.4
and will continue to increase in the future due Others (3 (47) ?
to the expanding uses of seaweeds and 5)
seaweed products. Naylor (1976) estimated Total 1 170 2 400 765.0
that approximately 1170 000 MT were (approx.)
produced in 1960 (Table 2). Production
increased to approximately 2 400 000 MT in ( ) Broad estimates of production
1973 valued at US$765 million. The bulk of 1
Some figures, e.g., Japan, U.K., Argentina, Morocco are
production was contributed by Japan, China, officially published data converted into U.S. dollars at average
Korea, USA, Brazil, Norway and other exchange rates for 1973; others, e.g., Korea, Spain are estimates
based upon relative data for 1972; for a number of countries,
countries in Europe. Except for the above notably China, U.S.S.R., U.S.A., Brazil, the estimates are broad
mentioned countries in Asia, very little was indications calculated on the basis of the species composition of
contributed by the developing countries in the harvest, uses of the weeds and unit production values
elsewhere.
Southeast Asia. India has been producing
small quantity of seaweeds since 1960. From: Naylor, J. 1976. Production, trade and utilization of
seaweeds and seaweed products. FAO Fisheries Technical
Indonesia started producing in 1968 up to Paper No. 159.
about the early part of 1970's to the present.
The Philippines contributed very little from 3. STATUS OF PRODUCTION IN ASIA
1960 to about 1973 but her production
significantly increased in 1974 up to the Except for China, Japan and Korea
present. Thailand recorded very small where the seaweed industry is well established,
the rest of the developing Asian countries are still
dependent on wild seaweed crops. The Porphyra, Codium, Hypnea, Laurencia,
Philippines may be cited as an exception, but Hydroclathrus, Acan-thophora and Sargassum.
actual farming is still limited to three species,
Some genera of the brown algae such as
namely: Eucheuma alvarezii, E. denticulatum
Sargassum are also utilized as raw materials for
and Caulerpa lentillifera. Indonesia is presently
the manufacture of animal feeds. At present, this
producing a certain amount of Eucheuma.
genus is being harvested in commercial
Thailand is starting her Gracilaria culture
quantities for this purpose. A major portion of the
project. The rest are still dependent on wild
local harvest is exported to Japan while the rest
crops.
is used in the local manufacture of feeds. In India
Production from wild crops is unreliable Sargassum is harvested in commercial quantities
and is highly dependent on the natural growth as raw material in the manufacture of alginates
of the species and the harvest rate exerted on for their textile industry.
the local stocks by the gatherers. Post-harvest
The most important use of seaweeds in
methods used are generally antiquated
Asia at present is as an item of commerce. The
resulting to the poor quality of the produce. In
high demand for tropical seaweeds in the
addition, the absence of a management
international market as raw materials in the
programme for the naturally produced species
manufacture of commercial products such as
often results to the depletion and/or destruction
agars, carrageenans and alginates was the
of their natural stocks. In contrast, the
primary factor which influenced the development
production of seaweed species through
of farming technology for some seaweeds like
farming is reliable. The rate of production can
Eucheuma. The farming of Eucheuma is a very
be programmed based on the demand. It is a
productive small-scale industry which can be an
very efficient way of conserving the local
alternative fishing activity in shallow coastal
stocks. In addition, it is labor-intensive thus,
areas. During the 70's however, Eucheuma was
offering more job opportunities to unskilled and
sold in international market in an unprocessed
otherwise underutilized labour force in the
form due to the absence of processing
coastal areas. Seaweed farming is also a very
technology. Asian countries buy the processed
good alternative in areas where small-scale
product (carrageenans) from foreign processors
fishing activities had become unproductive due
or suppliers at a much higher price for
to depletion of coral reef-associated fish
application in local industries. Today, a
species. Farm-produced seaweeds are
significant portion of Eucheuma produced
generally of higher quality due to the
through farming are sold in international market
application of highly improved post-harvest
in treated (chips), semi-refined and refined
handling methods.
forms. Portions of local produce of other
seaweeds such as Gracilaria, Gelidiella and
4. UTILIZATION OF SEAWEEDS AND
Gelidium are processed into crude agar which
SEAWEED PRODUCTS are sold in local markets in the form of dried agar
Except in Japan, China and Korea bars. Except for Caulerpa production of other
where seaweeds and seaweed products are seaweeds is derived and is dependent up to now
standard components of meals of the bulk of on natural stocks. Pond cultured Caulerpa are
the population direct utilization of seaweeds as presently produced in the island of Mactan in
food in other Asian countries is limited to a Cebu. These are locally sold in open markets of
small portion of the population along the Metro Manila, Cebu City, Cagayan de Oro City
coastal areas. Many species of seaweeds are and Zamboanga City. Presently, a significant
eaten as vegetable salad and prepared in portion of the produce is exported to Japan and
various ways. Seaweeds in general with the Okinawa in partially dehydrated (salted) form. All
exception of some species are of low Sargassum processed in Central Visayas are
nutritional value due to their low protein content exported to Japan while those in Northern
and generally hard-to-digest carbohydrates. Mindanao are locally utilized in the manufacture
However, they are important source of of feeds. A significant amount of Gracilaria and
minerals, vitamins and roughage. Seaweeds Gelidiella is exported while the rest is locally
are good food supplements and cannot totally processed into agar bars. Production of other
replace the staple foods such as rice, fish and genera such as Codium, Hypnea and Porphyra
other cereals. Among those which are utilized is dependent on natural stocks and the produce
directly as food are the following: E. alvarezii, is locally consumed.
E. denticulatum, species of Caulerpa,
The data on Philippine seaweed
exported (Table 3) show that the volume of
seaweeds presently exported had increased
almost fifty times over that of the 1967
production. Starting as a minor sea product,
seaweeds at present rank No. 3 among the
fishery exports in the Philippines behind such
products as shrimps and tuna.
Table 3. Philippine seaweed export

Year M.T. Value (Pesos)


1967 674.5 351 989
1968 263.9 221 056
1969 427.6 447 908
1970 318.1 527 321
1971 339.8 675 504
1972 483.9 1 414 051
1973 1432.7 4 062 086
1974 5039.6 14 973 151
1975 4514.8 13 292 226
1976 3950.1 12 366 568
1977 6094.1 14 666 768
1978 13575.3 42 480 674
1979 16495.7 58 521 274
1980 13 191.3 55 647 616
1981 15 879.1 60 094 769
1982 16779.8 80 047 840
1983 17000.0 111 000 000
1984 10890.1 82 264 000
1985 28832.0 390 180 000
1986 27806.0 411 066 000

Source: Exports of fish and fishery product cleared by the


Bureau of Fisheries and Aquatic Resources, by kind, quantity (in
kilograms) and value, fisheries statistics, 1967-1980.

REFERENCES
Doty, M.S. Seaweed resources and their
1977 culture in the South China Sea Region.
SCS/77/WP/60. Manila, 19p.
Michanek, G. Seaweed resources of the
1975 oceans. FAO Fish. Tech. Paper
No. 138.
Naylor, J. Production, trade and utilization
1976 of seaweeds and seaweed products.
FAO Fish. Tech. Paper No. 159.
Trono, G.C., Jr. The present status of sea-
1981 weed production and utilization in Asia.
In G.C. Trono and E.T. Ganzon-Fortes
(eds.) Report on the training course on
Gracilaria algae. SCS/GEN/ 81/29: 41-
44. South China Sea Fisheries
Development and Coordinating
Programme, Manila.
Lecture 31
SEAWEED ECOLOGY: INFLUENCE OF ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS
ON THE STRUCTURE, PHENOLOGY AND DISTRIBUTION
OF SEAWEED COMMUNITIES

by

Gavino C. Trono,
Jr.2

1. INTRODUCTION
structure of seaweed communities may be best
The environmental conditions regulate illustrated by comparing the variety of species
the kind, nature, abundance and productivity of found in habitats which are influenced by
seaweed communities. freshwater (brackish) with those far from
freshwater sources. Areas influenced by
The stature of the community is reflective
freshwater are generally characterized by low
of the environmental conditions in the area.
species diversity compared to reef areas not
Different kinds of species are found in influenced by low salinity. The low diversity
certain habitats because environmental may be mainly due to the fact that only few
conditions are favourable to their development. species can thrive in habitats with highly
2. ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS fluctuating salinity regimes. For instance,
certain species like Glacilaria verrucosa thrives
The ambient ecological condition in a very well in brackishwater areas while other
certain habitat is the result of the combined and species will die in such habitats.
synergistic effects of the various ecological
2.2 Light and temperature
factors. Some of these factors may exert
modifying effects on the others. The All photosynthetic plants require light as
understanding of the influence of these source of energy for the synthesis of organic
parameters on the nature, biology and products necessary for their normal growth and
distribution of seaweed is important in the development. The different groups of
evaluation and assessment of sites for mari- seaweeds possess pigments of various types
culture purposes. which enable them to adapt to different light
2.1 Salinity conditions in the sea.
Salinity is defined as "the amount of solid The quality and intensity of light change
materials in grams contained in one kilogram of as it penetrates the water column. The change
seawater when all the carbonate has been in light quality and intensity affects the
converted to oxide, bromine and iodine replaced distribution of the various species. The
by chloride and all the organic matter completely influence of light on seaweed distribution is
oxidized". best illustrated by their vertical zonation. In
general those with pigments adapted for low
Most seaweed species cannot withstand intensities may be found in deeper areas while
. exposure to a wide variation in salinity regimes those adapted to full or bright conditions are
while others can. Those which cannot tolerate found in shallow areas.
wide range of salinity regimes are known as
stenohaline species while those which can are Heating of the water is a secondary
called euryhaline species. The effects of salinity effect of light which also affect the local
on the distribution

1
Delivered by Dr. Miguel D. Fortes, Associate Professor, Marine Science Institute, College of Science, University of the
Philippines, Diliman, Quezon City, Philippines.
2
Professor, Marine Science Institute, College of Science, University of the Philippines, Diliman Quezon City, Philippines and
Training Director, Seaweed Farming Training Course, 2-21 May 1988.
currents can be significantly controlled by the
of seaweed species. Such effects, however,
construction of catchments at the leeward side
are limited to shallow intertidal areas or
of the farm.
tidepools which become isolated and are not
influenced by free water circulation. In such 2.5 Water depth
habitats, the temperature may become very The water depth is another important
high and can cause the exclusion of many factor which influences the local abundance
species from the area. Such pronounced and distribution of seaweeds. The upper limit
increase in water temperature takes place of the vertical distribution of seaweeds is
especially when low tides occur during the day. closely related to the upper tidal levels while
There is no significant change in water the lower limit is limited by the amount of light
temperature in deeper areas where the water which penetrates the water column. In
is constantly mixed by currents or wave action. general, most seaweed communities are well-
2.3 Substratum developed starting from approximately plus or
minus the 0 datum level to a few meters below
Substratum provides mechanical
this depth. The upper limit of vertical
support or attachment of the seaweeds.
distribution of seaweed is influenced by the
Seaweeds have different types of attachment
amount of exposure to air and sunlight during
organs adapted to various types of substrata.
low tides and the inherent capacities of the
For instance, those species found in sandy-
species to resist dessication and the
muddy habitats are generally characterized by
complications brought about by changes in
fine and penetrating rhizoidal holdfasts while
salinity and water temperature during such
those in solid, hard or rocky substrates are
exposure. The lower limit is generally related
characterized by strongly developed,
to the light conditions. Few species can thrive
branching or discoidal holdfast. Thus, the
well in very low light intensities in deeper
different types of substrate influence the
areas.
composition and local distribution of seaweed
species. The awareness of the role of The understanding of the role of water
substrates on the local distribution of depth in the vertical distribution and growth of
seaweeds is thus, very important in inventory seaweeds has a very important bearing in the
and stock assessment survey work. selection of good sites for seaweed farms.
2.6 Biotic factors
2.4 Water movement
One of the ever present factors which
Water movement is an overall primary
controls the marine vegetation are the
factor which controls or influences the nature
associated animal life. Seaweeds and
or status of seaweed communities as well as
seagrasses are constantly being grazed upon
modifies or moderates the extreme effects of
by a host of animal grazers. These animals
other ecological factors. Water movement
significantly control the amount of harvestable
caused by waves and currents is important in
organic matter (biomass) in reef areas.
aeration of the water, nutrient transport and
Studies have shown that when grazing is
mixing which prevents the rise in water
controlled by the physical destruction or
temperature as well as light penetration. It also
removal of grazers, luxuriant growth of
influences the amount of harvestable seaweed
seaweeds would follow.
stocks. Waves are known to mechanically
remove significant amounts of seaweed Fungal and bacterial diseases are
stocks. This effect is best illustrated by the recognized as important biotic factors which
tremendous amounts of drifted seaweed influence the productivity of seaweed
materials which accumulate along the beaches communities. These two factors are important
after storms. Wave-exposed areas are not considerations in the farming of seaweeds.
good sites for the mariculture of seaweeds Seaweed crops may be completely lost due to
because of the destructive effects of waves on the destructive effects of these biotic factors.
the farm. On the other hand, areas influenced The presence of "weeds" is also one of the
by moderate currents are preferred sites for major problems in farms. These unwanted
farming of certain species such as Eucheuma seaweed species compete with the crop
because currents are less destructive. plants for nutrients, space and light.
Productive Eucheuma farms in the Philippines 2.7 Other factors
are characterized by moderate to strong
currents. Loss of plants due to removal by Dissolved gases such as oxygen and
carbon dioxide seldom become limiting
factors to the growth and development of
seaweed communities. These gases are
abundant in the sea where there is continuous
mixing of water due to the action of waves and
currents. Oxygen comes from two major
sources, i.e. from the atmosphere and as by-
product of photosynthesis. Aeration of the
water column is facilitated by waves and
currents. Carbon dioxide which is a principal
raw material in the production of organic
substances through photosynthesis is present
in abundance in the sea as dissolve gas or in
the form of carbonate compounds. Another
factor which seldom becomes limiting in the
sea is pH. The buffered nature of seawater
does not allow extreme fluctuation in pH values
except in special types of habitats such as
tidepools and isolated shallow lagoons
especially during low tide regimes.
Lecture 4 and Practicum 1
AN INTRODUCTION TO THE SEAWEEDS:
THEIR CHARACTERISTICS AND ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE1

by

Rhodora Azanza-Corrales2

1. INTRODUCTION
dioxide in the presence of light as energy
The primary producers or source, the seaweed utilize primarily
photosynthetic organisms in the marine chlorophyll a. Other major pigments are other
environment are the algae and the chlorophylls, carotenoids and phycobilins.
seagrasses. Marine algae compared to the Photosynthetic pigments are contained in
seagrasses and most terrestrial plants, are plastids generally discoid to ovoid in shape
non-vascular and have simpler reproductive with less developed lamellae called thylakoids.
structures (Trainor, 1978). Seaweeds, unlike These plastids or distinct containers of
planktons, are macroscopic attached forms of pigments are visible with light microscope in all
algae. seaweed divisions except in Cyanophyta. Blue
green (Cyanophyta), green (Chloro-phyta),
This is a brief introduction to the major
brown (Phaeophyta) and red (Rhodo-phyta)
features of seaweed biology which are
seaweeds are so named because of their
relevant to the understanding of the concepts
characteristic pigment combination (Dawes,
and techniques in their resource management
1981).
and culture. Economic benefits derived from
these plants are also presented. The biochemistry of their storage
2. CYTOLOGY AND MORPHOLOGY products and cell walls can also be used to
differentiate seaweed groups. Starch
Aside from being useful as tools in (unbranched polymer of α l, 4 glucan as in
seaweed taxonomy and nomenclature, higher plants) is the stored food in Chlorophyta
knowledge of their cytological characteristics is while floridean starch (branched polymer of α l,
important to appreciate the basic adaptations 4 glucans and laminarin (polymer of β 1, 3
of seaweeds at this lower level of organization. glucan) are found in Rhodophyta and
Thus, understanding at the higher levels of Phaeophyta, respectively. Mannitol, an alcohol,
organization, e.g., organismic, population, found in many algae (Dawes, 1981) may be a
community, etc., is facilitated. common soluble food reserve in seaweeds.
The primary classification of the algae, The basic component of the seaweed cell wall
i.e. at the division level is based on the is cellulose (polymer of β 1, 4 glucan),
following main criteria: (1) photosynthetic however, other compounds as xylans (β 1, 3
pigments, (2) food reserve, (3) cell wall linked) and mannans (β 1, 4 linked) can be
components and (4) other important details of found in coenocytic green algae. Patterns of
ultrastructure. It should be clarified, however, cellular microfibril arrangement differentiate the
that classification is based on the combination various algal groups (Dawes et al., 1961;
of several characters (Annex A). Dawes, 1966). Agar and carrageenan from
some red algae and alginic acid from brown
Except for the members of algae constitute the other (economically
Cyanophyta, cells of most seaweeds are important) materials of their cell walls.
eukaryotic, hence, the structures where vital
chemical processes occur are membrane-
bound. To synthesize organic compounds with
water and carbon

1
A lecture presented during the ASEAN/UNDP/FAO Regional Small-Scale Coastal Fisheries Development Project and Seafarming
Development and Demonstration Project (Joint Training Programme), University of the Philippines, Diliman, Quezon City, May 2-
21,1988.
2
Assistant Professor, Marine Science Institute, University of the Philippines, Diliman, Quezon City, Philippines.
At some point/s in seaweed life, the
Walls of many seaweeds have been known to
thallus may be damaged or broken by natural
have affinity for heavy metals which diffuse or
factors (as strong waves, grazing by animals,
are absorbed from the environment. Haug
etc.) or by human activity like the farming of
(1961) for example report that alginic acid has
economically important species. Healing is
the following affinity for different metals:
generally rapid or efficient which could be
Pb>Cu> Cd> Ba> Sr> Ca> Co> Ni>Zn, Mn,
accomplished in 30 minutes in coenocytic
Mg. This knowledge is important in choosing
seaweeds as Caulerpa (Dreher el al., 1978) or
sites for culturing seaweeds. Culture or farming
within the second week in bigger thallus as in
site should be far from sources of these
Eucheuma (Azanza-Corrales el al., 1988).
pollutants which the seaweed can accumulate
Wound healing is then followed or overlaps
in their cells. Some (green and red) algae have
with regeneration or replacement of parts of
calcium carbonate (Dawes, 1981), hence, are
redifferentiation of older adjacent cells to
very important contributors to the calcium
wounded area. This healing and regenerative
deposits in the marine environment.
capacity have been widely exploited in the
The "thallus" (thalli, plural) refers to the culture of the abovementioned plants where
seaweed's vegetative body with "roots", vegetative propagation is the main technique
"stems" and "leaves" which are structurally and in their production.
physiologically less differentiated unlike their
counterparts in vascular plants. The thalli range
4. LIFE HISTORY AND REPRODUCTION
from smaller simple filaments to the bigger
forms with "holdfast", "stipe" and "blade". The In the life cycle of more advanced
holdfast which attaches the seaweed to the members of green, brown and red seaweeds,
substratum can be: (1) a modified basal cell, (2) there is an alternation of two or three
rhizoidal filaments or (3) multicellular organs isomorphic (i.e. some morphology) or
which may be disc-like or a branched system. heteromorphic (different morphology) somatic
The structure which may be present or absent generations. The sporophyte (2N) produces
between the holdfast and the blade is the spore through meiotic division, the meiospores
"stipe" that grows terminally through the activity (N) develop into gametophyte (N) where
of a single apical cell or a group of them called gamete formation is mitotic. Fusion of gametes
meristem (Trono and Fortes, 1988). The (N) produce zygote (2N) which developes into
"blade" wherein most photosynthesis occur is the sporophyte completing the cycle. In
generally thin and expanded, but may be advanced members of red algae for example
filamentous or fleshy, branched or unbranched. in Gracilaria, a third somatic generation, the
Storage (and transport) of photosynthate is not carpospo-rophyte (2N) is produced "inside" the
localized in one organ or structure unlike in female gametophyte (N) after fertilization of
vascular plants where the stem usually egg by spermatia from male gametophyte. The
performs this special function. Vascularization, carposporophyte produces carpospores (2N)
i.e. presence of phloem and xylem is absent in carposporangia which are released and
except in the temperate groups. Laminariales germinate into tetrasporophyte (2N) that
and fucales (Phaeophyta) where beginnings of produces tetraspores (N) through meiosis. The
these tissues are present (Morris, 1967). tetraspores in turn develop into either female
or male gametophytes (N), hence, completing
3. GROWTH, DEVELOPMENT AND
the plant's life history.
REGENERATION
From the abovementioned and other
Life begins normally for a seaweed as a previous discussions, it is clear that seaweeds
spore or a zygote (or propagules/cuttings in can multiply or proliferate in the dimensions of
culture). Germination, growth and development time and space through asexual and sexual
proceed after settlement and attachment in the means. Asexual method could be by 1)
substratum leading to the formation of adult or vegetative regeneration from fragments
mature plant that can then undergo asexual or produced naturally or artificially, or 2)
sexual reproduction (Lobban el al., 1985). production of non-motile or motile spores
Evidences are mounting that aside from produced in structures called sporangia. The
external factors as light, temperature, etc., former is called aplanospore produced in
internal ones as morpho-genetic factors (like aplanospo-rangium and the latter is called
hormones) may be involved in processes that zoospore formed in zoosporangia. Sexual
produce and maintain thallus integrity (Jacobs, reproduction is the fusion of gametes
1985).
produced from simple or differentiated browns Laminaria and Alaria are also popular
gametangia where in the latter, male gamete is food items in Japan and Korea. Presently, the
produced from an antheridium while the female most expensive edible seaweed in Japan is
gamete from the oogonium. In the more Monostroma (Azanza-Corrales, personal
advanced form of red and brown algae, fertile communication). It is also farmed like the
areas may be distinguished on the surfaces of previously mentioned seaweeds but "Nori"
the thalli. Spermatia (male gametes) may be remains the most extensively cultured.
aggregated in cavities called conceptacles,
while tetrasporangia and/or female, 5.2 Uses in medicine
reproductive structures may form distinct Seaweeds have been variously utilized
aggregations called sorus(i). as medicinal herbs. Early Roman soldiers
In some, specialized branches of spore have used species to heal wounds, burns and
production are called "receptacles" while in rashes. Goiter and other internal disorders
others portion of some branches are converted have been treated or prevented with
to fertile structures called stichi-dium (Trono seaweeds by Chinese and Japanese. Agaro-
and Fortes, 1988). Stalked or sessile phytes and carrageenophytes are good
cystocarps which contain the carpos-porophyte laxatives (Calompong, 1981). Digenea simplex
covered by a pericarp are formed on the has been reported to be a good vermifuge
surfaces of female gametophytes of red (Trono, 1973). Processed materials from
seaweeds as Eucheuma and Gracilaria. In seaweeds that are used in medicine and
Japan where seaweed culture is probably most related areas are considered in item 5.4.
developed, nets for Porphyra, Laminaria and
Monostroma are seeded with spores indoor or 5.3 As fertilizer, fodder and fuel
in the laboratory. When the seedlings reach Aqueous extracts mostly from brown
appropriate size and during appropriate time, seaweeds have been used commercially for
the nets are transferred to the culture sites. agricultural purposes (Stephenson, 1974;
5. ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE OF Montano and Tupaz, 1988). Fertilizers from
SEAWEEDS seaweeds result to increased crop yield
probably due to the presence of growth
Man has a long history of seaweed promoting hormones (Bentley-Mowat, 1963).
utilization as direct sources of food, fodder, Other beneficial effects include increased
fertilizer and medicine. Various industries have resistance of crop to fungal and insect pests
used phycocolloids and other materials and increase water holding capacity of the soil
extracted from seaweeds for many purposes. (Mathieson, 1967). In Europe, seaweeds are
World seaweed utilization has been reviewed dried and grounded to produce meals for
by Levring et. al. (1969), Chapman (1970) and animals. Macrocystis, Sargassum and
Bonotto (1976) as reported by Dawes (1981) Gracilaria are sources of fuel (menthane),
who cited the brown and red seaweeds as the production of which is a new-venture
most dominant algae useful to man. especially in the United States.
The following review of economic 5.4 Sources of phycocolloids
importance of seaweeds has been digested
Polysaccharides extracted from
primarily from Dawes (1981) and Trono and
seaweeds (especially reds and browns) that
Fortes (1988).
can form colloidal or gel systems in water are
5.1 As direct source of food called phycocolloids. Alginic acid is a polymer
Japan, China, Philippines, Korea and of D-mannuronic and L-guluronic acids and
other Asian countries and Hawaii consume are derived from brown seaweeds. Alginates
seaweeds directly as food. They are mostly are used as emulsifier and stabilizers in the
harvested from natural populations but textile, paper, paint and food industries. They
mariculture of important species have been have been used to make surgical threads and
practiced specially in the first three mentioned whole blood substitutes for emergency
countries. The species sold almost daily in the transfusion. Half of the -entire world production
Philippines particularly in wet markets in Metro of alginic acid comes from the harvesting of
Manila are Caulerpa len-lifera, C. racemosa, Laminaria in the North Atlantic. Other sources
Eucheuma alvarezii, E. den-ticulatum and are Eclonia and Sargassum in the Pacific and
Gracilaria verrucosa. Porphyra or "Nori" is a Indian Oceans. Agar which chemically
regular part of daily Japanese meal. The consists of agarose and agaropectin is a
strong gelling phyco-colloid mostly extracted 1987 submitted to PCARRD on the project:
from Gracilaria, Gelidium, Gelidiella and Reproductive biology of Eucheuma
Pterocladia. The better quality agar is used as species in Danajon Reef, Northern
medium for culture of microbiological Bohol.
specimens. The food industry use them as Azanza-Corrales, R.A., C.J. Dawes and
protective gels in canned meat and stabilizers 1988 S. Chan. Wound healing in Eucheuma
in many bakery products. They are also used in alvarezii var. tambalang Doty in
the sizing of fabrics, water proofing of paper laboratory culture (in press).
and cloth and/or clarifying agent in the Bentley-Mowat, J.A. Auxins and gibberellins
manufacture of wines, beers and coffee. 1963 in marine algae. Proc. Int. Seaweed
Carrageenan is a more sulfated (20-50 Symp. 4:352 (as cited by Montano
percent galactan) compound compared to agar and Tupaz, 1988).
which has lesser degree of sulfation (less than Bonotto, S. Cultivation of plants. Multi-
5 percent). Presently, there are five major 1976 ellular plants. In: Kinne, O. (ed).
forms (k,,λ,,μ,λ, i) of carrageenan already Marine ecology Vol. 3. Cultivation
known. They vary in the levels of sulfation and Part I. Wiley, New York.
the ratios of galactose to 3,6 anhydrogalactose.
Calompong, H.P. Economically important
Carrageenan is extracted from members of
1981 benthic marine algae in the Central
Gigartinales, wherein the different forms are
Visayas, Philippines. Silliman Journal,
distributed between the diploid and haploid
28:143-148.
phases. In Chondrus, Gigartina and Iridaea, K-
carrageenan is found in the haploid plant and Chapman, V.J. Seaweeds and their uses.
carrageenan in the diploid plant. Eucheuma 1970 econd edition. Methuen, London.
denliculatum contains only K-carrageenan Dawes, C.J. A light and electron microscope
while E. isiforme, E. alvarezii and E. uncinatum 1966 studyof cell walls II.
carrageenan only. This phycocolloid is used Chlorophyta. Ohio J. Sci. 66:317-326.
mainly in dairy products because of its
Dawes, C.J. Marine botany. John Wiley and
stabilizing effects with milk proteins. It is also
useful in the production of toothpaste, diet 1981 and Sons, New York,
foods, soups and confections. Other products Brisbane, Toronto, Singapore.
with carrageenan as suspending or gelling Dawes, C.J., F.M. Scott and E. Bomler. A light
agent are those from the cosmetic, paint and 1961 and electron microscope study of algal
pharmaceutical industries. cell walls. I. Rhodophyta and Phaeo-
phyta. Amer. J. Bot. 48:925-932.
Trono and Fortes (1988) report that "out
of the total world production of 650 000 mt of Dreher, T.B. Grant and R. Wetherbee. The
seaweed in 1980, about 270 000 mt were used 1978 wound response in the siphonous
in the manufacture of phycocolloids, the rest alga,
were utilized as food in Asia. The Philippines Caulerpa simpliscula C. Ag. Fine
contributed 84 percent of total world supply of structure and cytology. Protoplasma.
carrageenan, Republic of Korea produced 62 96:
percent of total raw materials for agar while 70 198-203.
percent of materials for alginate production Haug, A. The affinity of some divalent metals
were from European countries, the United 1961 to different types of alginates. Acta.
States and Canada". Chem. Scand. 15:1794-1795 (as cited
Seaweeds, therefore, are very important by Lobban et al., 1985).
not only for their biological roles in the marine Jacobs, W.P. Are angiosperm hormones
environment but also for the economic benefits 1985 present in and used as hormones by
that they directly provide man. algae? In: Bopp, M. (ed.) Plant growth
substances. Proc. 12th Int. Conf. Plant
REFERENCES Growth Substances. New York:
Springes Verlag, 1986.
Azanza-Corrales. The reproductive biology Levring, T., H.A. Hoppe and O. Schmid
1979 of the Gracilaria species of Manila Bay, 1969 Marine algae. A survey of research
Philippines. M.S. Thesis. University of and utilization. Cram, de Gruyter,
the Philippines, Diliman, QuezonCity. Hamburg.
Azanza-Corrales. (unpubl.) Annual report
Lobban, C.S., P.J. Harrison, M.J. Duncan
1985 The physiological ecology of seaweeds.
University Press, Cambridge.
Mathieson, A.C. Seaweed — a growing
1967 industry.Pacific Search, Seattle,
Washington (as cited by Dawes,
1981).Montano, N. and L.M. Tupaz.
Growth 1987 response of some plants
to treatment with aqueous extracts from
Sargassum polycystum and
Hydroclathrus clathratus at varying
levels. Phil. J. Sci. Monograph 17:11-
22.
Morris, I. An introduction to the algae. 1967
Hutchinson, London.

Stephenson, W.A. Seaweeds in agriculture


1974 and horticulture. Mexico, USA (as cited
by Tupaz and Montano, 1987).
Trainor, F.R. Introductory phycology. Wiley,
1978 New York.
Trono, G.C., Jr. Seaweeds: One of the import-
1973 ant marine natural resources of the
Philippines. pp. 28-50. In:
G.T.Velasquez Lecture Series. Nat.
Res Council Philipp. Publ.

Trono, .G.C., Jr. and Ganzon-Fortes. Philip-


1988 pine Seaweeds Technology and
Livelihood Resource Center. National
Book Store, Inc. Manila.
Tupaz, L.M. and N.E. Montano. Effects of
1987 aqueous alkaline extracts from
Philippine seaweeds as a foliar spray
on crops. Phil. J. Sci. Mon. 17:29-36.
ANNEX A
Simple Artificial Key to the Four Divisions of Seaweeds

1. Cells without distinct containers or plastids, Cyanophyta


reproduction purely asexual
1. Cells with distinct pigment containers or plastids,
reproduction asexual and sexual
2. stored food starch 2. Chlorophyta
2 stored food otherwise
3. stored food laminarin 3. Phaeophyta
3. stored food floridean starch Rhodophyta

Table 1. General features of the four seaweed divisions


Division Pigments Plastids* Stored food General Reproductio
morphology n
1. Cyanophyta chlorophyll a absent cyanophycean microscopic purely sexual
c-phycocyanin starch filamentous,
c-phycoerythrin form tufts
2. chlorophyll a present starch microscopic asexual.
Chlorophyta
chlorophyll b filamentous, sexual
to coenocytic,
to various
macroscopic
forms
3. Phaeophyta chlorophyll a present laminarin freely branched asexual
chlorophyll c filaments to sexual
fucoxanthin macroscopic
(giant kelps
incl.)
4. chlorophyll a present floridean microscopic asexual
Rhodophyta
chlorophyll d starch filamentous to sexual
r-phycoerythrin various macro-
r-phycocyanin scopic forms *
*Container of photosynthetic pigment
Practicum 1
INTRODUCTION TO THE FOUR SEAWEED DIVISIONS

by

Rhodora Azanza-
Corrales

phycoerythrin) are found in the cytoplasmic


Taxonomy deals with the identification
matrix and not in special containers called
of plants (or animals) using data and
plastids.. This feature can be verified even
information from their morphology, anatomy,
with the use of a light microscope.
physiology, genetics and biochemistry. It
Reproduction is achieved by asexual method
involves the classification or ranking (e.g.,
only, i.e., by fission, spore formation or
Division, Class, Family, etc.) of plants
fragmentation.
(seaweeds in this case) on the basis of their
similarities and dissimilarities. Nomenclature, The members are found mixed with
another aspect of taxonomy is the system of other seaweeds. In certain months of the year,
naming organisms. their over-growth has become a problem in
some seaweed farms where they compete for
This exercise will deal primarily on the
light, space, etc. with the crop. Lyngbya
classification of seaweeds at the Division level.
majuscula (Trono, 1981 unpubl.) is a common
It serves as an introduction to other practical
"pest" in Eucheuma farms where they form
work (i.e. identification of seaweeds) by
tufts on nets, posts or on crops themselves.
familiarizing the students with their
morphological characters. Pressed and 2. Chlorophyta (Green algae)
herbarium specimens of the more common
representatives of the four divisions will be Most green algae are found in the
studied taking note specially of their root-like, freshwater and terrestrial habitats. There are
stem-like and leaf-like structures. This will be only a few truly marine representatives. They
useful in the recognition, collection and are bright green to grass green in color due to
identification of these specimens. the predominance of chlorophylls (a and b)
over the other pigments. Plastids which are
As emphasized earlier in the lecture, special containers of photosynthetic pigments
the four seaweed divisions (Cyanophyta, are ovoid to spherical or assume various
Chlorophyta, Phaeophyta and Rhodophyta) shapes. These chloroplasts can be made
are recognized based on their pigmentation, visible with light microscopy. Photosynthetic
food reserve, cell wall composition and reserves in the green algae are stored as
flagellation. To verify one's classification of an starch. Cell wall is made up basically of
unknown or unfamiliar specimen, some simple cellulose with calcification in the same genera.
biochemical tests (Hunt, 1978) could be
employed. The group is represented in the marine
environment by microscopic, unicellular or
For the guidance of the trainees, the macroscopic coenocytic to multicellular forms.
following general characteristics of the four The thalli vary from simple free filaments to
divisions have been included: definitely shaped forms with distinct blade,
1. Cyanophyta (Blue-green algae) stipe and holdfast. The leaf-like structure or
Represented by bluish green to blade may be a thin expanded structure as in
brownish, reddish or almost black-colored films Ulva, or pinnate as in some Caulerpa species
or spongy tufts on intertidal rocks, other or assume various forms. Other members may
substrates as other seaweeds, the group has be highly calcified as Halimeda.
mainly freshwater and terrestrial forms. The Reproduction in this group are sexual
marine members are mostly coccoid or and asexual by formation of flagellated or non-
filamentous forms of different sizes of colonies. flagellated spores. Fragmentation of thalli that
They have lesser state of organization both at leads to their regeneration is a means of
the cellular and organismic levels. Their vegetative multiplication which is utilized in the
pigments (chlorophylls, phycocyanin and farming, for example of' Caulerpa.
Certain species of Ulva, Monostroma, the red algae are generally discoid. Food
Caulerpa and Codium are being utilized as reserve is floridean starch. The cell wall is
food in the Philippines and other Asian made up of cellulose together with agar or
countries. carrageenan. Many red seaweed genera are
economically important because of * their
3. Phaeophyta (Brown algae) phycocolloid content. Common sources of
several types of carrageenan are Eucheuma
Almost all the members of Phaeophyta and Chondrus while Gracilaria, Gelidiella and
are marine forms. Major pigments found are Gelidium provide varying quality of agar.
chlorophylls (a and c) and fucoxanthin, a
special type of xanthophyll which gives the The reds represent the most
algae the brown coloration. Plastids are complicated life history and reproduction
present in their cells whose walls are made up among the algae. Spores whether asexual or
of an inner layer of cellulose and an outer layer sexual are non-flagellated. Vegetative
of algin. Stored carbohydrate reserves are reproduction through regeneration of
principally laminarin and mannitol. fragmented thalli is quite common and widely
utilized in the farming of certain species of
There are simple freely-branching Eucheuma and Gracilaria. The three life
filamentous representatives. Many genera phases in the life history of most red algae
form macroscopic highly differentiated thallus. are: 1) sexual phase consisting of male and
Distinct blades, stipe, holdfasts are exhibited female game-tophyte, 2) the asexual phase —
by the Laminariales and Fucales or giant kelps the carpos-porophytes attached to. the female
(like Laminaria, Eisennia, Eclonia and plant producing carpospores, and 3) the other
Macrocystis. These are found only in the asexual phase tetrasphorophyte producing
temperate areas where they form seaweed tetraspores.
forests that serve as habitats of other marine
organisms. The beginning of anatomical
differentiation or formation of a less REFERENCES
differentiated vascular tissue has been Dawes, C.J. Marine botany. John Wiley and
observed in the kelps. 1981 Sons, New York, Brisbane, Toronto,
Singapore.
In the Philippines as in many other
tropical waters, several species of Sargassum, Hunt, J.W. Algal biochemical tricks and
Turbi-naria, Padina and Dictyota form the 1978 classification. The American biology
teacher. 40 (9):528-531.
major component of the reef flora. The genus
Sargassum which is distributed widely from the Lobban, C.S., P.J. Harrison, M.J. Duncan
tropical to temperate areas, forms extensive 1985 The physiological ecology of
vegetation or "beds" which are habitats for seaweeds. University Press,
marine animals specially fishes. Cambridge.
Ogawa, H. (unpubl.). Marine botany. Lecture
Reproduction in the group is both 1987 hand-out, training in marine ranch
sexual and asexual. Motile reproductive cells ing, Kochi University, Kochiken,
are laterally biflagellated except in Dictyotales. 40 mimeog. pp.
Vegetative propagation through thalli
Trono, G.C., Jr. (unpubl.). The four major
fragmentation may occur or formation and
abscission of special reproductive structure 1981 divisions of seaweed. Lecture
called propagules may also be undertaken. handout. 3 mimeog. pp.
Trono, G.C., Jr. and E. Ganzon-Fortes. Philip-
4. Rhodophyta (Red algae) 1988 pine seaweeds. Technology and Live
lihood Resource Center. National
Except for a few species, the members Bookstore, Inc. Manila.
of this group are mostly marine forms. Their
color is variable from reddish-brown to
reddish-green because of variation in the
amount of pigments (chlorophylls and the
phycobillins-phycoerythrin and phyco-cyanin).
This phenomenon called "chromatic
adaptation" is the plant's adjustment to
available light quality (wavelength) and/or
intensity (Lobban, 1985). The chloroplast in
Lecture 5 and Practicum 2
HOW TO IDENTIFY SEAWEEDS: USE OF DICHOTOMOUS KEYS1

by

Edna T. Ganzon-
Fortes2

As earlier mentioned, only through the or they may become yellow-brown, yellow-
practice of handling and distinguishing the orange, or green in bright sunlight. In cases
seaweeds as they appear in nature or as when group classification becomes difficult a
pressed or preserved specimen can one simple biochemical test may be of help. To
develop the ease of identifying them. distinguish some reddish-brown or brownish-
For beginners, it is best to familiarize oneself red seaweeds apart, immerse them in hot
with pressed herbarium specimens first before water maintained at 65 °C for a few
going to the field to collect fresh materials. In minutes. Most brown seaweeds will turn green
identifying a particular seaweed species, the in 120 seconds but most red seaweeds will not
use of dichotomous keys is most useful turn green in 240 seconds. This is so because
because most seaweed literature provide it. the hot water (65°C) dissociates the
However, seldom can one find a dichotomous brown fucoxanthin pigments masking the
key which include all seaweed groups or chlorophylls, thus, allowing the green color to
divisions. Most often, dichotomous keys are be observed. But in most seaweeds, the
provided for only one division (i.e., one for biliproteins (r-phycoerythrin) do not dissociate
Chlorophyta, one for Phaeophyta, one for at this temperature, thus, retaining its color. A
Rhodophyta); and usually, keys are provided few red species, however, such as Gracilaria
for major generic groups (e.g., a key to the do turn green when immersed at 75 °C
Halimeda group, or Caulerpa or Laurencia, water as one will notice when they are
etc.). Therefore, before using a dichotomous blanched as required in certain recipes.
key it would always require the identification of In our laboratory session, you will be given a
the division to which a particular species set of dried seaweed materials to identify using
belong. dichotomous keys. These keys are only
applicable to the species included in this
Especially when fresh, color may serve as
the most convenient character to consider in exercise. They use morphological characters
or traits that describe a particular genus or
identifying the particular division to which a
species to "split" or differentiate it/them from
seaweed species may belong. The green
seaweeds (Chlorophyta) are almost grass the other species or groups of species. For
example:
green, although some species may be yellow-
green or brownish-green. The brown Key to the genera of Rhodophyta
seaweeds (Phaeophyta) are usually light to 1. Thallus calcified .................................... 2
dark brown, yellow-brown, brownish-red, 1. Thallus not calcified ............................... 5
orange-brown but others may be bluish-green.
Seaweeds that are colored red or purple, even Look at the specimen and observe the
in part, almost always belong to Rhodophyta. presence or absence of the morphological
Some red species, however, may be colored character described which is calcification*.
brownish-red,

1
Delivered by Dr. Romeo Modelo, Associate Professor, College of Arts and Sciences, De la Salle University, Taft Avenue, Manila.
2
Senior Research Assistant, Marine Science Institute, College of Science, University of the Philippines, Diliman, Quezon City.
*A seaweed is calcified when it is hard, brittle, or has chalky texture. To be sure, simply put a few drop9 of 10 percent Hydrochloric
acid (HC1) to a very small portion of the thallus. If rapid bubbling results, this indicates the presence of calcium carbonate.
If the specimen is calcified, then proceed to 5. Thallus club-shaped,
number 2; if not calcified, then proceed to occurs singly or in colony 6
number 5. 5. Thallus not as above 7
2. Thallus crustose or rock-like .. Hydrolithon 6. Thallus vesiculate, not
2. Thallus forming free branches ... 3 calcified, without a central
axis and lateral branchlets Boergesen
Look at the specimen again and observe its when x-sectioned ia
habit (general form). If it is rock-like, then it 6. Thallus calcified, with
might be Lithothamnium. If the characters central axis and lateral
described fit your specimen, then it is it. But if branchlets when x-
it does not, then it might be a different sectioned Bornetella
species. On the other hand, if your specimen 7. Thallus umbrella-like, Acetabular
forms free branches, then proceed to number without horizontal stolon ia
3 of the dichotomous key; and so on until you 7. Thallus coposed of erect
arrive at the identity of the species in question. branches and horizontal
Just be sure to confirm the identity of the stolon Caulerpa
species by checking if its morphological
characteristics tally with the description of the B. Key to the genera of Phaeophyta
species provided in the taxonomic hand-outs.
1. Thallus composed of fan-
Take note that a scientific name is given to shaped blades or
each specimen. This consists of two names, segments Padina
hence, a binomial — the first is the generic 1. Thallus not as above 2
name (genus) and the second is the specific 2. Thallus composed of
name (species). The first letter of the generic strap-shaped branches Dictyota
name is capitalized while the specific name is 2. Thallus net-like Hydroclathrus
written in small letters, and both are italicized 2. Thallus divided into
or underlined. "leaves", "stems" and
Example: Eucheuma denticulatum with vesicles 3
(genus) (species) 3. Vesicles bone on stalks
attached to the axes of
Dichotomous Keys
the branches Sargassum
A. Key to the genera of Chlorophyta 3. Vesicles borne on the
1. Thallus forming fan- center of the bell-like
shaped blades or leaves Turbinaria
segments 2 3. Vesicles borne on the
1. Thallus not forming central axes and with
fan-shaped blades or leafy triquetrous
segments 3 extensions Hormophysa
2. Thallus composed of tiers
of segments that are fan- C. Key to the genera of Rhodophyta
shaped, kidney-shaped, 1. Thallus calcified 2
or wedge-shaped Halimeda 1. Thallus not calcified 5
2. Thallus composed of 2. Thallus crustose or
fan-shaped blade Avrainvillea rock-like Hydrolithon
3. Thallus filamentous 4 2. Thallus with free
3. Thallus not filamentous 5 branches 3
4. Filaments branched, 3 Branches moderately
very fine Chlorodesmis calcified, flattened, not
4. Filaments unbranched Chaetomorpha divided into segments
by genicula Mastophora
3. Branches highly calcified, 4 4. Leaf tip rotund, unserrated Cymodocea
divided into segments by rotundata
genicula 4. Leaf tip not rotund, C. serrulate
4. Intergenicular segment Cheilosporum serrated
sagittate S. Shoots to 1 m tall, with Enhalus
4. Intergenicular segments Amphiroa black strands emanating acoroides
cylindrical from the base
5. Thallus distinctly flat- Halymenia 5. Shoots with the strands 6
tened and frondose 6. Leaves blade-like 7
5. Thallus not as above 6 6. Leaves strap-like Thalassia
6. Branches densely clothed 7 hemprichii
with lateral branchlets 7. Leaf blades to 1 cm long
6. Branches not as above 9 with less than 8 cross-
7. Branchlets spinose Acanthophora 7. Veins Leaf blades from Halophila minor
7. Branchlets not spinose 8 1.5-2.5 cm long, with more H. ovalis
8. Ultimate branchlets with Laurencia than 8 cross-veins
distinct apical pit
8. Ultimate branchlets Gelidiella E. Key to the species of Caulerpa
without apical pit 1. Erect branches simple 2
9. Cross-section of branch Gracilaria and strap-shaped or
shows cells at the center blade-like
of the medulla distinctly 1. Erect branches bearing 3
large, 210-1 000 (com- short branchlets (ramuli)
monly 400-700) microns of various forms
in diameter 2. Erect branches narrow, C. serrulata
9. Cells at the center of the Eucheuma slightly curved or spirally
medulla smaller, less twisted upward
than 200 microns in dia- 2. Erect branches broader, C. brachypus
meter; a core of thick- not curved or twisted
walled and very small 3. Erect branches feather- 4
cells may be present at like
the medulla of some 3. Erect branches not 6
species feather-like
4. Ramuli in the form of 5
D. Key to the Seagrass species of Bolinao cylindrical pinnules
1. Plants with ligule*(Family 2 4. Ramuli in the form of C. taxifolia
Potamoge- tonaceae) compressed to flattened
pinnules
1. Plants without ligule 5 5. Pinnules distichous- C.
(Family Hydrochari- pinnately arranged on the sertularioides
taceae) erect axis
2. Leaves terete, subulate Syringodiu 5. Pinnules distichous- C.
m pinnate or tristichously cupressoides
isoetifoliu arranged on the erect
m axis
2. Leaves flat, thin 3 6. Ramuli peltate C. peltata
3. Leaves narrow, to 3 mm Halodule 6. Ramuli clavate, globose 7
wide, each with one univervis or spinose
centralvein

3. Leaves to 1 cm wide, with 4


more than one vein

*ligule — membranous appendage projecting from the summit of the leaf sheath.
7. Ramuli club-shaped, C. 8. Segments with distinct or 9
without distinct con- racemosa faint ribs on the surface
striction between the
head and stalk , 8. Segments without rib on 10
surface
F. Key to the species Halimeda 9. Basal segment single; H.
1. Holdfast bulbous 2 upper segments, gene- velasquezii
1. Holdfast discoid, 5 rally reniform with entireto
stupose, or rhizoidal very slightly undulate
2. Segments compressed 3 upper margins
to flattened 9. Basal segments laterally H. incrassata
2. Segments cylindrical and H. fused; upper ones
barrel-shaped cuneate, subcuneate,
cylindracea
etc., with trilobed,
3. Segments large up to 2.2 H. undulate, or deeply cleft
x 2.9 cm, commonly marcoloba upper margins
flabel- late with entire, 10. Segments thick, glossy H. taenicola
undulate, or irregularly becoming concave upon
lobed upper margin drying
3. Segments smaller, 4 10. Segments not as thick, 11
cuneate, subcuneate, not becoming concave
Suborbicular upon drying
4. Segments cuneate, sub- H. simulans 11. Segments abruptly de- H. discoidea
cuneate, flabellate to creasing in diameter from f.
reniform and with ribbed lower to upper portions of subdigitata
surfaces thallus; lower ones
4. Segments broadly E. discoidea broadly cuneate to fla-
cuneate, cuneate and v. bellate, upper ones
suborbicular, without ribs platyloba narrowly cuneate to
on the surface digitate
5. Thallus forming loose H. opuntia 11. Segments not abruptly H. fragilis
clumps, without stipe, decreasing in diameter
and attached to substrate from base to apex of
by rhizoids arising from thallus, brittle, with dull,
segments that comes in chalky surfaces
contact with substratum .
5. Thallus not as above 6
6. Segments with distinctly H. tuna G. Key to the species of Gracilaria
thick and wavy upper
margin which becomes 1. Branches compressed to G.
folded when pressed flattened eucheumoi
des
6. Segments more or less 7
1. Branches terete to slightly 2
uniform in thickness
compressed
7. Segments appearing H.
"velvety" due to very macrophysa 2. Main branches not exceeding 3
broad diameter of 2.5 mm in Diameter
surface utricles
7. Segments not 8 2. Main branches more than 2.5 5
appearing"velvety" mm in diameter.
3. Branches constricted at bases 4
3. Branches not constricted G. 5. Branches not divided
at bases coronopifolia into clavate segments
by deep constriction
4. Lateral branchlets long G. blogettii
and curved inwardly
6. Lateral branchlets dis- G. gigas
4. Lateral branchlets G. "verrucosa"
tinctly curved inwards
5 shorter branchlets G. salicornia
and upward; obtuse
inwardly Branches
divided into clavate 6. Lateral branchlets G. arcuata
segments by deep generally arcuate and
constrictions attenuate
Lecture 6 and Practicum 7
INVENTORY AND ASSESSMENT OF
ECONOMICALLY IMPORTANT SEAWEED STOCKS

By

Miguel D.
Fortes1

I. ECONOMIC SEAWEEDS IN THEIR


NATURAL ENVIRONMENT
In terms of gross potential use and effect of several factors acting together, either
production, the Asia-Pacific region is one of the synergistically or antagonistically, in the
richest source of' natural seaweed products in multidimensional niche of that species. If
the world. Such taxonomic diversity results attempts are made to isolate the effects of
directly from the varied conditions which are individual factors, these are made for no other
generated by equally varied topographical reason that a consideration of practicality and
features such as deeply penetrating coves, expense. For the purpose of this
coral and volcanic islands surrounded by wide, training/workshop, the latter view is adopted in
gently sloping reef flats, shallow continental the monitoring of the effects of selected field
shelves, and the enormous length of the total parameters on the performance of seaweeds.
coastline. In addition, the numerous islands 2. NON-SCIENTIFIC AND SCIENTIFIC
divide the waters into different seas connected SAMPLING
by channels, passages and straits, making
possible differential distribution of nutrients and Much of our knowledge on seaweed
compaction and composition of the substrate. research is based to a very large extent, on
These features ensure the constant availability samples. An administrator accustomed to
of requirements that favor optimal relief for dealing with complete censuses as bases of
growth and development of the seaweeds. policies is suspicious of samples and is
reluctant to use them. His choice of a farming
The ecological factors that affect the technique is often determined by the
biology of seaweeds in marine tropical waters "impressions" gathered from few encounters
may be, as Doty (1946) mentioned, primary or he has had with the technique in the course of
secondary. Primary factors are major a few years. He would differ from one who
phenomena, like monsoons and tides, devotes 20 years to "trial-and-error" methods,
observable as large-scale changes in the "feeling" the best possible method for optimum
earth's surface, exerting their effects on seaweed production. But in a real sense, the
considerably large areas and influencing a two differ in that the former bases his
number of requirements of the seaweeds. The conclusions on a much smaller sample of
secondary factors, on the other hand, are those experience. In science and in human affairs
like temperature, light and grazing which are alike, often we lack the resources in order to
more limited and specific in their effects, take a complete study of the phenomena that
generally subject to the fluctuations in the might advance our knowledge. This is the
primary factors. In nature, however, these latter primary reason why investigators resort to
factor cannot (and should not) be isolated from gathering samples.
one another because their effects are known to
be interactive. The growth of a seaweed is Non-scientific approaches to ecological
more the resultant studies may be in the form of:

1
Associate Professor of Marine Science, Marine Science Institute, College of Science, University of the Philippines, Diliman,
Quezon City.
(a) a guess; rate and practical because there are any
different sources of error in any
(b) reliance on previous experience and/or
memory; enumeration of large amount of data.
Hence, the smaller (but the more
(c) the use of logic or common sense; carefully controlled) the sample, the less
(d) making "spot checks" and "judgment" chances of making mistakes.
surveys; and
3. SOME GENERAL GUIDELINES IN
(e) taking a 100 percent survey. CONDUCTING A SCIENTIFIC FIELD
Unfortunately, all these approaches are STUDY
usually very biased even though not 3.1 Clarification of objectives
intentionally so. If sufficient data from previous
experience or originally gathered by someone It is often the case that your head office
else is available, it may be used as the basis just wants "to know something about" or to be
for decision-making. But often, this is not so kept informed on the status of key areas in the
easy to secure, or if readily available, project. There is really no "problem" and the
insufficient for the purpose. Thus, the need request for you to study an area usually comes
arises to collect primary or new data. in the form of ambiguous formulae, focused on
some observed details that seem to bother
Values reported that "spot checks" may management. Get your guidance clear on what
be accurate but one cannot be assured that you are to study and once the objectives have
the conclusions drawn from them are valid and been definitely stated, the need for the study
reliable. It is risky when used as a basis for becomes clearer.
making programme-management decisions.
With 100 percent surveys, their costs are The questions to be answered include:
prohibitive, the actual surveys very time- Why does management want to study? How
consuming and they are often physically important does the head office consider the
impossible to conduct. need for answers? How accurate do the
results need to be? When does management
Scientific sampling is " the use want the results? What is the budget limitation
of effi cient and effective systematic methods of the study?
of collecting, interpreting and presenting data 3.2 Planning and organizing the study
in a quantitative manner to facilitate
understanding". With these methods, bias inhe There are many factors to consider in
rent in the non-scientific techniques can planning and organizing the survey. However,
beappreciably eliminated and the probability of these can be categorized under two general
being correct (or incorrect) ascertained The headings, namely, administrative and
principal advantages of scientific sampling as technical. A serious consideration of funds,
compared with complete enumeration in staff, equipment and administrative
ecological studies are as follows: coordination is necessary before you go any
further. Technically, once the problem is
(a) Subjective and personal bias in the understood, formulate hypotheses to serve as
overall methodology is minimized; possible explanations for the phenomeno to be
(b) Inasmuch as the conclusions will be encountered. This will lead to the right kinds of
based on just a few samples, precise questions to be asked in order to resolve which
quantitative statements can be made of the hypotheses are correct.
regarding how these samples closely
Sometimes, questionnaires are
reflect the whole population from
important. The design and format of such
where they were drawn;
materials are very significant in the accuracy in
(c) The probability of being correct or recording data. Master lists and a working
incorrect can be estimated; schedule must be made available in order to
(d) Since scientific sampling can give complete the work in time for management's
smallest number of samples needed to use. Also, an appropriate sample size must be
reflect the characteristics of a determined as this will limit your time, money
population, the method becomes more and personnel.
economical, efficient and effective; and 3.3 Selecting a sample
(e) Compared to 100 percent survey, In sampling, one must know exactly the
scientific methods are the more accu natural entity to be sampled. For example, if
we obtain a collection of seaweeds from within Once the ecological entity has been
a 0.25 m2 plot, we must be aware that we have defined and the sampling procedure chosen,
collected only a fraction of the entire one can do the actual sampling. How to obtain
vegetation. No single sampling technique can representative samples of the defined
possibly give all the data required of a natural population is the next problem. Normally,
population or community. A given procedure statistical samples should be taken at random,
can be best applicable only to certain species in which case, you assume that each item in
or group of species and not to others. This is the population has an equal chance of being
the reason why the entity to be sampled must "picked" and that the occurrence of one
first be defined. individual in a sample in no way influences the
inclusion of another. A sampling method is
The population to be sampled (the
biased if it tends to underestimate a
sample population) should coincide with the
characteristic of the population or a
population about which information is wanted
community.
(the target population). Conclusion drawn from
the sample apply to the larger population. In a taxonomic sense, representative
3.4 Selecting a sampling procedure samples are those complete in parts (i.e.
sample seaweeds to be collected should have
There are several approved methods fronds, stipes and holdfasts). Only such whole
for drawing samples from a population, each of plants can facilitate correct and proper
which has certain advantages depending upon identification.
the specific circumstances. If such item in the
population is considered to have "equal A single measurement is generally not
importance" or where every point in that area enough to be used as basis of conclusions
is exactly like every other, you can perform about an ecological characteristic. Replicates
either a SIMPLE or a SYSTEMATIC should be taken and from them, the mean of
SAMPLING, the latter, useful especially if your the statistical population can be estimated and
population is arranged or lined up or along an the amount of error, determined.
environmental gradient. If on the other hand In some instances, only portions of
you know that the characteristics of the items ecological samples or subsamples can be
in the population differ markedly, and it is taken in the laboratory and studied. So long as
possible to classify them you might want to the subsamples are taken randomly from the
select samples from each of these groupings sample, they reflect the characteristics of the
in order to improve the validity of the survey. entire sample.
This more sophisticated approach is known as
STRATIFIED SAMPLING. Finally, as plants 3.5.1 Quantitative assessment of
may occur in clusters, it is possible to choose a abundance and production
number of clusters at random and measure the Obviously, a large amount of error is
particular variable being studied on each of the inherent in using subjective means of
units or individuals in the cluster. This method describing vegetation. To at least minimize the
is called CLUSTER SAMPLING. Due probably error, ecologists resort to quantitative
to difficulties in field travel in some situations measures, with statistical considerations.
and/or in order to reduce travel time and cost, Although unavoidably time-consuming, these
this technique may be the only practical means methods give workers a more realistic picture
available to conduct the study. of the structure and dynamics of a vegetation.
The above sampling methods usually a) Density (D) — This is the count of the
involve plots or quadrats of measured area. number of individuals within a series of
Hence, the results obtained using them are randomly distributed sample areas (quadrats
likely to be a function of the plot size. In or plots). The method allows comparison of
plotless sampling, there is the advantage of different areas and different species and is an
not having to demarcate plots of a certain size absolute measure of abundance of the plants.
or shape (hence, less laborious). The most Its disadvantage lies in the large amount of
popular of the plotless techniques are the time involved in counting the individuals.
POINT-QUARTER (QUADRAT) and
While density (often called crude or
WANDERING-QUARTER methods.
absolute density) is the number of organisms
per unit total space or volume, much of the
3.5 Conducting the study area or volume may not actually be colonized
by the population. It is, therefore, more 0.48. This is the same as saying that the
meaningful to speak of the number of probability of finding the seaweed in the
organisms per unit of habitable space (specific sample is 48 percent.
or ecological density).
Greig-Smith (1975) proposed two
convenient forms of frequency, namely, shoot
and rooted frequency. The former considers a
species as "present" only when any part of the
plant thallus overlaps into the quadrat. The
where: Di = density of species i; latter measure considers a species as
ni = total number of individuals of "present" when it is actually rooted within the
species i; sampled area.
A = total area sampled The only advantage of frequency as a
measure of abundance lies in the ease and
Often, it is more important to know whether rapidity with which an area can be sampled.
a population is changing than to know its size Values obtained using this method are
at any one moment. In comparative studies, dependent on the size of the quadrat used,
one generally wants to know the number of and the size and spatial distribution of the
individuals relative to other populations. In individuals inside the area sampled.
such cases, relative species density, RD, is The relative frequency, Rf, is the frequency
useful. It is the total number of individuals of a of a given species expressed as a proportion
species expressed as a proportion (or of the sum of the frequencies for all the
percentage) of the total number of individuals species:
of all species present:

where: RFi = relative frequency of


where: RDi = relative density of species i; Di = species i;
density of species i; fi - frequency of species i;
TD = sum of the densities of all the Tf = total of the frequencies of all
species the species

b) Frequency (F) — Frequency is a c) Cover (C) — This is the proportion of the


measure of the chance of finding a species ground or the substratum occupied by the
with any one throw of a quadrat in a given individuals or parts of the individuals of the
area. Thus, if Gracilaria has a frequency of species under consideration. It is an estimate
0.1, then it should occur once in every 10 of the area covered by the given species,
quadrats examined: expressed as a percentage of the total area,
measured usually by taking a number of
points from the sample area and determining
at those points which species, if any, is
covering the surface of the substratum. As this
where: Fi = frequency of species; method involves visual estimates, it is prone to
personal bias, as was discussed in relation to
ji = number of samples frequency ratings;
(or smaller squares) in which
species i occurs; The relative cover (RC) is the cover for a
species expressed as a proportion of the total
k = total number of samples
cover of all the species.
(smaller squares) taken
The method is done simply by noting
whether a species is present or absent in a
series of randomly placed quadrats (or in the
smaller squares within a quadrat). For
example, if 43 quadrats out of a total of 90
contain Gracilaria, the frequency is 43/90 =
where; RCi = relative cover of species i; Ci = 1/4 of the sub-
stratum surface 18.75 0.75
cover of species i; TC = total cover
2 covering 1/16 to
of all species 1/8 of the sub-
stratum surface 9.375 0.375
As a rough and overall estimate of the
1 covering less
influence or importance of a plant species in
the community, the importance value (IV), may than 1/16 of the
be useful: substratum
surface 4.6875 0.1875
IVi = RDi + RFi + RCi
The percent coverage (C) of each species is
computed as follows:

where qn, is the number of small squares


where: Ci = cover of species i; (10 x 10 cm areas) recorded as having a
ai = total area covered by species i; certain "c/25" cover (see above table
A = total habitat area sampled occupied by the species.
Saito and Atobe (1970) utilized a more Evaluation of the similarity or
refined method in the estimate of seaweed dissimilarity of the algal communities in
frequency and cover. The method makes use two study stations is based on Frequency
of a 0.25 m2 (50 x 50 cm) quadrat, divided into Index Community Coefficient (FICC)
25 small squares, each measuring 10 x 10 values computed as:
cm2. This quadrat size of 0.25 m2 was chosen
by first comparing it with bigger quadrats, i.e.,
0.5 m2, 1.0 m2, the values obtained fitted in a
species-area curve. where: B = sum of the frequencies of the
The frequency value (F) of each algal algal species common to both
species is determined by counting the number communities, A and C;
of small squares (10 x 10 cm2) the species A = sum of the frequencies of the
appears in the quadrat (qn), and this will be algal species present only in
computed in percent using the formula: community A; (maldistributed
species in community A);
Calculation of the species coverage (C) C = sum of the frequencies of the
is done by assigning numbers to indicate algal species present only in
degree of dominance or cover. The numbers 1,
community C; (maldistributed
2, 3, 4 and 5 are used as indices of species
species in community C)
coverage in one small square of the quadrat as
observed in the field. Each number has a The advantage of the above formula over
corresponding percentage value when those of Jaccard's (CCJ) and Sorensen's
computed in the laboratory as tabulated below: (CCs) Community Coefficient formulae (cited
by Brower and Zar, 1977) is that, not only are
Index Degree of % c/25 the total number of maldistributed and
cover Equi. common species accounted for, but also their
(in one 10 x 10 (C) density as they occur in the field as
cm) measured in terms of their frequency. In
other words, FICC involves quantification of
5 covering 1/2 to the maldistributed and common algal
1/1 of the sub- species, whereas, CCJ and CCs account only
stratum surface 75 3 for the number of maldistributed and common
4 covering 1/4 to species without consideration of their density.
1/2 of the sub- d) Standing crop biomass — This is the
stratum surface 37.5 1.5 weight of existing species in a given area at
3 covering 1/8 to any one time. Commonly, all the species
within a plot are collected, sorted and dry- Biomass is usually expressed as units of
weighed. The result will give an estimate of weight per area (or volume) of habitat, and
the amount of matter produced by a species productivity, as units of weight per unit area (or
or a group of species in the area. Where volume) per unit time. Hence, the turnover
there are large differences in the sizes of time is the number of time units (days, months,
species present, standing crop biomass is an years) required to produce as much biomass
important measure of "abundance": as is present at the time of measuring the
standing crop. .
B = (D) (TW/n)
3.5.2 Determination of other ecological
where: B = the biomass; D = density; parameters
TW = sum of the weights of the
individual organisms in a sample; From the above basic ecological measures,
n = the number of individuals in the others can be determined to reflect some of
sample the structural aspects of the community not
explicit in density, frequency, or cover. Indices
Biomass for non-discrete, creeping
of species diversity, dominance and similarity
(hence, non-individually countable) species
of dissimilarity give better insights on the
is simply their absolute weights.
structure of the community in comparison with
For organisms which vary greatly in other communities or relative to a change in
moisture content, biomass should be time. For example, the degree of influence of a
expressed as dry weight rather than fresh fertilizer on the floral composition of a
weight. Biomass expressed as ash-free dry seaweed community may be assessed by
weight, nitrogen, carbon, or caloric content is monitoring the change in the diversity of the
useful in cases where the organisms vary in community. Physically-stressed habitats are
the amount of inorganic skeletal material, generally less diverse than biologically-
e) Growth rate (GR) — This is a measure of controlled ones.
how well a species is growing in a given area.
a) Species diversity — Species diversity is a
Measurements of growth rates in seaweeds
measure of the number of species (the* variety
depend on their modes of growth, i.e., for Ulva
component) and the relative abundance of the
and Porphyra, it is best to measure the
individuals of each species (the evenness
change in area of an initial portion of a frond
component). There are a number of diversity
because they both exhibit diffused growth; for
indices proposed, each one with its own
Laminaria, which grows by means of an
defined usefulness depending upon the
intercalary meristem, growth rate is
nature of the community in question. Some of
determined by getting the difference in the
the more popular ones are: Shannon- Wiener
length of the frond after some time interval:
Index (H'), Brillouin's measure (H) and
Simpson's (D).
b) Ecological dominance — This is a
measure of the degree of control by a species
where: GR = growth rate; or species groups of the energy flow and the
AP = mean of the change in the environ ment of all the other species. A more
parameter used (area, length, weight, popular index of dominance is given by
etc.) Simpson (1949).
At = mean change in time
C = (ni/N)2
f) Productivity (P)—This is the rate of
organic matter production by organisms. In where: C = dominance index;
some cases, estimates of biomass may be
Ni = importance value for each species (i.e.,
useful to measure productivity:
number, weight, etc.);
N = total of importance values

c) Similarity/dissimilarity — Often after


where: P = gross biomass productivity; B = knowing the seaweed flora of two or more
standing crop biomass; T = turnover communities, you ask the question: How
time similar (or dissimilar) are the communities in
terms of the species present? Or you may part at least, closely related substances for
want to compare the species composition of one that is deficient in the environment. Such
the same community at two different times. In factor compensation emphasizes the fact that
such instances, indices of similarity or organisms are not just "slaves" to the physico-
dissimilarity may be useful: chemical environment; they adapt themselves
so as to reduce the limiting effects of the
i) Jaccard's coefficient (CCJ):
physical and chemical conditions of existence.
Thus, seaweeds with wide geographical
ranges almost always develop locally adapted
populations ("ecotypes") that have optima and
limits of tolerance adjusted to local conditions.
Table 1 gives some ecologically and
where, in both (i) and (ii), c = number of "operationally significant" factors {sensu
Odum, 1971) which are known to influence the
(ii) Sorensen's coefficient (CCs):
biological attributes important in the
species common to both communities S1 management of seaweed resources. The
and S2. influence of each of these factors is the subject
of another lecture in this course and need not
The index of dissimilarity is 1 - CCJ or 1 - CCs
be emphasized here. Their determinations in
the field deserves some attention since one
4. SOME SELECTED PHYSICO-CHEMICAL factor may give widely differing results
PARAMETERS depending upon the type of instrument used,
the time and place of determination, and the
The particular condition that purpose of the investigator. For comparison
characterizes a natural habitat is the result of purposes, field methodologies have to be
myriads of factors, interacting with one another standardized and intercalibrated.
to create an overall, highly specific and
prevailing effect that maintains the ecological 5. MONITORING: PURPOSE AND
integrity of the ecosystem as a whole. These NATURE OF THE PROCESS
factors have . been conveniently classified as
The primary purpose of the monitoring
biological and physico-chemical factors.
process is to gather data, adequate and
Biological factors are active, energy-requiring
accurate enough to be useful in the prediction
interrelations among the biotic components,
and control of major trends in certain biological
exerting their effects directly on the species,
attributes for management purposes. Hence,
populations, or communities themselves. It is
monthly monitoring of the growth rate or
often difficult to directly and immediately
biomass of natural stocks of the brown
determine the degree of effect of these factors.
seaweed Sargassum aims to pinpoint the
Thus, grazing pressure, pests and diseases,
temporal and spatial peaks and troughs in its
and direct human impact are primarily
organic matter production, as well as those
biological in nature.
factors that have considerable influence On
Physico-chemical factors, on the other this attribute. The information generated could
hand, are abiotic factors in the environment be the key in the prediction and control of
that are directly or indirectly and immediately future production trends in order to sustain
measurable using specific devices and yield at an optimum level.
instruments. Under natural conditions, it is
To monitor an ecological factor is to
impossible to isolate them and pinpoint
regularly observe, determine and record the
separately their effects.
changes that occur in that factor as a result of
There are two important considerations heterogeneity in time and space. However,
in dealing with ecological factors: factor certain major requirements should first be
interaction and factor compensation. Factor satisfied before the process is undertaken.
interaction emphasizes the fact that "... high a) The "operationally significant" factors
concentration or availability of some should be known, i.e., those factors which
substance, or the action of some factor other most likely have considerable influence
than the minimum one, may modify the rate of on the biological attribute in question;
utilization of the latter" (Odum, 1971).
Sometimes organisms are able to substitute, in b) Temporal and spatial changes, in those
factors should be sufficiently covered
within the predetermined intervals of Serious technical, logistical and
operation; administrative considerations must be made
c) The operations should be repeatable and before any monitoring activity is planned and
can be carried through at least the time implemented. These aspects of management
span of a complete life cycle or have varying degrees of effects on the project
development of the species or community objectives. Government agencies mandated to
in question; perform general livelihood tasks more often
lack the specific technical expertise and the
d) The data to be generated should come necessary library support to design efficient
from sufficiently large sample sizes for and acceptable monitoring activities. Their
statistical purposes; and meager research funds, if there exist, are
e) No major technical or administrative normally tied up with other unrelated office
problems should be expected to seriously projects and it becomes virtually impossible to
interfere in the course of the operation. transfer funds for a project of lower priority
rating. On the other hand, academic and
In the Philippines many research private institutions whose substantial research
projects fail because these are poorly funds are committed to a particular and
conceived. Their objectives while sound and specific purpose, enjoy the big advantage of
clearly expressed are more often "sidetracked" focusing all efforts, time and the monetary
at the completion of the project. The data allotment to that specific project. Hence, in
gathered, when validated are unreliable, these institutions, one finds adequate library
hence, risky when used as basis for policy acquisitions and the necessary equipment and
decisions. The problem lies primarily in major facilities to even extend positively the project
defects in the monitoring process (if ever such activities beyond those expected, and with
process is made an integral part of the project much better reliable results. This problem
objectives). The factors chosen for monitoring varies from agency to agency, public or
purposes are dictated either by the availability private, and it is beyond the scope and
or type of instruments at hand, or by the responsibility of the present
literature which more often than not espouses training/workshop to deal lengthily with such
techniques dismally unsuitable under local administrative aspect.
conditions. To compound the problem, the
study intervals chosen, while scientific in Table 1 lists some biological attributes
intent, decidedly become a function of the or parameters that are known to be
irregular and delayed releases of the significantly associated with seaweed culture
necessary support funds. The results are wide or management objectives. These parameters
gaps in data unacceptable for statistical are matrix-correlated with operationally
analysis and interpretation. significant biological, physical and chemical
factors that are known to considerably
Baseline data that relate to the biology and influence the status of the parameters. The
ecology of target seaweed species for culture degree of effects of the factors are, for
either do not exist, or are poorly known. This convenience, categorized into low (L), medium
is due to the lack of directly relevant literature (M) and high (H). The degree of effect is low
materials which remains as the major when it is short-term, localized, and does not
handicap in the conceptualization and cause a significant negative shift in the
implementation of the acceptable observed trend in the parameters; it is medium
experimental design and procedure. Sample when the effect is medium-term, affecting a
sizes and the chosen intervals along transects sufficiently large percentage of the total area or
or through time periods are often arbitrary and activity, and a degree change above or below
dictated by convenience without regard to the its level causes a significant shift in the trend;
natural structure along habitat gradients, the degree of effect of a factor is high when it
seasonal dynamics of the vegetation, or much affects negatively a very large percentage of
less, to statistical considerations. the area or activity, causing a major adverse
6. SPECIFIC CONSIDERATIONS IN shift in the trends of the parameters.
THE MONITORING OF THE
SELECTED PARAMETERS
Table 1. Matrix table emphasizing the degree of correlation between
the biological attributes and some ecological factors of the coastal
seaweed environment. L — low; M — Medium; H — high.

BIOLOGICAL ATTRIBUTES
Density Frequency Cover DiversityBiomassProductivityHectarage SeasonalityZonation
Grazing L-M L-M M-H M H L-M L L M-H
pressure
Pests and L-M L L-M M M M L L-M L
diseases
Direct H H H M-H H M-H H L H
human
impact
Temperature L-M L L L-M M-H M-H L M-H L-M
Salinity L-H L-M L-M M M-H M-H L M-H L-M
pH/En L-M L-M L-M L-M L M L M L
Nutrients M-H M M M M-H M M M-H L-M
Water M-H M M M M-H M-H M-H M-H M-H
movement
Light L-M L-M L-M M M-H M-H L M-H M-H
Tides M-H L-M M-H M M-H M-H M-H M M-H
Toxic M-H L-M L-M M L-M M L L-M L-M
substances
Substrate M-H M-H M-H H M-H M-H M-H M H
fluctuations affect most other factors in the
For exploratory management
marine environment. The rapidly increasing
purposes, most of the factors that correlate
industrialization in the Philippines indicates
with the biological parameters at the M-H and
that the shallow coastal portions where
H levels should ideally be monitored.
seaweeds abound will not in the years to
Monitoring of those factors that correlate at
come, improve its productivity in relation to the
the L and L-M levels, on the other hand, may
level where it is now. The prevailing wrong
be postponed for a future date when
attitude of the people is such that the marine
conditions favor their inclusion in the
resources including seaweeds are viewed as
monitoring process. For example, at an
inexhaustible, easily replaceable with the
experimental farm of the red seaweed,
minimum time and effort. Compounded by
Eucheuma, management would be better
their low income, these people turn to the sea
advised to monitor seedling density, biomass
as an alternative means to acquiring their
and seasonality as these parameters are
basic necessities, but in the most destructive
affected by urchin or fish grazing, harvesting
way.
or "poaching" (direct human impacts), water
temperature, salinity and movement, nutrients, There are other specific considerations
tidal exposure, submersion and the possible associated with. the monitoring process. Basic
inflow of toxic substances. On the other hand, to science, all activities must have controls.
if the purpose of management is simply to Regularly monitoring the effects of stipe
increase hectarage in a natural community, cutting in the growth rate and biomass of
the factors to be considered in the monitoring Sargassum must, by comparative necessity,
process would principally be the direct include a similar set of activities on uncut
influence of the activities of the inhabitants, plants. Data generated in this way give useful
water movement, tides and certain features of information on the advantage or disadvantage
the substrate. of the introduced variable (i.e., cutting), the
result inevitably becomes an index of profit or
It should be noted that the degree of
loss left for management decisions. Fortes
effect of the ecological factors may be
(1981) emphasized the usefulness of
species-specific and/or site-specific. More
describing habitats in terms of the biological
detailed studies are required to pinpoint the
composition and interactions, not in terms of
causal factors in the observed changes in the
the physico-chemical factors.
production and growth of local seaweeds. This
could be done through both laboratory and For initial field exploratory purposes,
field experiments. In the Philippines, it is a monthly or bimonthly sampling may be done,
"rule of thumb" to utilize available foreign especially if one intends to follow the
information that probably could be useful in phenology and production potentials of
the management of a related species. seaweed species. But once information on the
parameters are established, it is not always
Among the ecological factors, six
practical and much less scientific, •to do
emerge as decidedly the more important, as
sampling outside the natural pheno-logical
far as their effects on seaweeds under tropical
cycle of the species. Hence, if a species has a
conditions are concerned. These are: direct
turnover time of 60 days, it would be advisable
human impact, nutrients, water movement,
to sample once every two months. In addition,
light, tides and substrate. Unplanned or
each country has its own set of meteorological
uncontrolled collection or harvest, damage
conditions to which local seaweeds directly or
wrought by plying boats and coastal
indirectly respond physiologically, structurally
development activities (e.g., marinas, ports)
or through differential species occurrence or
affect the seaweed communities not just
composition. In the Philippines, the coastal
through direct physical decimation or removal,
parts of Regions I and III, and the western
but also the quality, quantity and availability of
sections of Regions IV, IVA and VI belong to
nutrients, water flow and circulation, and the
the First Climatic Type (Figure 1). These areas
amount of light available via increase turbidity
are characterized by two pronounced
and siltation. Tides have been mentioned
seasons, dry from November to April, and wet
earlier as a primary factor affecting the fertility
during
of tropical coasts since their diurnal
Figure 1. Relative locations of the seagrass study stations in
the Philippines
7. DATA PROCESSING AND
the rest of the year. The north and eastern
INTERPRETATION
coasts of Region V, the eastern coast of
Region VIII, northern Region X, and the entire Once the data are available, they should
eastern portion of Region XI belong to the first be organized and systematized to
Second Climatic Type. These areas are facilitate the statistical procedures used in
characterized by the absence of a dry season, data analysis. It should be emphasized that it
with a very pronounced maximum rainfall from is only by means of statistical methods that:
November to January. Coastal Aparri (Region (a) characteristics of sets of data can be
II), Romblon, the eastern halves of Panay quantitatively described and summarized;
(Region VI) and Negros and Cebu (Region conclusions about large sets of data, using only
VII), eastern Palawan (Region IV), the mid- samples of them can be drawn; and
northern part of Region X, and western relationships between sets of data established.
Zamboanga (Region IX), belong to the Third Hence, in the present paper, simple statistical
Climatic Type. These areas have relatively dry manipulations will be frequently encountered
season from November to April and a wet but for no other reason that the fact that a good
season during the rest of the year. The eastern ecological work requires them.
coasts of Region II, Mindoro and Quezon An understanding of some basic statistical
(Region IV), northwestern Samar and western concepts is needed at this point:
Leyte (Region VIII), northern Cebu and the
whole of Bohol (Region VII), northwestern a) Statistical population — the entire set of
coasts of Region X, Cotabato, eastern Davao data about which we wish to draw
del Sur (Region XI), Pagadian, the southern conclusions. (For example, a population
islands of Region IX and the coastal portions of of Gracilaria).
Region XII belong to the Fourth Climatic Type. b) Statistical sample — a portion of the
These areas are characterized by rainfall that statistical population.
is more or less evenly distributed throughout
the year. c) Parameter — in statistics, it is a measure
that describes or characterizes an
Hence, in terms of climatic types, entire population of data. (For example,
factor-monitoring could also be location- density or frequency of Caulerpa).
specific. So long as the major seasons of a
d) Statistics — descriptive measures
climatic zone, and the period (month) when
derived from sample data taken from the
they occur are known, management is well
population. (For example, mean and
advised to monitor during months
median).
representing these seasons. Two but intensive
samplings would be minimum for Pangil (Ilocos 7.1 Descriptive statistics
Norte), Bolinao (Pangasinan), Batangas, Although we cannot directly measure a
western part of Mindoro, the entire western parameter of a population, we can describe,
Panay and Negros, and the entire stretch of for example, the density of a seaweed
northeastern, northern, western and population by using the:
southwestern Palawan. One sampling would
be representative of the dry season (from a) Mean — this is a measure of the central
November to April) and another, representative tendency of a population and is computed as:
of the wet season (May to October). Field = ΣX/n
monitoring in the other parts of the country
should be spread evenly throughout the year. where: X= sample mean;
Contingency alternative monitoring periods are ΣX = sum of all values of X in the
required in the more northern parts of the samples;
country where the frequency of tropical
n = number of data in the sample
cyclones is highest.
The sample mean is a reasonable estimate of where: α = significance level;
the population mean only when the former is
obtained at random from the entire population. X = sample mean;
b) Median — this is the middle measurement
in a ranked data. If there are an even number of SE = standard error
data, the median is the mean of the two middle
measurements. The value of t is obtained from a statistical
c) Range — a measure of how variable the distribution known as "Students' t", a portion
gathered data are, the range is simply the of which is given below:
difference between the largest and the
smallest measurement. The big disadvantage in DF α = 0.10 α = 0.05 α = 0.02 α = 0.01
using the range to describe dispersion of sample 1 6.31 12.71 31.82 63.66
data is that it tends to underestimate the 2 2.92 4.31 6.96 9.92
population range. 3 2.35 3.18 4.54 5.84
d) Standard deviation (s) — this is a measure 4 2.13 2.78 3.75 4.60
of how the data are dispersed relative to the 5 2.01 2.57 3.36 4.03
mean. For this reason, it becomes very useful in 6 1.94 2.45 3.14 3.71
statistics: 7 1.89 2.36 3.00 3.50
8 1.86 2.31 2.90 3.36
9 1.83 2.26 2.82 3.25
etc. etc. etc. etc. etc.
where: s = sample standard deviation; s2 =
sample variance 7.2 Selecting statistical sample size
e) Variance — this variance is: In general, the greater the value of n =
(number of data ion the sample), the smaller
s2 = SS/DF the amount of error and the more precise the
estimate of the population mean. This is
where: SS ("sum of squares") =∑(X — X)2; DF evident from the formula for SE above. From
this relationship, we can determine the
("degrees of freedom") = n — 1 f)
number of data (n) required to estimate the
Standard error — we often ask population mean with a specified precision.
thequestion: How precise is our 7.3 Comparing statistical populations
estimated mean? If we have replicates of, Phycologists may often ask the
for example,the cover of Caulerpa taken question: Are the mean seaweed biomass of,
for example, two apparently similar portions
from a population, each sample will have a
of the shore, the same? Are they the same in
different mean and how the sample means two different seasons? The community
vary from each other can be measured by coefficients (CCJ and CCS) discussed above
give only the relative degree of similarity
the standard deviation of the mean or between the communities. They do not tell us
standard error (SE). whether that difference is a result of habitat
— specific conditions or of other factors.
The more common tests to compare
where: s = standard deviation; statistical populations are: two sample (or t-)
testing, multisample testing (analysis of
n = number of data in the sample variance, ANOVA) and non-parametric
g) Confidence interval — with a known testing.
standard error, we can set a range, with a stated The first two are applicable only in
level of confidence, within which the population instances where the populations being
mean lies: compared have equal variances and each
(1 — α)confidence interval for population population is composed of data which
mean, μ = X + SE conform to the "normal distribution". For
example, lengths, weights, heights and rates can • total for both communities
be compared using t-testing and ANOVA. But • wet wt.: dry wt. ratios — for each
percentages or proportions, densities, pH and species
other data measured on a non-linear scale
should not be subjected to the above tests. e) species diversity
Instead, they are analyzed using non-parametric
or distribution-free methods. f) community similarity

7.4 Qualitative description of study site 7.5.2 Physico-chemical parameters


This aspect of the study should be a) mean temperature (°C) per station,
considered in terms of: surface and bottom; overall mean for site
7.4.1. Location — specific municipality (surface and bottom)
where it is located; describe in relation to major • min-max thermometer reading
bay(s) in the vicinity; use bathymetric or • temperature profile
topographic maps, with compass bearings;
7.4.2. General physiographic setting — b) mean salinity (°/oo) per station; overall
reckon in terms of: • salinity profile

a) type of shoreline; general features of the c) mean dissolved oxygen (mg/l) per
reef station; overall

b) dominant substrate • DO profile


d) mean light intensity ( μE mol-1 sec-1) per
c) in relation to major natural or artificial
station; overall
structures
• light intensity profile
d) dominant associated flora and fauna
e) major curent patterns; wave exposure e) bottom type and contour per station;
f) dominant associated activities of local overall
inhabitants
g) specific disturbances of the habitat 7.6 Objective assessment of differences
and relationships of the sets of data
7.5 Quantitative description and This aspect of the study would primarily
summarization of data deal with:
This portion of the study is to be done at both a) correlation and regression
the station- (i.e., specific transect) and site- (i.e., b) statistical tests
considering all transects) levels. c) graphical presentations (i.e., histogram,
curves, 3-dimensional structures, pie-
7.5.1. Biological parameters
diagrams, matrices, etc.).
a) species composition
7.7 Drawing conclusion from the data
b) mean species relative frequency (RF%) for
This aspect of the study is almost
both seaweeds and seagrasses
solely dependent on the experience and
knowledge-ability of the worker. Relevant
• specific or in relation to its information available from the literature and
community data obtained from measurements of
• general or in relation to both communities environmental variables are very useful at
c) mean species relative cover (RC%) for this point. But they are so only to the extent of
seaweeds and seagrasses supporting and/or supplementing the primary
findings just obtained from the study. So long
• specific as the interpretation of results and the
• general conclusions drawn from the data have
d) mean species biomass (dry wt.: wet wt. conformed to the steps outlined above, in a
difference, gm/m2) for both seaweeds and form that is easily comprehensible, and they
seagrasses answer the basic questions posed before the
• total per community
survey was conducted, it is fairly reasonable to REFERENCES
assume that a "good job" is almost done. Doty, M.S. Critical tide factors that are cor-
The important questions to answer at this 1946 related with the vertical distribution
point include: of marine algae and other organisms
7.7.1. Basic considerations along the Pacific coast. Ecology.
27:315-328.
a) Which species or species group was
Fortes, M.D. Community structure and pro-
dominant? Least dominant? 1981 ductivity of microphytic algae from
b) What do the trends in the parameters Philippine reefs. Proc. 4th Int. Coral
suggest? Reef Symp. Manila. 2: 393-398.
c) Which physico-chemical factors had Kinne, O. (ed.) Marine ecology: A compre-
apparent control over the observed 1970 hensive integrated treatise on life in
trends? oceans and coastal waters. Vol.
1.Environmental factors.
d) Were there indications of species/ Odoum, E.P. Fundamentals of ecology.
community interactions (positive or 1971 3rd ed. W.B. Saunders Company, Pa.
negative)? 574 pp.
7.7.2. Management considerations Saito, Y. and S. Atobe. Phytosociological
a) Which species or species group had the 1970 study of intertidal marine algae. I
best potential for culture or intensive Usujiri Benten-Jima, Hokkaido,
Bull.Fac. Fish. Hokkaido Univ. 21(2):
study?
37-69.
b) If the study were carried monthly through
a year's duration.
c) What could be the most important issues
in the conservation and optimum
utilization of the seaweed resources at the
site?
d) What are the major problems and
limitations?
CONCLUSIONS
To monitor a parameter that controls the
development of seaweeds, whether it be in the
field or in the laboratory is to regularly gather,
determine and record changes in that parameter
through time and space. The process becomes
impractical and untenable when too many
factors are considered. Hence, only the
operationally significant factors should be
included in the monitoring process. Factor-
monitoring could be species and/or site-specific.
A serious consideration of technical,
logistical and administrative support should be
made before any attempt to monitoring is
undertaken. The failure of many research
projects lies in their being poorly conceived,
often the monitoring component is so defective,
or management is not outwardly supportive of
the project objectives. The lack of government
emphasis on seaweed research evidenced by
the lack of equipment, library facilities and
personnel incentives, remains as a primary
obstacle to the development of the seaweed
industry in the Asia-Pacific.
Lecture 7
THE TAXONOMY OF COMMERCIALLY IMPORTANT
SEAWEEDS IN THE PHILIPPINES AND TROPICAL
ASIAN-PACIFIC REGION

by
Gavino C. Trono, Jr.1

I. INTRODUCTION
progress of seaweed aquaculture and
The utilization of seaweeds as items of marine natural products chemistry in the
food and as raw materials for industries Pacific. Taxonomy is the hidden, natural
highlights the economic importance and products chemistry in the Pacific. Taxonomy is
potentials of these fishery resources. The the hidden, but important foundation of the
increasing contributions of the seaweed superstructure of aquaculture and mari-culture,
industry to the foreign trade as well as the whether of mollusks, crustaceans, fish or
utilization of a number of species as food in seaweeds..." (Sullivan, 1985).
some Asian countries have emphasized the
The taxonomy of seaweeds of
need to develop the large but untapped
commercial value is in many cases not known.
potentials of these resources in the region.
The correct scientific names attached to
In the Philippines, seaweed and commercial species are tremendously
seaweed products have gained prominence as important because the quality of the
the number three fishery export behind shrimps phycocolloids derived from them are so
and tuna during the last five years. Moreover, divergent, i.e., the gel properties are very
seaweed farming and/or gathering of natural different depending on the species. The prices,
stocks have become a productive alternative or for instance, of local species of agarophytes
additional source of livelihood among the differ significantly because of the differences in
coastal populations who are not at all benefited the agar quality they contain.
by industrial developments. The relevance of Buyers/processors need to know the kind and
the seaweed resources to the economic quality of the product they are buying, e.g.,
welfare of the artisanal fishermen and their Gelidiella acerosa commands a price many
families has been emphasized recently times higher than Gracilaria "verrucosa"
because of the degraded conditions of many of because of the better gel it contains. The
the shallow coastal fishing areas in the country. correct name attached to a seaweed is thus,
At present, thousands of fishermen and their very important because it provides the clue to
families in Tawi-tawi, Sulu and Central Visayas the identity of the species which is used as
are gainfully engaged in the farming of basis for determining the value of the product.
seaweeds. Seaweed farming has become a
major industry in these places.
2. THE TAXONOMY OF THE
One of the basic problems which COMMERCIALLY IMPORTANT
prevents the rapid development of the SEAWEEDS IN THE PHILIPPINES
seaweed resources in the Philippines and in
2.1 The Philippine agarophytes
the other developing countries in the tropics is
the lack of information on the identities of The agarophytes are agar-producing
economically important species of seaweeds. seaweeds which belong mainly to several
The taxonomy of seaweed species has been genera in the Rhodophyta. Included in this
identified as "the greatest single obstacle in the group are the genera- Gracilaria, Gelidiella,
Beckerella,

1
Professor, Marine Science Institute, College of Science, University of the Philippines, Diliman Quezon City, Philippines and
Training Director, Seaweed Farming Training Course, 2-21 May 1988.
Laurencia, Gelidium and Pterocladia. Of these conceptacle while in the last type, the con-
genera Gracilaria and Gelidiella are ceptacle is shallow. Although the male plants
commercially utilized. The other genera are are not commonly collected, the type of
not economically utilized for various reasons, conceptacle it possesses is diagnostic of the
e.g., Beckerella although has great potential species and so these are very important.
because of its large size is not a common The key and descriptions of the eight
species; Laurencia is common and appear to species of Gracilaria are contained in the
have large naturally produced biomass but paper by Trono, Azanza-Corrales and Manuel
except probably for one species, the quality of (1983), a copy of which is appended. Reports
the agars of the several large species are not of other species are found in the literature but I
known and thus, have not been commercially feel that these need verification.
utilized; Gelidium and Pterocladia although
well known for their good quality agars, their 2.1.2 The genera Gelidium, Pterocladia,
representative species are too small for Beckerella and Gelidiella
commercial utilization. In addition to these
genera, there are probably other species These are genera under the Order
which are not yet known. Gelidiales. The first three belong to the Family
Gelidiaceae and the last to the Family Geli-
These genera are also found in the tropical diellaceae. These are characterized by
Asia and Western Pacific countries. generally tough and wiry thalli (dried) with a
2.1.1 The genus Gracilaria distinct apical cell at the tip of the branch.
The genus Gracilaria belongs to the Key to General
Family Gracilariaceae, Order Gigartinales. This 1. Presence of rhizines or thick
genus is fairly well known in the Philippines. walled rhizoidal filament in
Abbott (1985) listed some 17 species based on the cortex and/or medulla 2
records available (refer to Annex A). However,
1. Absence of rhizines in cortex
except for seven species namely, G. arcuata,
G. "verrucosa" the identities of the other and/or medulla Gelidiella
species have to be verified. It would appear, 2. Cystocarp unilocular Pterocladi
however, that several of these binomials are a
names which have been misapplied to these 2. Cystocarp bilocular , 3
taxa. 3. Thallus large, branching
The genus Gracilaria is characterized
regularly pinnately branched,
by plants that generally have fleshy and branches with distinct
succulent, and in one species cartilaginous midribs Beckerella
thalli which consist of a holdfast, and 3. Thallus small, branching
cylindrical to compressed or foliose branches. irregular, branches without
The thallus grows by means of a group of midrib Gelidium
apical cells and is multiaxial in construction.
The thallus is basically filamentous but the 2.1.3 The genus Gelidiella
filaments become compacted to form pseudo- The genus Gelidiella is represented by
parenchymatous tissue. The tetrasporangia several species but except for G. acerosa,
are cruciate and occur generally in the cortex these are small and thus, are not utilized in the
of the mature thallus. manufacture of agar. Only G. acerosa is
The gametophytes are dioecious. The presently harvested from natural stocks for
female thallus when reproductive forms a agar processing.
fertile structure called the cystocarp. The fertile The thallus of G. acerosa consists of
male thallus produces the sperma-tangia in cylindrical stolon from which erect and
cavities called the conceptacles. The decumbent branches arise. The branches are
conceptacles are mainly limited to the outer cylindrical and bear pinnately arranged
cortex and may be one of general forms, determinate branchlets. In fertile materials,
namely, pot-shaped, cup-shaped and saucer- tetra-sporangial stichidia are borne near the tips
shaped. In first type the cavity is deep with a of the determinate laterals. No gametophytes
narrow opening; in the second the opening has
the same diameter as the diameter of the
are known. This species is pantropic and 2.1.6 The genus Beckerella
therefore found in most tropical countries. Only one species of Beckerella, B.
Other species of Gelidiella which have been scalaramosa has been reported in the
reported in the Philippines are: Philippines. The thallus consists of
1. G. myriocladia — Tuft forming habit, stoloniferous axis from which erect branches
erect branched well-branched; very small — arise. The main branches are
1-1/2 cm tall. flattened/compressed and percurrent.
Branching is pinnate. This species has only
2. G. tenuissima — With creeping stolon been reported from Bulusan, Sorsogon,
attached by small hapters at regular intervals. Southern Luzon growing on the coralline wall of
3. G. adnata — With creeping stolon deep tide pools.
attached by rhizoids along the entire ventral
side of the stolon. Erect branches simple. 2.1.7 The genus Laurencia
Tetrasporangial stichidia stalked from the
stolon. The genus Laurencia is one of the more
common components of seaweed communities
2.1.4 The genus Gelidium
on reefs in tropical areas. The genus is easily
The Philippine Gelidiums are not well known recognized by the form of its determinate
taxonomically. There are, however, reports of branchlets which are generally clavate in shape
four common species in the Western Pacific with a single pit at the tip from where tufts of
area and the South China Sea region. But uniseriate hairs called Arichoblasts arise.
undoubtedly these species are also present in
Although the genus is taxonomically
the Philippines and other countries in tropical
relatively well known in the Philippines, this is
Asia and Western Pacific Region.
not at present being utilized as raw materials for
1. G. crinale — Small species like the other the manufacture of agar because the quality of
three below but is quite distinctive from them the colloids is not known. Among the many
that the branches are mainly cylindrical to species, only L flexilis has been reported as
subcylindrical in contrast to other which have possessing good quality agar.
compressed to flattened branches.
The paper of Saito (1969) is a major
2. G. pussilum — Branches compressed to paper which covers the taxonomy of the genus
flat; turf forming. in the Philippines, a copy of which is appended.
3. G. divaricatum — Branches compressed Among the species which have been reported
to flat; not forming turf, the main branches here are L cartilaginea, L flexilis, L japonica, L
broader than the laterals. majuscula, L marianensis, L obtusa, L.
papillosa, L paroipapillata, L subsimplex and L.
4. G. puchellum — Branches compressed
tronoi.
to flat, not forming tuft, main branches and
laterals same in width. 2.2 The carrageenophytes
2.1.5 The genus Pterocladia The carrageenophytes are carrageenan-
Like Gelidium this genus is not well known producing seaweeds. The genera Eucheuma
taxonomically in the Philippines. So far very and Hypnea are two important genera of
few unreliable reports are available in the carrageenophytes which are abundant in the
literature. The reports are based mainly on the Philippines and in the tropical Asia and Western
morphology of the materials. The similarity Pacific, More recently Acanthophora spicifera
between this genus and Gelidium has been has been reported to contain lamba carrageenin
emphasized, i.e., these two are which is not produced by either Eucheuma or
morphologically very similar. The distinction Hypnea. At present, the most important of the
lies mainly on the structure of the cystocarp, many genera of carrageeno-phyte is Eucheuma
e.g., Pterocladia has a unilocular cystocarp which is at present the main base of the
while in Gelidium it is bilocular. Thus, reports seaweed industry in the Philippines and
on the species of Pterocladia which do not Indonesia, although the latter is producing only
include the information on the type of a few thousand tons of this seaweed recently.
cystocarp are always doubtful. The development of the culture technology for
this genus has boosted tremendously
production in the Philippines to an estimated blades . E.
60 000 MT in 1987. procrusteanum
2.2.1 The genus Eucheuma 3. Thalli consisting of
generally cylindrical
The genus Eucheuma belongs to the branches 4
Family Solieriaceae of the Order Gigartinales. 4. Determinate
Of the more than two dozen species known in
branch-
the world, seven species of Eucheuma are
present in the Philippines. These are E. lets in form of
denticulatum (£. spinosum), E. procrusteanum, whorled simple or
E. cottonii, E. strialum, E. arnoldii, E. gelatinae branches spines 5
and E. alvarezii. Eucheuma alvarezii and E. 4. Determinate
denticulatum are the species presently branch-
produced through mari-culture in the lets coarse, irregu-
Philippines and Indonesia. E. alvarezii and E. larly arranged 6
gelatinae are also cultured in Haman Island in spines
China. 5. Determinate
The thalli of Eucheuma are very branchlets
cartilaginous, may be prostrate or erect in habit distinctly arranged
and consist of cylindrical to compressed as
branches except in one species whose thallus simple whorls of
is a thick and flattened blade (£. spines,
procrusteanum). Gamophytic and sporophytic at the distal portions
thalli have been reported for many species.
of the branches
Fertile female thalli develop distinct cystocarps
which appear as mammillate structures. The E. denticulatum
male thalli, however, appear to be uncommon. = (E. spinosum)
5. Determinate
Key to Philippine species of Eucheuma branchlets
1. Thalli prostrate 2 arranged as
1. Thalli erect 3 compound
2. Thalli segmented, discrete whorls of
branches branched spines or
compressed covering the entire
with marginal and branch completely:
ventral spines; anaxiferous E. arnoldii
axiferous E. gelatinae 6. Main axes not per-
2. Thalli not current, roughened
segmented; by presence of
branches, second-
cylindrical, ary coarse deter-
mottled, fused minate spinose
with branch-
each other at lets; branching close
certain with angular axils:
portions to form branches uniform
crust (erect, in diameter but
branches abruptly tapered to
may be present); the tip; axiferous,
anaxiferous E. cottonii medullary core of
3. Thalli may or may axial
not hyphae absent in
be segmented; seg- branches less than
ment(s) of flattened
5 mm in diameter E. striatum growing in habitats less exposed to strong wave
6. Main axis percur- action; dorsal portions of the branches generally
rent generally (or "mottled" in appearance; anaxi ferous, kappa-
may carrageenin producing species.
be obscured) 4. E. denticulatum — Thallus erect, branch
smooth ing from the main axes irregular; branches
and cylindrical with cylindrical characterized by the presence of
only indeterminate regularly whorled determinate branchlets
branches (spines); whorled arrangements of spines in
the older portions of branches is obscured by
interrupting;
the development of adventitious spines;
branching open with axiferous, the core of axial hyphae persistent
generally round throughout the branches; iota-carrageenin
axils; producing species.
branches larger at
5. E. gelatinae — Thallus prostrate, attached
their to substrate by hapters from the ventral side of
bases (inflated) and the thallus; branches segmented, flattened; with
tapering towards spines at the margins and the ventral surface
their of the branches; axiferous, with many
apices; axiferous, flexuous medullary filaments extending
medullary core of throughout the segment; kappa carrageenin
axial producing species.
hyphae persistent at 6. E. procrusteanum — Thallus erect, of a
least 10 cm below single flattened blade or may be segmented
the consisting of several flattened blades;
tip of any indeter- anaxiferous.
minate branch less 7. E. striatum — Thallus erect, axes not
than percurrent roughened by presence of spinose
5 mm in diameter E. alvarezii determinate branchlets; branching close,
Brief descriptions of the species branch axils angular; branches generally
uniform in diameter and abruptly tapered to the
1. E. alvarezii — Thallus erect, large; main apices; branches partly axiferous,medullary
axes percurrent or may be obscured by core of axial hyphae present in
secondary axes; axes and branches cylin main branches not less than 5 mm in dia meter.
drical; branching open with rounded axils;
diameter of branches larger at base and 2.2.2 The genus Hypnea
tapering towards the tip: axiferous, the
medullary core of axial hyphae persistent to at The genus Hypnea belongs to the Family
least 10 cm below the tip of any indeterminate Hypneacea, Order Gigartinales. Although
branch less than 5 mm in diameter;kappa- many species are listed in Philippine literature,
carrageenin producing species. it is not generally well known. No monographic
studies on the genus has been done for the
2. E. arnoldii — Thallus erect; "coral-like" in Philippines and other tropical Asian countries.
appearance, branching irregular; branches Many of the binomials cited in the literature for
anaxiferous with compound whorls of simple the Philippines appear to have been
and/or branched spines, or these may cover misapplied.
the entire distal portion of the branches to
obscure the whorled arrangement of the The thallus is generally fleshy and crispy.
determinate branchlets; kappa-carrageenin Like most species of Gracilaria the branches
producing species. collapse when pressed between fingers.
Branching is irregular, the branches are
3. E. cottonii — Thallus prostrate, attached generally cylindrical or slightly compressed at
by hapters at ventral part of branches; certain portions; monoxial with apical cell very
branches become fused with each other at prominent at the tips of the branches/
certain portions to form crust-like mass; branchlets. Determinate branchlets spinose.
semi-erect branches may be formed in plants Both the gametophyte and sporophytic
generations are large and of the same form (spines). The presence of "cervicorn
(isomorphic). Fertile female plants produce branches/branchlets is a distinct feature
prominent cystocarps while the tetrasporo- stichidia pedicillate, swollen and borne
phytes produce tetrasporangia in swollen mostly at the middle portions of the spinose
stichidia on the determinate branchlets branchlets.
(spines); tetrasporangia are zonate. 2. H. cornuta — Plants forms loose clump;
Many species have been cited in the branching irregularly alternate; branches
literature but the following are easily slightly compressed, determinate branchlets
recognized: H. ceroicornis, H. cornuta, H. mainly simple sharp spines; the presence of
esperi, H. pannosa and H. valentine. stellate branchlets in addition to the simple
forms is a distinct character of the species.
Key to species: 3. H. esperi — Plants small, forms loose
1. Plants forming thick clump; branching irregularly alternate;
dense clumps/mats H. pannosa branches fine less than 0.5 mm in diameter;
1. Plants erect, free or determinate branchlets gradually tapering to a
forming loose clumps 2 sharp point. Tetrasporic stichidia are found at
2. Main axes percurrent the tip or just below the tip of the branchlets
(spines).
cylindrical clothed
with long, simple or 4. H. pannosa — Plants form dense thick
sometimes branched mats; branching irregularly alternate to
cylindrical determi- somewhat pinnate to irregularly divaricate;
nate branchlets H. valentine branches fused with each other at some parts,
2. Main axes not per- slightly compressed or subterate with many
current, determinate short, stout spinose ultimate branchlets;
branchlets fine to tetrasporangial stichidia saddle-shaped, formed
coarsely spinose 3 on one side of the spinose branchlet.
3. Main branches fine less 5. H. valentiae — Plants erect, forming
than 0.5 mm in diameter, loose tuft; branching lax, irregularly alternate
determinate branchlets the percurrent main axis and cylindrical
(spines) gradually taper- branches covered with relatively dense, long,
ing to a sharp tip H. esperi slender, cylindrical determinate branchlets
3. Main branches which are simple of branched. The tetrasporic
or slightly compressed stichidia form swollen bands around the
determinate branchlets a short distance from or
at certain portions;
than 0.5 mm in often very near the base, or occasionally
determinate branchlets forming swollen cap at the tip of very short
mainly simple and branchlets.
abruptly pointed 4 2.2.3 The genus Acanthophora
4. Branches slightly This genus belongs to the Family
compressed, with Rhodo-melaceae of the Order Ceramiales. Two
stellate (star-shaped) species are known in the Philippines. A. spici-
branchlets in addition fera and A. muscoides. Recent study showed
to simple spines H. cornuta that A. spicifera contains iota-carrageenin.
4. Branches cylindrical The thallus of A. spicifera is fleshy and
with "cervicorn"
like Hypnea the branches collapse when
(anthler-type)
pressed between fingers. The thallus is erect
branchlets in addition and the main axis is percurrent. Determinate
to simple spines H.
branches are spirally arranged/attached along
Brief descriptions of the species the main axis at regular intervals The
1. H. cervicornis — Plants forms loose determinate laterals bear spirally arranged
clump; branching irregularly alternate; spines.
branches cylindrical; determinate branch- Both gametophyte and tetrasporic thalli
lets mainly simple abruptly pointed at the tip are commonly collected. The female thallus
bears distinct urn-shaped cystocarps while the Sargassums in Calatagan, Batangas and
male thallus on the other hand forms includes seven species.
tetrahedral sporangia at the swollen tips of the
spines.
Key to the species reported from Balibago,
2.3 The Philippine alginophytes Calatagan, Batangas:
The alginophytes are alginate-bearing 1. Axis of erect branches
seaweeds. The known alginophytes belong terete or slightly
mainly to the genera Sargassum, Turbinaria,
compressed leaves
Hormophysa, Cystoseira and Hydroclathratus.
arise
The genera Sargassum and Turbinaria are
proven raw materials for the manufacture of in all directions 2
alginates in some Asian countries. The last 1. Axis of erect branches
three genera and several others have been strongly compressed;
shown to contain alginates but the potentials of leaves distichous,
Hydroclathrus, Cystoseira and Hormophysa alternative S. binderi
over the others are higher because of these 2. Leaves generally not
are available in large quantities from natural undulate, or undulate
stocks. These genera are also common only in those of the
components of seaweed communities in Asian lower order of
countries and Western Pacific.
branches;
The genera Sargassum and Turbinaria vesicles numerous,
belong to the Family Sargassaceae and those associated with
Hormophysa to the Family Cystoseiraceae of higher branches very
the Order Fucales: Hydroclathrus on the small, up to 4 mm in
other hand belongs to the Family diameter 3
Scytosiphonaceae of the Order
2. Leaves thick,
Dictyosiphonales.
strongly
undulate; vesicles
2.3.1 The genus Sargassum few, large, up to 10 mm
in diameter 7
The taxonomy of this genus is very
difficult and may be considered a nightmare
3. Vesicles, generally
among the taxonomists. Very little is known sphe-
about this large genus in the Philippines. It is, rical, or slightly com-
however, a very common component of pressed, muticous,
seaweed communities and is distributed widely apicu-
in the country. More than 30 binomials late or sometimes
(names) for Sargassum have been listed in the winged,
literature (Velasquez, Trono and Doty, 1975) receptacles subcymose
but the correctness of more than 80 percent of to racemose, 4
these names are suspect. 3. Vesicles, consistently
The difficulties in the taxonomy of this ovate to oblong,
genus stem mainly from the fact that this is a muticous
very polymorphic genus. Sargassum is or sometimes apiculate;
perennial and the primary growth and the receptacles cymose S. cinctum
succeeding growth (2nd year) phases are 4. Female receptacles
entirely different. In addition, the old binomials mainly trigonous to
which have been applied to the different taxa
triquetrous, slightly
were based only on portions of a thallus or of a
growth stage of thallis of a taxon. As far as I to strongly twisted 5
am aware, the only authoritative work on 4. Female receptacles
Philippine Sargassum is that of Ang (1987) mainly flat or com-
although the work was limited only to the pressed at base
becoming triquetous
towards tip, no appearance to that of S. crassifolium based on
twisting 6 their morphology. The two species differs on the
5. Female receptacles nature of the "duplicate leaves". In S.
irregu- cristaefolium, the large relatively thicker leaves
are duplicated at their tip portions, i.e., the
larly serrate or dentate,
"double" apical portions involves the distal
triquetrous and strongly portion of the blade in contrast to 5. crassifolium
twisted; leaves clavate, where the "double" apical portions of the leaves
obovate to oblong, with only involves the edges of the apical margin of
average length/width the leaves as indicated by the double rows of
ratio between 5 to 10 S. siliquosum teeth.
5. Female receptacles Detailed descriptions of the different species
smooth are found in the paper of Ang and Trono
or slightly dentate, trigo- (1987).
nous and occasionally
twisted, leaves ovate, 2.3.2 The genus Turbinaria
obovate to elliptical,
with average length/ The genus Turbinaria (Family
with ratio between Sargassaceae, Order Fucales) is one of the
brown seaweeds which is as common as the
5 to 10 S.
genus Sargassum. It is also one of the major
paniculatum components of seaweed communities although
6. Terminal branchlets it is not as abundant (biomass) as the latter.
smooth; receptacles
This genus is quite well known in the
with subtending Philippines. It is represented by the following
bracteal leaf S. ilicifolium species: T. ornata; T. decurrens; T. conoide and
6. Terminal branchlets T. luzonensis. The first three species are well
muricatous; upper half known and widely distributed in tropical Asia
of female receptacles and Western Pacific Region.
dentate S. baccularia
The thallus of Turbinaria is fleshy and
7 Leaves with thickened
consists of rhizomatous or hapteroid holdfasts
edges, terminal or apical from which a simple or branched erect axis
ones with edges double S. arise. The leaves are of different forms
7 Leaves with edges not depending on the species, i.e., may be
thickened Sargassum triangularly obpyramidal, turbinate or peltrate in
The binomials included in the above shape. The truncate top of the leaves is in most
key are considered as correctly applied species, with thin expanded blade-like margin.
binomials to the Sargassum species. In In one species, T. luzonensis, the expanded
addition, the following are also considered as margin is very much reduced or lacking. Except
good species: S. polycystum, S. cristaefolium, for few varieties, the leaves of Turbinaria
S. polycystum differs from S. siliquosum by its possess air bladder or vesicle immersed in the
ramifying (branching) holdfast in contrast to the swollen distal portion of the leaves.
non-branching holdfast of the latter, other Like in Sargassum the gametangia are
morphological characteristics as the size and produced in conceptacles embedded in the
shape of the leaves, the presence of receptacle.
numerous, small floats in mature plants and
Brief description of the species:
the rough or muricate nature of the primary
branches are quite identical. They also differ in 1. T. ornata — Thallus coarse, dense and
the type of habitat, i.e., S. polycystum grows in fleshy. Leaves large distinctly turbinate with
the inner protected portions of the reef where terete stalk. Distal marginal blade moderately
water movement is minimal while 5. siliquosum expanded and often reduced in one side; thick,
inhabits rocky habitats exposed to relatively rounded to triangular from top view; margin of
strong waves/currents. the blade with coarse teeth; in the center of the
blade is the vesicle, on top and around it is a
Sargassum cristaefolium ( = S. crown of teeth. The teeth are absent in some
duplication) appears to be similar in
varieties. Recep tacles is branched, portions of the fertile thallus are triangular in
racemose and attached on the stalk of the cross-section with the ridges extended into thin
leaves. narrow blades. In sterile materials, segments
especially at the basal portion, have broadened,
2. T. conoides — Thallus lax, to more than
well-developed blade. The margin is serrate to
one meter long; stipe or axis branching;
dentate.
leaves numerous, stalked, the distal marginal
blade thin and well-developed, generally 2.4 Seaweeds utilized as food
triangular in top view, the margin sharply Seaweeds have long been utilized as food by
dentate; the body of the leaves abruptly people living along the coastal areas in the
inflated due to the presence of a prominent country. These are prepared as fresh salad
vesicle. vegetable or blanched in boiling water and
In most materials, the leaves are compa- prepared into salad. Others are used as
nulate in form with well-developed vesicles. vegetables mixed with fish or meat. Some are
also prepared into dessert gels.
Receptacles : are attached near the base of
the stalk of the leaves. A large number has been listed as food but
the following species are commonly utilized:
3. T. decurrens — Thalli mainly short;
compact; erect stipe unbranched. Leaves Chlorophyta (greens)
distinctly triangular from the top view, the distal Caulerpa lentillifera
end abruptly cut, the distal blade very much C. peltata C.
reduced to a sharp, thick minutely dentate racemosa Codium
margin. The lateral faces of the leaves are edule C. intricatum
separated by sharp dentate ridges extend to Enteromorpha
the distal end of the leaves. Vesicle small, clathrata E. flexuosa
deeply embedded in the leaf. E. intestinales
Receptacle racemose, dense and attached Monostroma nilidum
to the base of the leaves. Ulva lactuca
4. T. luzonensis — Thallus small to 10 cm Phaeophyta (browns)
tall. Erect axis simple or with few laterals. Colpomenia sinuosa
Leaves small, sharply inflated towards the Hydroclathrus clathratus
distal end with well-developed vesicle. Distal H. tenuis
marginal blades absent or very much reduced Sargassum spp. (young shoots)
to a narrow ridge which may be sparingly Spathoglossum sp.
toothed. Top view of vesicle is rounded to
slightly triangular. Receptacle racemose and Rhodophyta (reds)
attached at the base of the stalk of the leaves. Acanthophora spicifera
Asparagopsis taxifolia
2.3.3 The genus Hormophysa Catenella impudica
This genus Hormophysa (Family Eucheuma spp.
Cystosei-raceae. Order Fucales) is also a Gelidiella acerosa
common component of seaweed communities Gracilaria spp.
usually mixed with Sargassum and Turbinaria. Gratiloupea filicina
It is represented by only one species, H. Halymenia duroilleai
triquetra. H. dilitata
Hypnea spp.
The thallus is large, bushy and fleshy Laurencia spp.
and grows up to 40 cm tall. It is attached to the Porphyra crispata
substrate by a discoid holdfast from which Scinaia hormoides
erect axes arise. The branches are foliaceous
and segmented, the segment commonly with
REFERENCES
centrally disposed oblong vesicle embedded
inside. The segments are more distinct in Abbott, LA. Gracilaria from the Philippines.
fertile materials and the narrow or reduced 1985 List and distribution of the species In.
blade make the segments distinctly tri-ridged. LA. Abbot and J.N. Norris" (eds.),
The segments especially towards the distal
Taxonomy of Economic
Seaweeds,pp. 89-90.
Ang, P.O.. Jr. and G.C. Trono, Jr. The genus
1986 Sargassum (Phaeophyta,
Sargassaceae) from Balibago,
Calatagan, Philippines.Botanica
Marina 30: 387-397.
Doty, M.S. and J.N. Norris. Eucheuma species
1985 (Solieriaceae, Rhodophyta) that are
major source of carrageenan. In.I.A.
Abbott and J.N. Norris
(eds.),Taxonomy of Economic
Seaweeds,pp. 47-62.
Saito Y. The algal genus Laurencia from the
1969 Hawaiian Islands, the Philippine
Islands and adjacent areas. Pac. Sci.
23(2): 148-160.
Sullivan, J.J. Preface. In. I.A. Abbott and J.N.
1985 Norris (eds.), Taxonomy and econo-mic
seaweeds with reference to some
Pacific and Carribean species. Report
No. T-CSGCP-011: vii-viii Calif. Sea
Grant Publication.
Trono, G.C, Jr. Eucheuma-farming in the
1974 Philippines. U.P. Natural Sciences
Research Center Publication. Dili-man,
Quezon City. 13 pp.
Trono, G.C. Jr., R. Azanza-Corrales and
1983 D. Manuel. The genus Gracilaria
(Gigartinales, Rhodophyta) in the
Philippines. Kalikasan, Philipp. J. Biol.
12 (1-2): 15-41
Velasquez, G.T., G.C. Trono, Jr. and M.S.
1975 Doty. Algal species reported from the
Philippines. Phil. J. Sci. 101 (3-4):
115-169.
Annex A
LIST OF COMMERCIALLY IMPORTANT SEAWEED SPECIES

Species Uses
1.
Chlorophyta (greens)
Caulerpa lentillifera human food
C. peltata human food
C. racemosa human food
Codium edule human food
C. geppii human food
C. intricatum human food
Enteromorpha clathrata human food
E. flexuosa human food
E. intestinales human food
Monostroma nitidum human food
Ulva lactuta human food
U. reticulata human food
2. Phaeophyta (browns)
Colpomenia sinuosa human food; source of alginate
Hydroclathrus clathratus human food; source of alginate
H. tenuis human food; source of alginate
Hormophysa triquetra source of alginate; human food; animal feeds
Sargassum baccularia source of alginate; human food; animal feeds
S. binderi source of alginate; human food; animal feeds
S. cinctum source of alginate; human food; animal feeds
5. crassifolium source of alginate; human food; animal feeds
S. cristaefolium source of alginate; human food; animal feeds
S. illicifolium source of alginate; human food; animal feeds.
S. paniculatum source of alginate; human food; animal feeds
S. polycystum source of alginate; human food; animal feeds
S. siliquosum source of alginate; human food; animal feeds
Spathoglossum sp. human food
3. Rhodophyta (reds)
Acanthophora spicifera human food
A. muscoides
Asparagopsis taxiformis
Beckerella scalaramosa source of agar
Catenella impudica human food
Eucheuma alvarezii source of carrageenan; human food
E. arnoldii source of carrageenan; human food
E. cottonii source of carrageenan; human food
E. denticulatum ' source of carrageenan; human food
E. gelatinae source of carrageenan; human food
E. proscrusteanum source of carrageenan; human food
E. striatum source of carrageenan; human food
Gelidium crinale source of agar
G. divaricatum source of agar
G. puchellum source of agar
G. pusillum source of agar
Species Uses
Gelidiella acerosa source of agar; human food
G. adnata source of agar
G. myriocladia source of agar
G. tenuissima source of agar
Gracilaria arcuata source of agar
G. coronopifolia. source of agar; human food
G. eucheumoides source of agar; human food
G. gigas source of agar
G. salicornia source of agar
G. verrucosa source of agar; human food
Grateloupea filicina source of agar
Halymenia duroilleai human food
H. dilitata human food
Hypnea cervicornis source of carrageenan; human food
H. cornuta source of carrageenan; human food
H. esperi source of carrageenan; human food
H. pannosa source of carrageenan; human food
H. valentiae source of carrageenan; human food
Laurencia cartilaginea source of agar; human food
L flexilis source of agar
L japonica source of agar
L majuscula source of agar
L marianensis source of agar
L obtusa source of agar
L papillosa source of agar
L paroipapillata source of agar
L subsimplex source of agar
L tronoi source of agar
Porphyra crispata human food
Plerocladia spp. source of agar
Scinalia hormoides human food
Lecture 8
PRODUCTION OF ECONOMICALLY IMPORTANT SEAWEEDS
THROUGH CULTURE AND HARVESTING
OF NATURAL STOCKS1

by

Gavino C. Trono, Jr.2

I. PRODUCTION OF SEAWEEDS
Manila and some bigger towns in
THROUGH CULTURE
Central Luzon still comes from Mactan, Cebu.
1.1 Pond culture of Caulerpa Although local consumption statistics are not
Several species and varieties of available, it is probably safe to assume that
Caulerpa are presently utilized as food in the several tons of Caulerpa are transported to
form of fresh vegetables in many areas of the Metro Manila from Mactan, Cebu every month.
Philippines. These are mainly produced This seaweed is always available on the local
through gathering of natural stocks. Only C. markets any day of the week. The statistics of
lentillifera is commercially cultivated in ponds. the Bureau of Fisheries and Aquatic
The culture of this species started in the early Resources showed that in 1982 some 827 tons
1950s on the island of Mactan, province of of Caulerpa was exported to Japan and
Cebu, Central Visayas. The accidental Denmark in fresh, brine-cured or salted form.
introduction of C. lentillifera with some other The present cultivation utilizes the
seaweed species to fishponds as fish food traditional fish and shrimp culture ponds.
initiated its formal cultivation. The high demand However, results of recent studies (Trono,
for this alga on the local markets in 1986, in press) have shown that water
metropolitan Cebu was a major factor management is a primary factor in the
contributing to the success of its commercial productivity of Caulerpa, the culture of which
production. The species is preferred because would require a flow-through system to
of its delicate, light, taste, soft and succulent facilitate water exchange. Thus, some
texture. It is also a fast growing species. modification of the traditional ponds such as
The pond culture of C. lentillifera was the introduction of control gates has to be
started by a fish farmer in 1952 utilizing his made. Unlike pond fish culture where water
fishponds with milkfish and shrimp. At the exchange is relatively infrequent, (e.g. once a
beginning, Caulerpa was a secondary crop to week or a fort-night) pond culture of Caulerpa
fish and shrimp but later, because of the requires more frequent water exchange in
marginal production of fish and shrimp order to maintain the necessary level of
compared to the high production of Caulerpa, nutrients for growth and development. Some of
the farmer shifted to Caulerpa as his major the more progressive farmers in Mactan, had
crop and milkfish and shrimp became through experiences, learned the importance
secondary crops. Interviews made among of proper water management and achieved
farmers revealed that some 80 to 100 hectares higher production through the introduction of
of ponds are presently used for the culture of some form of a flow-through system by
Caulerpa. Although the commercial culture of providing both entry and exit gates for each
Caulerpa in ponds started more than two pond compartment.
decades ago, it has not been successfully The development of a new area into
transferred to other parts of the Philippines as Caulerpa ponds consists of several stages,
yet, with the exception of a small production namely,
pond in Calatagan, Batangas so that the bulk
of the fresh supply of Caulerpa in Metro

1
Reproduced as hand-outs for this training from the paper entitled "Seaweed Culture in the Asia-Pacific Region". RAPA
Publication 1987/8, pp. 15-25 and from Report on the Training Course on Gracilaria Algae, SCS/GEN/81/29, pp. 45-46.
2
Professor, Marine Science Institute, College of Science, University of the Philippines, Diliman Quezon City, Philippines and
Training Director, Seaweed Fanning Training Course, 2-21 May 1988.
site selection, pond construction, planting of circulated during the draining and flooding
the ponds, maintenance of the culture, harvest process. Peripheral or diversion dikes may
and post-harvest activities. Fishponds with also have to be provided to divert runoff water
marginal production are usually preferred from the ponds during rains.
because initial investment for their conversion 1.1.3 Planting of the ponds
to Caulerpa ponds is low and usually the
location of these unproductive fishponds fits The ponds are drained to a depth of
the ecological requirements of Caulerpa 0.3 meters to facilitate planting. During the
culture, that is they are far from sources of early development of the culture broadcasting
freshwater and pollution. was used to seed the ponds with Caulerpa
1.1.1 Site selection cuttings. However, this technique was found to
be inefficient because the "seeds" were not
The following factors have to be considered uniformly distributed on the pond bottom which
when selecting sites for pond culture of resulted in uneven growth of the crop. An
Caulerpa. initial stocking rate of 1 000 kg per hectare
a) The area must be near to the source of under favourable weather conditions can
unpolluted seawater supply. Caulerpa is produce a good crop in about two to three
consumed fresh thus, it must be grown in months.
areas free from both communal and indus trial The farmers have evolved some
pollution. Bacterial contamination of the crop practical ways of seedling the ponds to ensure
should be avoided. Caulerpa may absorb uniform distribution of the "seeds". Planting is
pollutants such as heavy metals and toxic done by burying into the mud one end of a
chemical which it can accumulate with handful of Caulerpa cuttings at about one
deleterious effects to the consumers. meter intervals. Uniform planting is facilitated
b) The site must be far from sources of with the use of guidelines or the planted areas
freshwater such as rivers and streams. are marked by pieces of bamboo. After
Caulerpa is a stenohaline marine alga and will planting, the ponds are flooded to a depth of
die even in slightly brackish seawater when about 0.5 to 0.8 meter. Flooding is done slowly
salinity drops below 30 ppt. to prevent the newly planted cuttings from
c) The elevation of the pond bottom must be being uprooted. The newly planted ponds are
at or just a little above the zero tidal level. This inspected a day or so after planting and the
is necessary in order to enhance proper water barren areas are replanted to ensure uniform
management in the ponds. growth. The pond water is changed only
several days after planting to make sure that
d) The site must be protected from the the cuttings have well rooted and could not be
destructive effects of wind and waves. A carried away by water currents.
buffer zone of mangroves or coral reef is
necessary. 1.1.4 Water management
e) The substrate must be loamy-muddy, Proper water management is a key factor in
however, very deep, soft mud must be the successful pond culture of Caulerpa.
avoided. Ideally, the pond water must be changed in
only every three to four days at the start of the
1.1.2 Pond construction growing period in order to avoid strong water
The maintenance of good water quality in currents which may uproot the seedlings. The
the ponds through proper water management frequency of water exchange is increased to
is dependent on the proper design of the every other day at about the third week after
ponds. The traditional layout of ponds for planting especially when the plants start to
milkfish and shrimp production does not form a thick growth on the pond bottom.
provide the necessary water exchange Frequent water exchanges provide fresh
required in Caulerpa culture. Caulerpa ponds supply of nutrients for the normal growth and
may be divided into compartments of 0.10 to development of Caulerpa thus, it will eliminate
0.25 hectare and should have a flow-through the need for fertilizer application.
design, that is each of the compartments In general, the water in the ponds is
should be provided with individual entrance maintained at a depth where the Caulerpa is
and exit gates positioned in such a way that visible from the surface of the water. Thus, the
the water could easily be changed and
depth would vary depending on the Depending on the growth rate of the
transparency of the pond water to provide plants the crop may be harvested two months
enough light for the plants. However, after the initial planting, when the plants form a
adjustments in water depth should be made to relatively uniform carpet on the pond bottom.
avoid perimeter dikes from collapsing during The plants at this stage are of high market
spring tides when the tidal amplitudes are quality, light grassgreen in color, soft and
extreme. During rainy days, the pond water succulent in texture. Older plants though high
should be maintained at a slightly greater in biomass are of lower quality because they
depth to reduce the possibility of a dilution are tougher in texture and their lower portions
below 30 ppt. Caulerpa will die when the near the bottom are pale or colorless. The
salinity goes below this level thus, the entire paling of the basal portions of the fronds is
crop might be lost. After heavy rains, the pond caused by self-shading when the plants
water should be immediately drained and become older and form a very thick carpet.
replaced by fresh seawater to ensure that the
During the early stages of farming, the
salinity is maintained at or above 30 ppt.
crop was completely harvested and the ponds
Fertilization may not be necessary as were replanted afterwards. Harvesting was
long as frequent water exchange can be done by uprooting the plants from the pond
granted. However, fertilizer has to be applied bottom. The farmers, however, discovered that
especially one or two weeks before the more crops could be produced during a
harvest, when a large biomass has already growing season if partial harvesting is done,
been produced and the plants appear to be that is a sizeable amount (20-25 percent) of
pale in color (that is light green or yellowish). the crop is left in the pond to serve as
The sufficient rate of fertilization is about 16 kg seedstock for the next crop. Harvesting in this
per hectare. Nitrogen fertilizers have produced case is made in such a way that the leftover of
very good results. The plants regain their the crop is more or less uniformly distributed in
healthy color a few days after application. The the pond. Barren areas are then replanted to
fertilizer may be broadcasted but past ensure uniform stand. This practice has
experience has shown that wrapping the drastically reduced production costs by
fertilizer in many layers of gunny or plastic savings made in labor costs for replanting. The
bags and suspending these in strategic places sizeable amount of seedstock left in the pond
in the pond at a level where the bags are just also results in a much shorter growing period
about half submerged in water, produces very and farmers claim they can harvest every two
good results.. The fertilizer is applied right after weeks after the first harvest during the optimal
water exchanges. The pond water should not growing season (dry season).
be exchanged for several days after fertilizer
Harvested seaweeds are thoroughly
application. Weeding is an important activity
washed in seawater to remove the mud and
which is done regularly to remove other
other uncleanlinesses. They are then sorted,
seaweed species and associated organisms
unsuitable thalli and other seaweed species
growing in the pond. Weeds compete with
are removed. The clean seaweed is placed in
Caulerpa for space, light and nutrients. The
bamboo baskets. The side and the bottom of
weeds and the associated organisms should
the baskets are lined with banana leaves or
be removed before they take over as
other seaweeds such as Sargassum which are
dominants. The presence of the weeds results
also placed on the top of the filled baskets.
in decreased production and low quality of the
The baskets are placed under the shade
product and adds extra labor cost to sort them
where they are allowed to drip before
out before the product is sold in the market.
transportation to the market. The product can
The dikes and gates of the ponds must be stay fresh for four or five days.
continuously maintained to grant efficient
Caulerpa destined for export to other
water management. This is especially critical
countries (such as Japan) is exported as a
during the monsoon season when strict and
fresh product or in brine-cured or salted form.
efficient water management is required to
The seaweed is first thoroughly washed
avoid extreme dilutions due to heavy rains.
several times in seawater. Then thalli of good
1.1.5 Harvesting and post-harvest quality are selected. The clean seaweed is first
activities completely drained of water, packed in
styrofoam boxes provided with aeration holes Caulerpa production is still missing. The
on the upper side or cover of the box, taped construction of new farms in areas with high
and sent to its destination by air cargo. A large potential demand for Caulerpa will be critical in
portion of Caulerpa exported to other countries the development of this industry. Recent
is either brine-cured or salted. The latter two studies (Trono, 1984, unpublished) have
forms can be kept for longer periods and may shown that the population in northwestern
be transported by surface cargo. Luzon province consumes a sizeable amount
1.1.6 Progress and problems of local seaweed species which include
Caulerpa as a top favorite. The natural beds of
While Caulerpa farming has been proven to Caulerpa in Bolinao, Panga-sinan which serve
be a profitable venture, it has not developed to as the main source of this seaweed for the
a large-scale industry as yet. Important factors population centers in the area are now
which have hindered the development of depleted. A part of the imported Caulerpa from
Caulerpa farming are the low local demand for Mactan, Cebu finds its way to these big
Caulerpa, the use of traditional (extensive) population centers in Pangasinan and La
fishponds for its culture, lack of technology Union but transport is expensive. The
transfer to other areas and untapped local population of the two Ilocos provinces in the
potential demands. At present, the distribution north are also known to utilize local seaweeds
of Caulerpa produced in Mactan is limited to for food. The development of Caulerpa culture
Cebu City, Metro Manila and probably some in Pangasinan or La Union would, therefore,
cities in the southern Philippines. Only a small be very feasible because the local demand for
fraction of the population in these cities the product is high and the area, also well
consumes Caulerpa. In general, people who known for its fish and shrimp aquaculture have
buy Caulerpa are those who have been used ample pond facilities for seaweed culture.
to eat this seaweed long before they migrated
1.2 The culture of Eucheuma
to the cities. Majority of city residents do not
eat seaweed of any kind. The sharp rise in the During the early 1960s, the Indonesian
price (up to P22 per kg retail price in Metro archipelago was the main source of dried
Manila) may have also contributed to the Eucheuma for the American carrageenan
decrease in demand for this seaweed. industry. The supply of dried seaweed came
from harvesting natural stocks. The advent of
Many of the farmers in Mactan still use political problems in the mid-sixties had
the traditional fishponds for the production of drastically affected the supply and the
Caulerpa. This is the reason why their American company was forced to locate new
production per unit area is quite low. In resources. The Philippines was a natural
contrast, experimental ponds of the University choice because Eucheuma also abound on
of the Philippines using a flow-through system the shallow reef areas of the country. Thus,
(Trono and Denila, 1986, in press) produced gathering of wild stocks started and after three
between 12 to 15 tons per hectare per year to four years of intensive harvesting the easily
despite the very low production during the accessible reefs supporting natural stocks of
rainy months of July to October. As it was Eucheuma became depleted. Measures to
pointed out earlier, the layout of the traditional control overexploitation of stocks did not
fishponds does not grant the necessary water succeed because of the tendency of the
exchange for a productive Caulerpa pond. This seaweed collectors to remove everything they
is the main reason why farmers using the found. In the late sixties, the annual production
traditional fishponds achieve very low yields of a few hundred tons of dried seaweed was
compared to some of the more progressive maintained by locating new stocks in far-flung
ones. areas but this resulted in high production
The distance of the growing areas from costs. By now it became apparent that the
market outlets is a factor limiting supply in harvest from natural stocks cannot satisfy the
areas far from Mactan, for instance in Metro increasing demand of the industry and efforts
Manila, contributing to high retail prices of this to develop the culture of this seaweed were
seaweed. The problem is due to the fact that initiated. The initial activities and problems
culture techniques of this seaweed has not encountered in the development of Eucheuma
been transferred to other areas as adequate culture have been described by Doty (1973),
information on the technology and feasibility of Doty and Alvarez (1973), Parker (1974) and
Trono (1974). By now Eucheuma culture has displaced when the area is affected by even a
grown to a medium size industry producing moderate water movement.
some 20 000 to 25 000 tons of dried
In the raft method, a pair of 2.5 to 5
Eucheuma during the past five years from
meters monofilament nets with mesh size of
about 6 000 to 7 000 hectares of family farms
approximately 30 cm are attached and
in the southern Philippines and Central
stretched to a 6 x 6 meters bamboo raft.
Visayas where not less than 20 000 people are
Cuttings of 50 to 100 grams are tied to the
directly involved in farming. The industry was
intersections of the nets. The rafts are
estimated to be producing some 300 million
anchored to the bottom. Approximately 225 to
pesos in 1983.
300 plants can be planted on such a raft. The
1.2.1 Species under cultivation raft method is not used at present for
A recent report on a new species has commercial purposes as the costs of
resulted in a total of seven species now materials, labour and maintenance are quite
reported from the Philippines. These are high.
Eucheuma cottonii, E. arnoldii, E. In the tubular net method, the planting
procrusteanum, E. gelatinae (= E. serra), E. material is placed on a strip of monofilament
striatum, E. denticulatum (= E. spinosum) and netting (2 cm mesh, 12-15 cm wide and one to
the newly described E. alvarezii (Doty, 1985). two meters long) mounted on a seeding board.
The taxonomy of these Philippine Eucheumas The edges of the netting are laced with a nylon
and of those reported from other parts of the braided string to form a tube with the cuttings
world has been reviewed by Doty and Norris inside and the ends of the tube are closed by
(1985). At present two species, namely, £. tying these with the nylon string which also
denticulatum and E. alvarezii are the main serve as a support. The seeded tubes are then
species under cultivation, although a third attached either to a raft or to wooden stakes.
species, E. striatum, may be occasionally Harvesting is done by pruning the branches of
found mixed with these two in some farms. E. the plants outside the tubing. This method has
denticulatum earlier referred to in the literature also, high material and maintenance costs and
on seaweed farming as E. spinosum is an iota- is not very productive. It was not adopted in
carrageenan producing species and is known the commercial production.
as the "spinosum type" of commodity. E.
alvarezii referred to earlier as E. striatum is a In the fixed off-bottom culture method,
kappa-carrageenan producing species and is the monofilament nets (as described above)
called the "cottonii type" of commodity. are stretched horizontally above the bottom
and their corners are tied to wooden bipods or
1.2.2 Methods of cultivation tripods which serve as supports. Four modules
consisting of two hundred nets each form a
The farming of Eucheuma had hectare where approximately 102 000 cuttings
undergone through some changes in two major can be planted. This method grants an
areas, that is in culture techniques and in its intensive type of farming but was later
organization and management. Different replaced by the monoline method presently
methods of cultivation were tried in the past used in both small family farms and large
from the very simple bottom culture to the company farms. Although productivity of the
more sophisticated types using some form of' a fixed monofilament nets vs relatively high
support system such as the raft method, the costs of materials and maintenance and the
fixed off-bottom method, the tubular net difficulty in planting and harvesting were the
method and the monoline method. The change factors which caused the farmers to shift to the
in the organization and management was a simpler, cheaper and easy to maintain
shift from the highly organized "hacienda-type" monoline method. This latter method is an
or company farms to individual family farms. extensive type of farming where only 34 000 to
In the bottom culture cuttings of 35 000 cuttings are planted on a hectare.
Eucheuma are attached to pieces of corals and 1.2.3 Site selection
arranged on the bottom into plots of uniform
Unless it is in an area already having
sizes. While this method is easy to practice, it
Eucheuma culture, any attempt to open new
is not very productive. The plants are easily
areas for farming should be preceded by
attacked by benthic grazers or are easily
careful site selection. Reconnaissance survey the development of a commercial size farm
of reef areas should be made and potentially should be based on a whole year-round
good portions of the reef should be identified monitoring, considering the possibility of
and subjected to intensive in situ growth rate problems associated with the seasonality in
studies. The following general guidelines the growth of Eucheuma. This precautionary
could be used in the preliminary evaluation of step should be strictly observed if the site is in
sites. Reefs far from freshwater sources are a newly opened area. However, if adjacent
preferred because Eucheuma is a steno- areas are already being farmed, short-term
haline marine alga and salinities below 30 ppt growth monitoring will suffice. In general,
may have adverse effects on it. The area areas in which the test plants double their size
should be protected from the destructive within 30 days or less are productive areas.
effects of wave action thus, the presence of 1.2.4 Construction of the support system
buffer zones is necessary to minimize these (the monitoring method)
effects.
The development of the farm starts
Areas which are about two to three feet with the clearing of the site of seagrasses,
deep with coarse sand to coralline substrate seaweeds, large rocks and corals. The area is
and subject to a moderate water current have then divided to smaller sections of 1/4 of a
been found to support good Eucheuma farms. hectare or smaller. The following is a brief
Water movement in general favors the growth description of the monoline method presently
of Eucheuma by facilitating rapid nutrient used by farmers.
absorption. It also prevents extreme
Construction of the support system
fluctuations in other ecological factors
starts with drilling holes in the bottom with the
(temperature, salinity, pH, dissolved gases,
use of a pointed iron bar (two inches in
etc.), which can adversely affect the growth of
diameter) and a heavy sledgehammer. Then
plants. The firm substrate is essential for the
pointed mangrove stakes about two inches in
support system and also reflects the existence
diameter and 60 to 80 cm long are firmly
of water movement in the area. Portions of the
driven into the holes using the sledgehammer.
reef characterized by soft substrates such as
The wooden stakes are arranged in rows at
fine sand or silt are generally not good for
one meter intervals and the distance between
Eucheuma farming. Water depth at low tides is
the rows is 10 meters. A loop is made at one
also an important factor because it affects the
end of the monofilament line (180-200 lbs test
cost of farming. Areas with a depth of two to
nylon) and it is attached to a stake. The line is
three feet at low tide are ideal. Deeper areas
then strongly stretched and its other end is
are hard to cultivate as the construction of the
firmly attached to the opposite stake in the
support system, the planting and harvesting in
next row. The distance of the monofilament
deeper water will entail higher costs in labor
line from the ground is approximately 0.3 to
and materials. Reef areas supporting natural
0.5 meter depending on the depth of the water
stocks of Eucheuma are good potential sites.
during low tides. The monolines may be
After a site have been identified, test positioned parallel with or crosswise to the
planting of the desired species is direction of the current depending on the
recommended. Test plots consisting of a few strength of the current. In areas where the
monolines planted with 50 to 100 test plants current is relatively strong, the monolines are
each are constructed at different strategic arrange parallel to the current and an extra
locations of the area. The size of the seedlings stake is placed midway between the original
and the culture method of the test plots follows rows of stakes to provide extra support for the
the farming practices except for the small size monoline. The shorter the distance between
of the plots which is about two by five meters. the rows of stakes, the stronger the support
The growth of the test plants is monitored at system, but a reduced distance will result in
weekly intervals and their daily growth rates additional costs. Adjustments in the
determined. Areas supporting daily growth construction of the support system may be
rates of two to five percent are potentially good made to adapt to the needs of a specific area.
sites. Although two to three months long One thousand pieces of 10 meters long
monitoring of the growth rate may be enough monolines will make a hectare of farm.
to start a small family farm, it is advisable that 1.2.5 Preparation of seedlings
Seedlings of the selected species or fourth or a third of the daily harvest consists of
variety are acquired from the nearest source. these washed-out materials.
These are transported to the farm site in the
shortest possible time and protected from 1.2.7 Harvesting
exposure to sun, rain and wind. If the seedlings The present practice of farmers is to
are in transit for longer periods, they should be harvest the whole plants and to replant the
occasionally soaked with clean seawater. farm with new cuttings. The best plants from
Experiences have shown that for long distance the harvest are used as seeding material for
transport of seedlings the use of styro-form the next crop. This practice has replaced the
boxes with quarter-size holes at their upper pruning method formerly used by farmers in
sides to facilitate aeration is the most efficient which the plants at harvest were pruned down
method. The seedlings should be drained of to a 100 grams bunch or so to serve as the
excess seawater before being placed in the "seed" for the next crop. The objective ' was to
box and covered. They must immediately be save on planting cost as well as on tying
placed in seawater upon arrival to the farm material. This old practice, however, was
site. found to be inefficient because the bunches
"Seeds" for planting are prepared by left behind were old portions of the thalli which
tying SO to 100 grams bunches of cuttings with grew slowly thus, it took a longer period to
soft plastic tying materials commonly called as produce the same amount of biomass after the
"tie-tie". The bunches are then tied at 20 to 25 first harvest. In addition, the "tie-ties" lasted
cm intervals to the monolines already stretched only for one growing season anyway. But most
in the sea. Maintenance and management of importantly, the built-in mechanism of "seed
the farm are facilitated by planting on a unit improvement" by selection which is a big
area basis that is a farm unit should be fully advantage of the present practice was not
planted before proceeding to the next one. The possible with the former method of harvesting.
plants are ready to be harvested when they are 1.2.8 Drying of the product
about one kilogram in size or bigger. The time Drying is an important post-harvest
required to grow Eucheuma to harvestable size activity which affects the quality of the product.
vary depending on the ecological conditions. The harvested crop is spread on drying
Seasonality in growth is a common platforms usually made of bamboo slots,
phenomenon in some areas of the Philippines. cleaned of foreign materials such as old tie-
1.2.6 Maintenance of the farm ties, weeds, marine animals, nylon lines, etc.,
The maintenance of the farm consists of and spread uniformly under the sun to dry.
weeding, repairing the support system, This drying method has been slightly modified
replacing lost plants and removal of benthic recently to minimize the loss of material and
grazers. Other species of seaweeds grow in facilitate drying. The platform is now first lined
close association with Eucheuma as epiphytes with fine mesh braided nylon net and the crop
or on the monofilament lines and stakes. is spread on top of it. The plants are regularly
These compete with Eucheuma for nutrients, turned over to facilitate complete sun-drying.
light and space. They also add to the "drag" The drying crop should be protected from
on the line in areas with a strong current which rains. Before the onset of a rain the crop is first
result in breakages and losses of plants. piled up into a heap by just pulling the lining
Grazers such as sea urchins and starfishes net to one part of the platform and then
have been demonstrated to consume covered by a water-proof sheet. The product is
significant amounts of seaweed resulting in dried in two to three days during a hot, sunny
severe losses of biomass. Maintenance is a weather. The dried product should not contain
necessary component of farming which more than 30 percent moisture. The dried
significantly influences production. In areas material is tightly packed in nylon bags and
characterized by strong currents, a retaining stored in dry areas before shipment to buying
fence made of nylon nets with approximately centers.
10 cm mesh size should be constructed at the At present Eucheuma is exported in
leeward side of the farm to catch thalli washed three forms as dried, raw seaweed, as alkali-
out by the current. In northern Bohol, about a treated chips or as a semi-processed powder.
Export of the last two forms appears to be the
trend among the big exporters. This reflects namely; salinity, light and temperature. High
the preference of these semi-processed production is recorded during the months
products by big processors of pure characterized by . higher temperatures and
carrageenan and by the pet food and canning growth is slow during winter. High light
industry. By importing semi-processed intensity exerts adverse effects on the growth,
products such as alkali-treated chips, the therefore, control of light conditions is
processors of carrageenan are receiving good practiced by adjusting the water depth in the
quality raw materials and they can avoid ponds. Salinity of 15 to 24 ppt appears to be
pollution problems associated with the disposal optimal for growth. The increase in salinity
of wastes. The semi-processed powder form is during the summer months is controlled by the
directly utilized in pet foods and by some addition of freshwater thus, farms need to be
canning industries, a cheap substitute to the located near freshwater resources.
pure carrageenan. 1.3.1 Site selection
The success in pond culture of Gracilaria is
1.3 The culture of Gracilaria highly dependent on the selection of
Although several species of appropriate sites. The following criteria are
agarophytes belonging to the genera Gelidium, recommended in the selection of sites for
Pterocladia and Gracilaria have been reported pond culture.
to be commercially produced through some • the site should be located near seawater
form of farming in several countries such as and freshwater resources;
Japan, China, Republic of Korea, Vietnam,
• the area should be protected from strong
India and the Philippines, it is in Taiwan where
winds;
the production of Gracilaria through pond
culture has achieved a high degree of success. • the pond bottom should be at or near the
Here, an average of 12 000 tons of dried zero tide level; and
Gracilaria was produced during the past few • the pH of the water should be slightly
years (Chiang, 1981). alkaline, e.g., 8.2 to 8.7.
The genus Gracilaria is characterized Gracilaria is a eurythaline species and
by the alternation of three somatic generations, can grow in brackish water under a wide range
the sporophyte, the gametophyte and the of salinity. A salinity range of 15 to 24 ppt have
carposporophyte stages. The last one is been found to be optimal. Salinity rises during
microscopic and it is parasitic on the female the sunny months due to evaporation losses
gametophytes thus, the gametophytic and reaching values as high as 35 ppt or drops to
sporophytic stages are the macroscopic forms as low as 8 ppt during the rainy season were
used as planting materials in the pond culture. shown to be detrimental to the crop. The
Although the reproductive potential of maintenance of optimal salinity in the ponds
Gracilaria through spores is high, vegetative requires readily available freshwater and
propagation by cuttings is presently used in the seawater supply. The ponds should be located
pond culture because of the very high in areas protected from strong winds because
regenerative capacity of the plant and the there is a tendency for Gracilaria to
simplicity of the method. However, "hatchery accumulate the leeward side of the pond. The
produced" seedlings from spores have been formation of thick heaps of Gracilaria in one
demonstrated to be superior in the open field side of the pond has adverse effects on the
culture of Gracilaria (Doty, 1986). growth due to shading.
Out of the several species of the genus Water management is greatly
presently used (e.g., Gracilaria chorda, G. influenced by the tidal changes in relation to
edulis, G. verrucosa, G. lichenoides, G. the elevation of the pond bottom. Ponds
compressa and G. gigas) G. verrucosa is the located in areas where the bottom is at or a
most popular due to its ability to adapt to a little above the zero tide level can easily be
wide range of ecological conditions, its higher managed as water exchange is easy.
production rates and better gel quality. The
culture of Gracilaria started in 1962 in 1.3.2 Culture ponds
southwestern Taiwan. Production in ponds is
primarily influenced by three ecological factors,
The average size of ponds for the temperature drops below 8°C which is
culture of Gracilaria is about one hectare or lethal to Gracilaria.
smaller. Smaller ponds are easier to manage
Frequent exchange of water is
than larger ones because in large ponds
necessary to maintain the optimum
Gracilaria tend to accumulate at one side due
temperature of water in the ponds. The water
to the influence of winds. Pond management is
is changed every two to three days. About 50
also easier when Gracilaria is polycultured with
to 75 percent of the pond water is used to be
shrimp and/or crab. Provision of entrance and
drained and replaced with fresh seawater.
exit gates also facilitate proper water
management. Fertilization with either organic or
inorganic fertilizers is used to enhance the
The depth of the ponds vary from 50 to
growth of Gracilaria. Weekly application of
80 cm clayish loam, silty loam or sandy loam. It
three kilograms of urea per hectare is
was observed that Gracilaria easily gets buried
sufficient. Fermented pig manure may be
in ponds with sandy bottom due to the effect of
applied at a 160 to 180 kg per hectare dosage
wind. This problem, however, could be
two to three days after the exchange of the
resolved by increasing the depth of the water
water.
during windy periods. In larger ponds wind
breaks consisting of bamboo slots are installed
1.3.5 Harvest and post-harvest activities
perpendicular to the direction of the wind to
prevent the seaweed being transported to one The harvesting season starts in June
side of the pond. and extends to November. The crop may be
1.3.3 Culture method harvested every 10 to 40 days manually or by
using scoop nets. The frequency of harvests is
The following method is generally primarily dictated by the market price and the
followed in the pond culture of Gracilaria. The season. The crop is thoroughly washed in
ponds are dried for several days, water is then pond water to remove the silt, sand, pieces of
introduced. Healthy stocks are selected as shells and other extraneous materials such as
planting materials. These are generally snails and other algae. The clean Gracilaria is
characterized by their elastic feel to touch, spread uniformly on bamboo screens or plastic
reddish brown color, brittle texture, they must sheets for drying. An average wet to dry ratio
have stout and well-branched thalli and must of 7:1 is generally attained.
be free of dirt and extraneous materials. The
planting material is transported from its source Standards set by the Bureau of
to the pond site early in the morning to prevent Standards in Taiwan for the export of dried
its exposure to the sun. During long distance Gracilaria require that the product should not
transport, it is frequently sprinkled with contain more than 1 percent of mud and sand,
seawater and perforated bamboo or plastic not more than 1 percent shells and not more
pipes are inserted into the bottom of the heap than 18 percent other seaweed species.
to provide aeration. The plants must Moisture contents should not exceed 20
immediately be placed in the water of the pond percent.
upon arrival. The planting material is then cut Dried Gracilaria is then packed into
into pieces and is broadcasted uniformly on the sacks of 100 kg weight for export or sold to
bottom of the pond. Stocking is usually made local processing plants. Ten to twelve metric
with 5 000 to 6 000 kg stocking material per tons of dried Gracilaria are produced in a
hectare in April. hectare of pond.
1.3.4 Pond management
1.3.6 Polyculture with shrimp and/or crab
The water is maintained at a depth
when the surface is approximately 30 to 40 cm Polyculture with shrimp (Penaeus
above the heap of the algae. However, the monodon) and/or crab (Scylla serrata) is
depth is increased to cover the algae by 60 to mainly done in Ping-tung Prefecture in
80 cm during the warm summer months to southwestern Taiwan. Stocking material for a
prevent a significant rise in the water hectare of farm consists of 4 000 to 5 000 kg
temperature. Water depth is also increased of Gracilaria, 5 000 to 10 000 crab and 10 000
during the cold winter months to avoid to 20 000 shrimp. Crushed trash fish and
snails are generally used as feed for the crab.
Crabs are harvested after three months, the what kind of harvest method is best for the
shrimp often after four to seven months. species. Furthermore, production can be
Survival rates as high as 80 percent for crabs safely forecasted. These available information
and 80 to 90 percent for shrimp has been is most important in quoted contracts which
documented making this polyculture one of the may be entered into by the farmer, fishermen,
most profitable methods in Taiwan. The net or exporter. The gathering of these basic
income from polyculture has been proven to be information on the species to be managed
three times as much as from monoculture. requires basic skills in methodologies for field
sampling and data gathering.
2. NATURAL PRODUCTION OF
COMMERCIALLY IMPORTANT Thus, it is of prime importance that any
SEAWEEDS plan to exploit natural stocks of seaweeds
must be preceded by intensive biological
The "non-farmable" species as used in
studies to determine seasonality in biomass
the present context are those which by the
production, reproduction, regeneration and
very nature of their small size, slow growth and
recruitment. These information are necessary
regenerative capacities and/or determinate
in determining the best possible time of
growth cycles do not easily lend themselves to
harvesting and amount of harvestable stocks.
the conventional way of farming through mass
production through the use of cuttings or Production of non-farmable species
spores, e.g., Gelidiella acerosa, Gelidium spp., can be enhanced by the application of some
Sargassum sp., and Acanthophora. Their agronomic techniques with the primary aim of
production depends primarily on the availability protecting the natural stocks from over-
of naturally produced stocks as influenced by exploitation. The application of harvest
harvest pressures during the preceding techniques which are the least destructive is
season. Production of some of the species is one way of assuring the fast recovery of
highly seasonal depending on their growth stocks. For instance, harvest by hand picking
cycles as influenced by environmental (pulling) is more destructive than pruning. The
conditions. Their harvestable stocks are also removal of the whole plant from the
significantly controlled by monsoons. substratum by hand picking reduces the
capacity of the stocks to regenerate. Renewal
Because their growth cycles are highly
of stocks through regrowth from basal portions
dependent on the environmental conditions in
left after pruning is very much faster than
their habitat and to a large extent to the degree
recruitment of new thalli from spores.
by which these are influenced by man's
exploitive activities, their production, therefore, The removal of unwanted species
is highly unreliable. The need to manage and (weeding) may enhance the growth and
conserve their natural stocks is of prime development of target species through
importance in order to assure to a certain eradication of competitors for space, light and
extent their continuous production as well as to nutrients. The clearing of the substrate also
prevent overexploitation. enhances the opportunity for recruitment by
spores. Studies have shown that
The design of a sound management
recolonization of bare substrates results to the
and conservation scheme for non-farmable
increase in population density of the target
species depends primarily on the availability of
species.
information on the various aspects of their
biology, e.g., reproduction and growth cycles, The eradication of grazers in reef areas
growth rates, their regeneration and being managed for wild crops contributes to
recruitment capacities and their production the enhancement of production in reef areas.
potentials; The above information are Sea urchins, starfishes and fishes like siganids
necessary in the formulation of guidelines for are well-known seaweed grazers whose
the management of the natural stock of the destructive effects on seaweed crops can be
target species. These information can provide minimized.
answers to questions such as where the
The harvesting of seaweed crops from
species is abundant, how much to harvest per
natural stocks is labour-intensive. Seaweed
unit area, when to harvest, how many times
gathering for cash crops, therefore, offers an
can the stocks be harvested in one season,
opportunity to optimize the utilization of the
minimally used labour force in coastal areas.
Methods being employed in the harvesting of
natural stocks vary depending on the species,
its size, abundance and the habitat where
these are found. In tropical areas, most of the
wild crops are found in shallow rocky portions
of the reef or in shallow bays. In reef areas
where harvestable crops are closely
associated with other species, selective
harvesting through hand picking and/or pruning
are the most common methods of cropping. In
shallow bays, the gathering of Gracilaria is
done by hand, or with the use of rakes. In
some instances semi-mechanized method is
employed utilizing trawl-like equipment
attached to a slow-moving motorized bancas.
In deeper areas, diving and hand picking or the
use of pruning tools are employed. Scuba is a
convenient equipment now used in some
countries for gathering wild stocks in deeper
areas.
In wave-exposed areas where hand
picking is hazardous, the gathering of seaweed
crops is mostly dependent on drift materials
which accumulate on the shore especially after
some heavy surfs.
Lectures 9 and 12
SEAWEED INDUSTRY IN THE PHILIPPINES

by

Maximo A. Ricohermoso1

ABSTRACT
The Philippines is one of the few countries in the world that has successfully
grown marine algae (seaweeds) in substantial commercial quantities. Among
marine and fisheries product exports, seaweeds and seaweed products now
ranks third after shrimps and tuna. Compared to shrimps and tuna, however,
seaweeds provide greater direct economic benefits to a greater number of our
people.
Eucheuma seaweed species dominate the Philippine seaweed industry.
Sargassum, Gracilaria, Gelidium and a few other species are commercially
important, limited information is available thus, this paper will deal more on
Eucheuma.
1.EXISTING RESOURCES however, finds major application only in animal
1.1 Eucheuma cottonii and Eucheuma feeds in Japan due to its lower alginate
spinosum extract.

Eucheuma cottonii and Eucheuma Caulerpa, known as "lato" is a green


spinosum are the main commercially cultivated algae finding its place among sea food
seaweeds in the country. Estimated harvest in delicacies for local and foreign consumers.
1986 was about 45 000 metric tons for both Using present cultivation technology,
species with an estimated export value of the country could easily produce seventy to
about P500 000 000 ($25 000 000). The eighty thousand metric tons of Eucheuma
country's export of Eucheuma materials has annually.
been growing at an average rate of 30 percent
1.2 Gracilaria, Gelldium, Sargassum
per year during the last five years (Table 1).
and other species
Eucheuma is now cultivated and the
Although known to be growing
main source of livelihood of about fifty
abundantly all over the coastal and reef areas
thousand coastal-dwelling ocean farmers and
of the country, there is no adequate inventory
fishing families in Tawi-Tawi, Sulu, Zamboanga
data on Gracilaria, Gelidium, Sargassum,
de Sur, Sacol Islands, Palawan and Cuyo,
Porphyra and other commercially important
Danajon reef of Central Visayas, Southern
seaweeds. As late as the 1960's, Gracilaria
Leyte and other reef areas in the country.
and Caulerpa were harvested in Manila Bay
Eucheuma, of the red algae category is one of
and were important livelihood sources of
the most important raw material for
coastal dwellers along the bay from Bataan to
carrageenan, a colloidal substance used as an
Cavite. Pollution, unfortunately, had already
essential. gelling agent, stabilizer or emulsifier
wiped out these important marine resources in
in various food, personal care,
the area.
Pharmaceuticals and industrial products
worldwide. 2. EXISTING TECHNOLOGY
Gracilaria and Gelidium are the raw 2.1 Cultivation and post-harvest
materials for agar which has major applications processing
in food, pharmaceuticals and culture media for Cultivation technology of Eucheuma is
clinical and research laboratories. adequate for the current needs of the
Sargassum is a brown seaweed
containing alginate which is also used in food
and pharmaceuticals. Philippine Sargassum,

1
President, Seaweed Industry Association of the Philippines, Mandaue City, Cebu.
industry. The present Eucheuma farming now the leading world supplier of carrageenan
utilizes the monoline system which is easily manufactured through the non-extractive
adaptable to either bottom or floating methods, method.
depending upon suitability of farming site. The extractive (refined) carrageenan
Eucheuma through this method is harvestable processing method also involves alkaline cook
in 45 or 60 days. of seaweed raw materials plus the more highly
Drying and storage are very important sophisticated and technically advanced KCL
aspects of Eucheuma post-harvest handling. (potassium chloride) or alcohol extraction
Poorly dried harvests and improper storage system. A newly built extraction, plant initially
results to highly degraded produce. relying on Japanese technology is now
operating in Cebu at 500-metric tons annual
Eucheuma harvests are simply dried
rated capacity.
under the sun, commonly in an extended
platform beside the farmer's house. More often, Agar processing system has been an
however, the seaweed is left to dry over the established technology in the country as
sand in a make-shift mat of coconut leaves or evidence by the existence of agar
nylon nets. This drying method yields low manufacturing plants. The method simply
quality materials due to excessive sand and involves pasting the raw materials, washing and
other foreign matter contamination. drying either solar or mechanical. Agar locally
known as "gulaman" is usually marketed in
3. PROCESSING AND END-PRODUCTS
agar bar or strip form.
EXTRACTION
Sargassum processing involves sorting,
Raw material exports is now less than
cleaning, drying and grinding. Fishermen
50 percent of the total Eucheuma harvest,
deliver Sargassum material at a 30 to 40
accounting for 38 percent of the export
percent moisture content. The local processor-
earnings of the seaweed industry in 1986.
exporter redries the materials at 14 to 18
Local seaweed processors utilize more than 50
percent and milled to about 10 mesh.
percent of Philippine Eucheuma harvests in the
manufacture of carrageenan products, 4. MARKETING
generating about 62 percent of the foreign
exchange earnings last year. Except for a minor local usage, Eucheuma
harvests of the country is totally destined to the
Raw materials for export are sorted, export market either in raw or carrageenan
foreign matters removed, redried and baled. form. Raw Eucheuma cottonii material exports
Standard moisture content for raw Eucheuma in 1986 was about 19 300 metric tons (Table 1)
export is 38 percent. Farmers deliveries range with an estimated value of US$7 720 000
from 40 to 50 percent moisture. (P154 400 000).
Eucheuma processed product exports Eucheuma spinosum was about 1 886
from the Philippines are either kappa or iota- metric tons (Table 1), value estimated of US$1
carra-geenan blended materials ready for use 037 000 (P20 740 000).
in their respective applications. These are
The major use of Philippine Eucheuma
manufactured either for use in their respective
harvests are the processing plants in
applications. These are manufactured either
through extractive or non-extractive method.
The dried seaweed material is cooked in an
alkali solution to a desired modification level,
washed, dried (either solar or mechanical)
ground and blended to customers
specifications. Rigid quality control is observed
starting from the raw material to the finished
product phases of the process. This Eucheuma
processing technique, although well known and
used in the U.S. and Europe in the earlier stage
of carrageenan technology was initiated in the
Philippines by Japanese chemists sometime in
1977 in a joint venture with a Cebu based
Filipino company. The method since then has
undergone several revisions. The Philippines is
Table I. Philippine seaweed (Eucheuma sp.) industry profile
December 31. 1987

Farm harvests

Percent Metric Seaweed farmers


share tons Direct economic benefit
Tawi-Tawi1 60 22 800 P 114 000 000
Sulu 12 4 500 22 500 000
Zamboanga 10 3 720 18 600 000
Palawan 9 3 600 18 000 000
Central Visayas 7 2 600 13 000 000
Others 2 1 000 5 000 000
Total 100 38 2202 P 191 100 000

Exports — raw materials + seaweed products

Metric tons US$ value Percent


Raw materials
E. cottonii 15 130
E. spinosum 2 651 17 781 6 223 26
Seaweed extracts
carrageenan 5 8363 17 508 74
Total 23 617 US$23 731 100
Typical seaweed farming family annual income

Low High
Average area cultivated 2 500 sq m 5 000 sq m
Annual harvest 6 000 kg 12 000 kg
Average price ( kilo) 5.00 5.00
Gross income P 30 000 P 60 000
Expenses:
Labor4
Nylon lines (100 k x l00) 1 000
Plastic straw 500
Wood stakes (1000x 0.20) 200
Banca 1 000
Daily subsistence:
1 bag rice/mo, at 350 4 200
Miscellaneous: (Fuel, etc.) 6 000 18 900 18 900
Net income P 11 100 P 41 000
1
Tawi-Tawi provides about 60 percent total Philippine Eucheuma seaweed harvests.
2
E. cottonii* — 36 300 mt; E. spinosum**— 1 920 mt, average price is 5.00/kilo.
3
One kilo carrageenan extract is equivalent to 4.5 kilos raw.
4
Assume the family provides own labor.
NOTE: *Correct botanical name is Eucheuma alvarezii.
**Correct botanical name is E. denticulatum.
Private sector investments
Company Plant Location Annual Investmen
capacity (mt) t (P)
Deltagen/Biocon Crude carrageenan Mandaue City, Cebu 400 P 10 000
Manwealth Raw material Mandaue City, Cebu 3 000 5 0001
Marcel Crude Zamboanga City 1 500 15 000
carrageenan
Refine Metro Manila 200 25 0002
carrageenan
Raw material Zamboanga City 6 000 5 000
MCPI Crude Mandaue City, Cebu 2 000 30 000
carrageenan
Corporation Refine -do- 500 50 0003
carrageenan
Raw material -do- 6 000 4 000
SHEMBERG Crude Mandaue City, Cebu 2 000 25 000
carrageenan
Refine -do- 400 60 000
carrageenan
Raw material -do- 6 000 5 000
Others Crude Zamboanga City/
carrageenan
Palawan
Raw material Tawi-Tawi 10 000 10 000
Total P 244 000
1
Owners are from Tawi-Tawi.
2 3
Construction in progress. Designs
in progress.
Denmark, France, Spain, U.S.A., Technology for growing mollusk and other
Korea, Japan, Argentina, Taiwan (Table 1), marine species such as abalone, giant clams
China (PROC) used to buy and remain and cucumber are now emerging and
potential big users of Eucheuma materials. compatible with seaweeds farming.
Carrageenan product export in 1986 is
about 4 500 metric tons with an estimated 6. NEEDS/PROBLEMS/ISSUES AND
value of US$14 400 000 ( 288 000 000), RECOMMENDATIONS
providing approximately 62 percent of the The various sectors of the seaweed
foreign exchange earnings of the seaweed industry have formed together into an industry
industry. Usage of Philippine Semi-Refined association in 1985. The common issue which
Carrageenan (SRC) has been limited and the industry association is trying to resolve are
unfairly restricted to pet foods, personal care wide variations in quality and stiff fluctuations
and industrial application since it was banned in prices of the harvests.
as an acceptable additive in human foods
during the recent meeting in Rome of the Joint As the industry matures, price of the
FAO/WHO Experts Committee on Food produce remains at lower level thus, reducing
Additives at the instigation of MARINALG, an the farmers income. Polyculture of seaweeds
association of carrageenan manufacturers from together with other marine species, therefore,
the industrialized countries. needs adequate attention.

Refined carrageenan from the Majority of individual seaweed farms


Philippines was introduced into the market last are still without license or concession from the
year. About 100 metric tons of refined Bureau of Fisheries and Aquatic Resources.
carrageenan has been exported to Europe and The industry association is assisting the
Japan. government on this aspect. BFAR should
accelerate processing of applications.
Sargassum exports were mainly ground
products for animal feed component in Japan. The Philippines used to be the only
About 700 metric tons was exported in 1986 Eucheuma farming country in Southeast Asia.
with an estimated value of $200 000 ( 400 In 1986, Indonesia started shipping in
000). China and Indonesia are providing commercial quantities cultivated Eucheuma
formidable competitions. seaweeds at a very competitive price.
Eucheuma farming in Indonesia was initiated
by the major European and U.S. carrageenan
5. POTENTIALS FOR DEVELOPMENTS manufacturers as a reaction to an attempt by
Eucheuma-based industries appear to the defunct Batasang Pambansa to create a
be maturing. The 1986 large volume increase Seaweed Industry Commission and as a
over the previous year was mainly due to hedge to earlier worsening political condition.
inventory positioning of the foreign buyers as a The damage has been done, however,
hedge for a perceived political instability of the learning from this lesson, the government
country last year. There is, however, potentials should now be more promotive rather than
for Eucheuma as a fresh processed table food regulative on the industry.
item similar to Nori or Wakami for both the local Seaweed processing and exporting
and international consumers. companies find Mandaue City (Cebu) the ideal
Gracilaria and Gelidium have plenty of place for their plants due to conducive
room for developments. Gracilaria is now investment climate and availability of
successfully grown in Taiwan and efforts are comparatively better infrastructure facilities
underway in Thailand. The Philippines has such as:
suitable sites and technology is available. a) Local and international shipping ports
Sargassum and other brown seaweeds b) Communications: Telephone, telexes,
have bigger potentials as animal feed etc.
component. Sargassum is abundantly c) Power and water
available and cheap. Local feed millers could d) Banking facilities and government
use Sargassum with very little processing. offices
e) Peace and order
A bright potential also is in the horizon
for a polyculture system in the seaweed farms. 7. INDUSTRY PROBLEMS
7.1 High variable raw material quality due
to lack of post-harvest facilities.
7.2 Low farm productivity resulting to
uncompetitive prices.
7.3 Excessive shipping and handling costs
from the farming regions to the pro cessing
plants due to inadequate ports and transport
facilities.
7.4 Lack of power and water facilities in the
farming regions.
7.5 Lack of banking and communication
facilities in the farming regions.
7.6 Peace and order threats in the farming
areas.
7.7 Unruly competition both in local and
international markets.
7.8 Emergence of Indonesia as a strong
competitor in the world market.
Lecture 10
PROGRESS AND PROBLEMS IN SEAWEED CULTURE

by

Gavino C. Trono, Jr.1

A review of the status of seaweed details because of differences in the


culture in the region shows that the degree of requirements of the cultured species and local
success and the resolution of the associated conditions.
problem are highly dependent on the
In Japan the success achieved in the
availability of basic information on the general
nori industry in the past two decades has been
biology, physiology and genetics of the species
due to significant improvements in the
concerned and on the application of this
production techniques and the development of
knowledge to the development of their culture
genetically superior strains. The development
techniques. The great successes in seaweed
of highly productive strains of Porphyra tenera
culture achieved in such countries as Japan
and P. vezoensis through selection and the
and China are generally attributed to
extension of fast growing and disease resistant
achievements in controlling the biological cycle
populations has resulted in maximum
and satisfying the physiological requirements
production. Although efforts to produce fast
of the species both in the laboratory and in the
growing, high quality and disease-resistant
field. Thus, in countries where culture systems
varieties through hybridization have been
or technologies are highly sophisticated,
undertaken in the past, there has not been any
production itself becomes much less of a
success to date in producing hybrid strains of
problem than the monitoring and the control of
Porphyra (Imai, 1982). The difficulty has been
the culture in order to produce high quality
attributed to the inherent characteristics of the
crops to make the industry cost effective. On
alga such as the low number of chromosomes
the other hand, in the countries where these
and the occurrence of fissions in the
basic informations are not yet available, the
succeeding generations of thalli. These
development of culture techniques in order to
characteristics are not favorable to
enhance production is the major concern.
hybridization. In cases where hybrids were
Although the major seaweed producing produced, problems were encountered in their
countries are well-known for the cultivation of culture.
many species of seaweeds, this review will be
limited only to species cultivated as major Very significant developments have been
crops in these countries because of the limited achieved in the production of Porphyra during
informations available on the minor species. the past few years in Japan. Among these are:
1. PORPHYRA CULTURE a) the expansion of the use of freezing
techniques in storing hibi nets seeded
Several species of the genus Porphyra (in
with "young buds" for the lengthening of
Japanese: nori, in Chinese: zicai) are presently
cultured commercially in Japan, China, the production season and/or for back-up
Republic of Korea and to a limited extent in stocks for replacing diseased nets;
Taiwan. Although the basic culture methods b) the development of the floating and raft
are quite similar as the techniques generally type support systems which facilitated the
used are primarily based on those developed expansion of the production to deeper
in Japan, they may differ in certain and open waters (the original fixed
support system limited the pro-

1
Professor, Marine Science Institute, College of Science, University of the Philippines, Diliman Quezon City, Philippines and
Training Director, Seaweed Farming Training Course, 2-21 May 1988.
duction areas to protected, shallow Although the culture of Porphyra is
bays); and practiced in the Republic of Korea too, very
c) the development of culture techniques of little information is available in the literature
on the subject. According to Saito (1978) the
free living Conchocelis and the
slow development of the industry may be
physiological control of conchospore
primarily due to its dependence on the
release had made the seeding of the hibi
export markets (that is Japan's) demands.
nets very efficient.
As can be surmised from Saito's report, the
Although these improvements in the local demand for nori has not developed as
culture techniques have tremendously con yet, therefore, production is still low utilizing
tributed to the success of Porphyra production, mainly old techniques.
these advances have also resulted in problems
The development of Porphyra culture
affecting both the farmers and the government.
in Taiwan is only at its initial stage. The lack
Overproduction which is generally
of information on the biology of the local
accompanied by low quality has resulted in
species (Porphyra dentata and P. angusta)
lower prices. The introduction of improvements
has been one of the major constraints in its
in culture and fertilization techniques and the
development. However, progress has been
mechanization of post-harvest operations
attained in the development of culture
resulted in increased costs of production thus,
techniques for the mass culture of
decreasing the net income of the farmers. The
Conchocelis and conchospore formation
expansion of the nori industry has also
under artificial light and temperature
resulted in serious problems in the
conditions. The seasonality of production
management of coastal areas and brought
due to weather conditions and the long
about a conflict in their utiliza-tion for other
period between the development of
aquaculture ventures and/or for other
Conchocelis and conchospore formation are
purposes. In Japan increasing industrial
two of the major problems confronting the
pollution in protected bays is also becoming a
development of local Porphyra culture in
major problem.
Taiwan.
In China the knowledge on the biology
of Porphyra haitanensis and P. vezoensis and 2. UNDARIA CULTURE
on the physiological requirements of these
The Undaria genus (in Japanese:
species (especially in relation to the mass
wakame) is cultivated in Japan, the Republic
culture of Conchocelis), and the development
of Korea and China but it is in Japan where
of techniques in enhancing conchospore
its commercial cultivation has almost equal
production, the timing of their release,
importance to the nori industry.
improvements in the nursing of young
seedlings, the expansion of production to The thorough knowledge of the
open; less fertile areas using the semi-floating biology and the physiological requirements
and floating raft support systems together with of the two species presently cultured has
the development of fertilization techniques resulted in the development of culture
using pumps have increased significantly the techniques which made possible the highly
production of Porphyra. successful Undaria industry of Japan today.
The understanding of the physiological
Because the Porphyra industry in
requirements of Undaria seedlings, that is
China is relatively young and smaller in
their temperature, light and nutrient
magnitude as the nori industry in Japan, it has
requirement, resulted in the highly controlled
not yet encountered serious problems related
tank culture of seedlings in both private and
to overproduction and management.
government nurseries. The problems of
Opportunities for the expansion of production
disease, epi-phytism and grazing which
in China are great because of the availability of
seriously affected. production earlier have
suitable coastal areas for this purpose. At
been resolved by the culture of seedlings in
present the emphasis is on increasing
nursery tanks. The readily available
production through improvements in the
seedlings have encouraged the expansion of
culture techniques and on the solution of
production to deeper and wave-exposed
problems related to weeds and diseases.
areas through the development of the raft
support system. Improvements in the natural seriously affected the net income of farmers.
production of Undaria through the The application of support systems designed
management of local stocks have also for deeper and open sea conditions has also
contributed to an increase in its total added to the cost of production.
production.
The introduction of the culture
The improvements in culture techniques from Japan has also resulted in a
techniques, however, have resulted in significant increase in
overproduction of low quality products which
U
hybridization. Additionally, the understanding
ndaria production in the Republic of
of the etiology of diseases provided a basis
Korea. The use of nursery-produced seedlings
for the application of preventive measures.
has increased production from culture which
Production areas have been expanded
has been estimated to contribute 17 to 18
towards the southern parts of China through
percent to Korea's total production. However,
the development of warm-water strains. The
because the projected increase in local
success in the development of long distance
demand and exports did not materialize, the
shipping techniques rendered the sporelings
oversupply resulted in low prices.
and matured Laminaria available to farther
3. LAMINARIA CULTURE growing areas.
The rapid development in culturing 4. GRACILARIA CULTURE
Lami-naria (in Japanese: kumbu, in Chinese:
haidai) in China has been attributed to Although the monoculture and poly-
important successes in the resolution of culture of Gracilaria (in Chinese: jiangli, in
production and quality related problems. The Tagalog: gulaman) in ponds became a very
development and application of raft culture has successful aquaculture venture during the
extended production to relatively deep, open past decase in Taiwan, not all the problems
seas. The problem of low nutrient supply was are solved as yet. According to Chuch and
resolved with the development of spraying and Chen (1982) one of the most pressing
soaking method of fertilization. The problems problems which restrains the rapid
of sporeling supply and those of epiphytes and expansion of this venture is the serious
weeds which hinder the normal development competition in the utilization of coastal areas
of young Laminaria plants in the field were with other aquaculture methods such as
resolved when the temperature requirements finfish and shrimp culture. The southwestern
of the gametophytes and the young part of Taiwan where Gracilaria culture has
sporophytes was determined. This knowledge been found to be the most successful is fully
became the basis of the low temperature utilized for these other aquaculture ventures.
method of culturing summer sporelings under This problem was partly resolved by the
controlled, indoor conditions. The availability of development of a polyculture of Gracilaria
hatchery-reared summer spore-lings in early with shrimp and tilapia. The latter species
autumn provides a significant ecological are successfully for weed control in the
advantage for the crop over the competing ponds by controlling other seaweed species
weed species. The introduction of this method such as Enteromorpha and
has resulted in a 30 to 50 percent increase in Chaetomorpha. Another problem which
the total production (Tseng, 1981). Aside from adversely affects this venture is the seasonal
decreasing the weed problem, the use of the variation of the agar quality in the production.
summer sporelings has lengthened the Among the ecological factors which have
production period by two to three months and significant influence on the quality the most
benefitted also workers because planting can important ones are temperature and daylight
now be done in autumn when the water regimes. The development of strains
temperature is relatively warm. adapted to different growing areas is a major
step toward the resolution of this problem.
The problems of low productivity and
5. EUCHEUMA CULTURE
inferior quality of the product were resolved
through the development of highly productive Although the culture Eucheuma (in
strains with high iodine content through Tagalog: gozo) has become a major
aquaculture industry since the accidental intensities and cooler temperatures
discovery of fast growing varieties, it has also (December to February). However,
been going through some critical times ever "spinosum", varieties tend to recover better
since its initial success in the early 1970s. than "cottonii" varieties during the following
These problems stem mainly from two major months characterized by higher light
areas of concern, namely; fluctuating prices intensities and warmer temperatures (March
related to a weak marketing system and the to June). The general practice of the farmers
biological problems associated with of selecting the best looking plants from their
production. harvest to be used as planting material for
the next growing season (without
The highly fluctuating prices are
considering their inherent seasonality in
attributed to a buyers market, where prices are
growth) appears to have further contributed
usually determined by a few major buyers/
to the slow but continuous decline in the
exporters (Hollenbeck, 1983). The farmers
productivity of the different varieties in the
whose individual production is small, do not
farming areas of northern Bohol, central
have the capability to influence the local prices
Philippines. The studies of Trono (loc. cit.)
of the seaweed. Despite the presence of a
also demonstrated that the low quality of the
number of traders which made the local market
Eucheuma product (which manifests in a low
somewhat competitive, the Eucheuma
yield of pure carra-geenan) is directly related
wholesale market is still dominated by the
to the health of the crop during harvest.
buyers and prices continue to fluctuate
Healthy crops have high recoverable
significantly. One of the primary reasons for
carrageenan content.
the unstable prices is the fact that production is
concentrated in one major area of the Although there are no conclusive
Philippines and any political instability in this evidences, the occurrence of "ice-ice"
area induces speculation on the amount of the disease appears to be preceded by
expected supply, affecting ultimately the local conditions of low nutrient regimes. Uyenco
prices. In addition, there is a tendency among et. al. (1981) showed apparent positive
buyers to acquire their stocks in the shortest correlation between low concentrations of
possible time (ADB/FAO Report, 1983). phosphates and the occurrence of the
Increased production is stimulated by buyers disease. The relationship between the
through increasing the local prices, these incidence of blooms of other algae with the
encourage the farmers to overproduce which occurrence of the disease is not well
in turn results in lower prices. Opening up understood. The problem of low production
other production areas to prevent speculation associated with the seasonality in growth
and enhancing the capability of the farmers to may be resolved through proper
influence pricing through the formation of management such as the planting of the
cooperatives would increase incentives to appropriate varieties during certain months
production and stabilize prices. of the year. The requirements for such a
scheme that is the availability of the
The fluctuation of production brought
appropriate varieties, however, seems to be
about by the seasonality in the growth of
a formidable, problem which has to be
different varieties, weather disturbances (e.g.,
resolved first. Trono (loc. cit.) proposed the
typhoons), the occurrence of the So-called
establishment of seedling banks in areas
"ice-ice" disease and the general decline in the
having different oceano-graphic conditions
productivity of the cultured varieties have
from those in Danajon Reef farms but
adversely affected the industry, in many
accessible to the local farmers.
occasions resulting in the economic dislocation
of farmers. The growth of the different varieties The solution of the disease problem
has been demonstrated to vary with the by developing resistant strains through hybri-
seasons of the year (Trono, 1985, dization appears to be slow due to the lack
unpublished). Months characterized by low of basic informations on the sexuality of the
light intensities and warmer water different varieties. Although the present work
temperatures (June to October) are generally on "seed selection" (based on varietal growth
very productive for all the varieties in contrast performance tests) may result in the
to months characterized by high light production of physiologically superior
varieties, the solution of the problem of constrained by high prices in areas far from
enhancing growth and resistance to the the center of production. The introduction of
disease through genetically improved strains is Caulerpa culture in areas where it is popular
still paramount. The application of genetic with local people will result in lower prices
engineering methods such as protoplast fusion within the reach of the consumer.
may be the ultimate solution.
The expansion of production areas to
other parts of the Philippines has been
constrained by the minimal support to the
efforts in locating appropriate sites for farming
and is compounded by the unavailability of the
right varieties to be utilized for field testing.
Although some general criteria for site
selection are available, these are mainly
guidelines to narrow the choices to a
manageable number of sites and the final
decision whether to develop a given site to
farms should depend on the results of actual
field tests using available varieties. The
presence of natural population of the species
to be cultured is a good indicator of the
potentials of an area.
The lack of appropriate varieties and
pre-dation are two of the most important
problems generally encountered during the
initial stage of the development of an area.
Although effective control of large and slow
moving grazers (such as sea urchins) can be
achieved, it is almost impossible to control fast
swimming grazers (such as rabbitfish)
especially when they graze during the night.
The varieties presently used in two major
farming areas in the Philippines that is in Sulu
and Northern Bohol appear to have developed
peculiar ecological characters over the many
years they have been cultured in these areas
and as there is no information on the
physiological requirements of these varieties,
the success of introducing these to new areas
sometimes becomes a matter of a hit-and-miss
process.
6. CAULERPA CULTURE
Problems encountered in the culture of
Caulerpa are mainly the seasonality of the
production and the low local demand for the
product. Being a stenohaline marine alga, its
growth is easily affected by lower salinities
brought about by rains during the monsoon
season. This problem, however, could be
minimized by the incorporation of a flow-
through system when constructing the ponds
to facilitate proper water management, that is
maintaining the salinity above 30 ppt. The
development of consumer demand has been
Lecture 11
POLYCULTURE OF SEAWEEDS WITH MARINE ANIMALS

by

Edgardo D. Gomez1 and Rhodora Azanza-Corrales2

1. INTRODUCTION
carnivorous or herbivorous animals
The rearing of desirable aquatic need to be clarified. How and when the
organisms under controlled condition for their animals will affect the productivity and
socio-economic benefits is "aquaculture". Of reproduction of the seaweeds should also be
the different types of "water culture", "mari- considered. All the basic information must be
culture" or "seafarming" seems to be less gathered to effectively manage the more
developed compared to freshwater and complicated polyculture system.
brackishwater culture. These efforts are
This lecture presents existing or
geared towards the replacement of traditional,
developing polyculture systems of seaweeds
almost unmanaged, harvest of natural
with marine animals in the ASEAN and Asian
populations with the most economical culture
countries. Polyculture using a) ponds and b)
techniques that will increase production and
open sea systems are covered. Suggestions
improve the quality of selected organisms.
are made on the use of other marine
Marine organisms presently being organisms for future polyculture systems,
commercially grown in "monoculture" (i.e., Culture of seaweeds incidental to or in relation
culture of single species) include: a) finfish, b) to culture of fishes are likewise considered.
shrimp, c) prawn, d) oysters, e) mussels, f) 2. POND POLYCULTURE OF SEAWEEDS
clams, g) scallops, and h) several species of WITH MARINE ANIMALS
seaweeds. Of the abovementioned, some
fishes, shrimps and prawns are the organisms In developing ponds for polyculture, a
which are sometimes cultured with seaweeds. decision must be made on what major product
Polyculture is a system of rearing two or is desired. Fish and crustacean cul-turist do
several compatible animal/s and/or plant not necessarily desire to produce seaweeds as
species. It remains to be fully utilized in most a crop. On the other hand, seaweed culturists
countries. Perhaps only Japan has made may raise some animals in their ponds as a
significant advances in this regard. Aside from by-product or secondary product. More often,
practical purposes of saving time and space, however, the animals are raised as a
the system allows for energy or food management tool in the control of undesirable
partitioning or budgeting among the different weed species.
organisms cultured. Hence, input of nutrient 2.1 Gracilaria pond culture
into the system may become unnecessary or (After Chen, 1976)
may be minimized through proper timing and
control of the levels of production of each Japan, China, Korea, Vietnam, India,
species involved. To attain this end, the roles Philippines and Taiwan have been practising
of organisms in relation to each other (or Gracilaria pond culture usually with shrimp
ecological niche) should be clear to the (Penaeus monodon), crab (Scylla serrata) or
culturists. The biology of the organisms milk-fish (Chanos chanos). Doty and Fisher
involved should also be well studied or (1986, as cited by Trono, 1986), reports that
defined. For example the roles of seaweeds in hatchery produced Gracilaria seedlings
relation to the omnivorous,

1
Professor and Director, Marine Science Institute, College of Science, University of the Philippines, Diliman; Quezon City,
Philippines.
2
Assistant Professor, Marine Science Institute, College of Science, University of the Philippines, Diliman, Quezon City, Philippines.
more than one percent of mollusc shell; and not
from spores are more superior in open field
more than 18 percent mixture of other seaweeds:
culture. The Gracilaria species used for culture
total not more than 20 percent foreign materials.
are: a) G. "verrucosa", the preferred species in
The moisture must not exceed 20 percent. The
Taiwan, b) G. lichenoides, c) G. gigas and d) G.
dried seaweed is packed in 100 kg gunny sacks for
compressa.
export or local sale.
Chen (1976) enumerated the following
Penaeus monodon tolerates up to 30°C and
ideal pond culture conditions of Gracilaria: a) the
10-35 ppt. The stocking density in nursery ponds is
rectangular pond, one hectare in size, should not
300 000 to 500 000 fry/ha. Later, stocking density is
be exposed to strong wind, the long axis
reduced to 10 000 to 12 000 juvenile/ha in grow-out
perpendicular to the direction of prevailing winds;
ponds as in polyculture with Gracilaria. "Lab-lab"
a windbreak may be constructed on the windward
which is the scum or crust of microbenthic algae
side, b) sufficient tidal flow to change water, c)
that may grow naturally in ponds (on poles or
sandy loam bottom, d) pH of 6-9 preferably 8.2 to
attached to macrobenthic algae such as Gracilaria),
8.7, and e) fresh water available to avoid above
serves as feed to the shrimps. Ricebran, dead fish
normal salinity.
or other protein sources can be ground with "lab-
2.1.1 Culture method lab" for feeding. Small-scale production of shrimps
Cuttings of Gracilaria can be broadcasted is usually achieved in this polyculture with
to grow on pond bottom planted in nets fixed on Gracilaria.
poles, or tide to monoline systems as is being 2.2 Caulerpa pond culture
done in Burma. Sporelings can be grown on To date, the Philippines is the only country
adobe or cement blocks added to the substratum known to be cultivating Caulerpa in ponds. The
as in Bacoor, Cavite, Philippines. Average water more popular species being cultured in Mactan
depth is 60-80 cm. Water is changed once every Island, Cebu and lately in Batangas is C. lentillifera.
two to three days and fertilization with 3 kg urea Production of this and other edible Caulerpa
or 120-180 kg fermented manure from pigsties species, however, remains to be dependent upon
when new water is introduced. The stocking natural stocks. Trono and Denila's (1987)
materials and time of harvest for a hectare of farm experiments on pond culture of C. lentillifera have
are as follows (Trono, 1986): shown that: a) there is seasonality in production
Organism Stocking Time of under farmed and natural conditions; b) seasonality
material (kg) harvest seems to be influenced by salinity primarily and
temperature and light intensity secondarily; c)
1. 4 000 to 5 after 3
production is better in ponds than in open natural
Gracilaria 000 mos.
conditions; and d) water management is an
2. Crab 5 000 to 10 3 mos. important factor for successful farming.
000
3. Shrimp 10 000 to 20 4-7 mos. Their experiments have also shown the
000 following growth rates and increase in biomass
production in C. lentillifera in pond culture.
Milkfish which can be stocked at 500 to 1 Stocking Growth rate Percent
000/ha can control the green algae (Ente- density increase
romorpha and Chaetomorpha) which may be 100 g/m2 15.16 940 percent
"pests" on Gracilaria. Other weeds include
g/m2/day
Acanthophora and Bangia. After the green algae
250 g/m2 19.78 478 percent
are gone, the milkfish will eat Gracilaria. When
this begins to happen they should be netted at the g/m2/day
water inlet where they congregate. 500 g/m2 32.00 376 percent
g/m2/day
Many Gracilaria farmers stock Penaeus
monodon or Scylla serrata to utilize fully the pond The conditions in the experimental fishpond
space and for additional income. Net income from about 1/4 of a hectare size were as follows: a)
this type of polyculture is three times as much as muddy substratum; b) temperature range of 22.5 to
monoculture of the seaweed. Annual production 37.5°C; c) salinity range of 23-36 o/oo (lowest in
of dual Gracilaria is about 10 000 to 12 000 kg. August highest in March of 1982); and d) light
Drying rates is 1.7. The criteria for maintaining the intensity range of 4 500-10 000 lux. Plants were
quality of export may be summarized as follows: produced by vegetative regeneration of stocks
not more than one percent mud and sand; not coming from Mactan Island, Cebu.
Although most of the fish and/or shrimp
in Japan and Korea, seaweed beds could be
culturists (in Mactan, Cebu) have apparently
maintained or developed for their shelter and
shifted to monoculture of Caulerpa, some have
protection. Ohno (1987) has been doing
retained small-scale production of these animals.
experiments to produce seaweed beds from artificial
With proper management, this polyculture system
substrates (reefs) for various stages of abalone
can be continued or enhanced. culture in Japan. In other ASEAN countries like the
Philippines, existing seaweeds beds could be
3. OPEN SEA POLYCULTURE OF SEAWEEDS utilized for this purpose.
WITH MARINE ANIMALS Spiny lobsters could also be grown in
Eucheuma, Porphyra, Undaria and seaweed beds in the open ocean. It has been found
Laminaria are the seaweed genera which have that the planktonic larvae swim into shallow coastal
been successfully cultured in nets or monolines waters to seek shelter in seaweed beds, particularly
attached to poles in the "open sea". Systems for among those members of Rhodophyta. The juvenile
their monocultures have been outlined by Trono lobster forage on these seaweed (and sea-grass)
(1986). Details of their culture techniques are not beds for molluscs and crustaceans. Since
considered in this paper since they are fully availability of feeding areas has been found to limit
covered by the other lectures. growth of the young lobsters, special types of
artificial structures to generate seaweed: beds are
3.1 Possibility of Eucheuma polyculture
also being built and tested in Japan (Ohno, 1987).
with giant clam, abalone or lobster
4. CULTURE OF SEAWEEDS IN RELATION
Eucheuma monoculture in the Philippines TO FISH CULTURE
is quite extensive. Existing farms are found in
Southern Philippines (which has the greatest Seaweeds are now being deliberately grown
production), Central Visayas and Batangas. Most or cultured in the open sea in order to expand,
of the farmers utilize about one hectare (per develop or conserve fishing grounds. In Japan, a
family) wherein 10 meters long one meter apart "National Scale Fishing Ground Engineering and
monolines are fixed on the substratum of reef Development Program" was launched in 1976.
areas. About 35 Eucheuma (30 to 50 g/bunch) Among others, the programme consists of
cuttings are tied at 20 to 25 cm interval per submersion of artificial reefs and breakwaters and
monoline. Since harvesting of whole plants are creation of seaweed beds and forests. All of these
usually done monthly when replacements or re- have been done in connection with a "marine
planting are done, spaces between mono-lines ranching program" that will enhance marine
could be unproductive or useless. Limited fisheries production within the country's territorial
numbers of giant clams which do not feed on limits (Yamane, 1987). These artificial reefs made of
seaweeds could then be cultured in these areas. cement blocks or steel are used as substrates to
Their shells can be substrates to the spores and develop seaweed beds and forests where other
sporelings of this genus whose thalli have been marine organisms could be grown as discussed in
recently found with tetraspores and carpospores the preceding paragraphs. Seaweed beds or forests
even in farming conditions. However, weeding of made up of Sargassum, Laminaria or Eisennia
other seaweeds that may also grow on the clams could serve as spawning or nursing areas for fishes
should also be done. (Ohno, 1987; Tsukidate, 1987). Tsukidate (1987)
reports that about 50 spp. of fishes belonging to 23
Giant clams of the genus Tridacna and families have been found along Sargassum
Hippopus have been successfully spawned in masses. These fishes belong more commonly to the
various laboratories in the Pacific. As a following genera: Sebastes, Sebasticus,
consequence, several species are now being Hexagrammos and Seriola. Floating or submerged
farmed in Australia, Philippines and several seaweeds serve as attachment of microalgae which
countries in South Pacific. Interest in these "self- can be: a) food for fish, b) substrate for their eggs,
feeding" bivalve is growing because of its and c) spawning ground (Kimura, 1987). Japanese
economic value. fishermen usually catch fishes along or adjacent to
Abalones which are herbivores could also floating Sargassum masses (Tsukidate, 1987).
be cultured to a limited extent in unproductive Other marine animals found in the seaweed
sites in a Eucheuma farm. Care and attention (Sargassum) beds are polychaetes and molluscs at
should be given so that they will not negatively their larval, young and adult stages (Tsukidate,
affect production of seaweeds. If the primary 1987; Ohno, 1987).
concern is abalone culture, the organism being In other Asian countries where seaweed
quite expensive and in demand as food especially beds still flourish, conservation and management of
their stocks need to be done or started soon. This 1987 Lecture, Training in Marine Ranching
is not only to protect the seaweed species from System, Kochi University, Kochi-ken, Japan.
overexploitation but also to maintain these sites 28 mimeograph pp.
as fishing grounds. Polyculture of suitable fishes
Ohno, M. (unpubl.). Creating of seaweed bed
in available or newly created seaweed beds can
1987 and artificial structure for spiny lobster
be done in countries other than Japan which has
and abalone. Lecture, Training in Marine
initiated the programme.
Ranching System, Kochi University, Kochi-
Incidental culture of seaweeds in ken, Japan.) 19 mimeograph pp. + 6 figs.
cultivation sites of some fishes has also been
Trono, G.C., Jr. Seaweed culture in the Asia-
observed. In the cage and pen culture of
1986 Pacific Region. Regional Office for Asia and
yellowtail (Seriola quinqueradiata) in Japan,
the Pacific (RAPA), Food and Agriculture
luxurious growth of Hypnea and Gracilaria has
Organization of the United Nations,
been noted. The culture of seabass (tales
Bangkok. 41 pp.
calcarifer) in Thailand has also yielded growth of
some Gracilaria species. Trono, G.C., Jr. and H.C. Denila. Studies on
1987 pond culture of Caulerpa. Phil. J. Science
Fish Attracting Devices (FADs) can also
Special Issue on Marine Science. Monogr.
have overgrowths of certain seaweed species.
No. 17:83-91.
They can be used as structures for seaweed
culture. The Philippine "payaw" which makes use Tsukidate, J. (unpubl.). Marine Ranching
of bamboo poles and leaves of terrestrial plants 1987 Program. Lecture, Training in Marine
can utilize seaweeds in order to attract fishes Ranching System, Kochi University, Kochi-
more effectively, and culture these marine plants ken, Japan. 15 mineograph pp.
at the same time. Yamane, T. (unpubl.). A national scale fishing
The (over) growth of seaweed species in 1987 ground development plan by means of
fish culture areas and FADs can be developed, artificial reef placement in the sea and its
maintained and controlled to generate secondary socio-economic effects in Japan.Lecture,
products. Training in Marine Ranching System, Kochi
REFERENCES University, Kochi-ken, Japan, 32
Bardach, J.E., J.H. Ryther and W.O. Mclarney. mimeograph pp.
1972 Aquaculture. The farming and hus-
bandry of marine organisms. New York:
Wiley. Interscience. xii, 688 pp.
Chen, T.P. Aquaculture practices in Taiwan.
1976 Fisheries New Books Ltd., Farnham,
Surrey, England, xiii, 162 pp.
Doty, M.S. and J. Fisher. Experiments with
1986 Gracilaria in Hawaii, Hawaii Botanical
Science Paper No. 46. University of
Hawaii. 486 pp. (as cited by Trono,1986).
Enomoto, Y. (unpubl.). Outline of aqua-
1987 culture in Japan. Lecture, Training in
Marine Ranching System, Kochi
University, Kochi-ken, Japan.33
mimeograph pp.
Gomez, E.D. Potential for polyculture of
1981 Gracilaria with milkfish or
crustaceans.Lecture 15. Report on the
training course on Gracilaria algae,
United Nations Development Programme,
Food and Agriculture Organization.
Manila, Philippines, April 1-30, 1981. pp.
91-93.
Kimura, H. (unpubl.)- Artificial fish reefs.
Lecture 13 and Practica 3
FIELD AND LABORATORY TECHNIQUES IN THE COLLECTION,
PRESERVATION AND PREPARATION OF MARINE BENTHIC ALGAE
FOR HERBARIUM AND FOR IDENTIFICATION

by

Edna T. Ganzon-
Fortes1

1. INTRODUCTION date of collection, kind of substrate of habitat.


Be sure to gather only what is needed for
To be able to effectively acquaint one's
conservation purposes. Delicate or small
self with the seaweeds, one must experience
materials should be placed in separate plastic
the collection of the specimens in the field and
bags (small) or vials. Many specimens can be
their preparation in the laboratory for the
removed from their substrates by hand but
herbarium. Only through the practice of
those closely adhering to rocks such as
handling and distinguishing the plants as they
crustose or mat-forming species may be
appear in nature or as pressed or preserved
removed with the help of a knife or any
specimens, can one develop the ease of
scraping material to secure the complete
identifying them. By carefully comparing the
holdfast. However, those species which may
specimen with the taxonomic description of the
adhere so closely to the rocks can be removed
species in the literature may lead to the right
with the rock using a geologist's pick or any
identification of the species.
similar instrument. For the epiphytic species,
2. COLLECTION OF SEAWEED this could be collected with a portion and the
MATERIALS host plant.
The following are the usual supplies and 3. PRESERVATION AND TRANSPORT OF
materials necessary for seaweed collection:
SEAWEED MATERIALS
• plastic bags, small bottles or vials, net Things needed are the following:
bags or pails
• knife (or any scraping material) • five to 10 percent solution of commercial
• labelling materials (pencil, pentel pen, formalin of sea water
hard paper or plastic card) • pails with cover or styrofoam boxes
• facemask, snorkel, glass bottom • labelling materials
• booties or rubber shoes • large plastic bags (sack size)
The best time for collecting the Prepare five percent solution of
seaweeds is during the hours of the falling tide. commercial formalin in sea water. Prepare a
It is best to go to the collection site one to two stronger solution of 10 percent if the
hours before the time of the low tide (minus specimens to be fixed could not be processed
tides are the best times) as predicted by the immediately. Remove all animal components,
tide table. This is to allow the collector rocks and other foreign materials from the
considerable amount of time to observe the collected seaweeds. Before addition of the
algae in their natural habitat, to record such formalin, drain the water from the plastic bag.
observations and to collect the specimens. The formalin should then be poured to the
seaweed materials inside the plastic bag in
When collecting, be sure to remove the amounts just enough to fill the bottom of the
complete plant (including the holdfast) from the bag. Additional formalin may be added if the
substrate and put this in the plastic bag materials are bulky or
together with the label which include the place,

1
Senior Research Assistant, Marine Science Institute, College of Science, University of the Philippines, Diliman, Quezon City,
Philippines.
fleshy. The fumes of the formalin.would be galvanized sheet and immerse both in a
enough to fix and preserve the algal materials. basin of clean water. Arrange the
All these materials should be properly labelled specimen on the mounting sheet while
with information on the place and date of under water to simulate their natural
collection, name of the collector and pertinent habit, especially when this is of the
observations on the character of the habitat filamentous type. Then lift the galvanized
written on quality paper or any substitute using sheet carefully from one side to allow the
indelible ink or pencil. Label also the plastic water to drain off gradually and to leave
bags using pentel pen. the specimen spread out and
undisturbed. Final arrangement of the
For transport of the plastic bags containing
specimen may be made when out of the
the preserved algal materials, these should be
water with the use of forceps and
placed in large styrofoam boxes or barrels or in
dissecting needles.
two to three layers of good quality large plastic
bags (approximately 0.6 x 1.0 m in size) Place the mounting sheet with the
properly tied with rubber band to prevent any specimen directly on top of the
leakage of formalin. newspaper which is spread out on the
4. HERBARIUM TECHNIQUES AND blotter resting on a ventilator. Cover the
PROCEDURES specimen with a cheese cloth. Then,
place another newspaper and blotter on
Things needed:
top of the cheese cloth. Add another
• basin with a flat bottom ventilator on top of the pile. The same
• galvanized sheet (approximately 31 x process is repeated for the rest of the
24 cm size) mounted specimens until a sizeable pile
• forceps is made. This pile should then be stacked
• dissecting needles between two wooden pressers. Enough
• mounting sheets (preferably two-ply pressure should be applied to the pile
velum paper cut into 1/4 and 1/2 sizes) while tying it tightly.
• paper cutter
• data notebook The whole stack is left to dry in an
• pencil oven-dryer under temperature of 65-70°C
• driers: cheese cloth, blotters, old for 24-32 hours (continuous) or three to
newspapers four days if oven is "on" only during
• ventilators: corrugated aluminum daytime, depending on the thickness of
sheets, corrugated cardboards the pile. If an oven-dryer is not available,
• wooden pressers frequent changing of the driers (such as
• strings or any tying material the wet blotters, newspapers and cheese
cloth) must be done until drying is
Upon returning to the laboratory, ready the complete.
above materials for preparation of seaweeds
for the herbarium. It would be convenient to For the crustose algal species, these
work on the individual collecting bags. Dump should be dried directly in the air, then
specimens contained in each bag into a flat- kept in small boxes of suitable size.
bottom basin containing fresh water to wash off Articulated, calcareous algae that are so
excess formalin and other foreign materials, fragile/or so three-dimensional as to
i.e., sand, pieces of shell, etc. Sort out the suffer badly from pressing should also be
seaweeds according to species. Assign a air-dried and kept in boxes. (Be sure to
collection number to one species collected in provide labels to each species in the
one area at one time. This number should be same way as the mounted ones). They
recorded in a data notebook together with the should, however, preferably be soaked
information on the name of the species, date for several days or weeks in a formalin
and place of collection, name of collector and solution containing 10 to 40 percent
other pertinent ecological data. This same glycerin before being dried and kept in
number should be written on the mounting small boxes. Glycerin retains the flexibility
sheet carrying the particular algal species. In of the genicula and prevents
mounting, place the paper on top of a flat fragmentation.
All seaweed specimens (mounted or in and only the thin ones can be separated
boxes) should be provided with labels from the rest using a dissecting
containing the following information: collection microscope.
number, name of species, place and date of For those materials with cylindrical or
collection, collector/s and other pertinent flattened branches, the same technique
ecological data if available. For those materials can be used. One to several of the
which do not stick to the mounting sheet use branches (depending on the diameter)
gum arabic glue or any substitute. Keep the should be placed between two slides
seaweed exsiccatae materials (dried as discussed above.
herbarium materials) in a cabinet.
The sections are stained with
5. PREPARATION OF SLIDES OF aqueous aniline blue using the same
MARINE BENTHIC ALGAE FOR procedure described for the "whole
IDENTIFICATION mounts".
5.1 Whole mounts
Microscopic forms of benthic algae 5.3 Squash mounts
especially the epiphytes are always mounted Materials which are soft and basically
wholly. To prepare temporary mounts, carefully filamentous in construction easily lend
wash the specimen on a petri dish by changing themselves to this special technique.
the fresh water several times until the sand or These may also include those materials
mud particles are removed. Then transfer the which are slightly calcified. These are
specimen to a clean glass slide. Stain it with first decalcified using 10 percent HC1
one percent aqueous aniline blue by adding solution right on the slide. Then remove
one to two drops of the stain, acidifying it with excess acid using tissue paper as
one drop of one percent HC1 after about a absorbent material. Wash the
minute, and then washing it with a drop or two specimen with distilled water by adding
of distilled water. Excess acidified stain and drop by drop of the liquid. Blot off
water may be blotted off with tissue paper. Add excess liquid with tissue paper.
a drop of glycerin or 45 percent Karo syrup The same procedure described for
with phenol to the specimen before putting the the "whole mounts" is followed when
cover slip. Apply nail polish to seal the edges staining the squash mounts.
of the cover slip.
All slides should be labelled; include
5.2 Cross-section mounts
the collection number, name of the
The sections of the branches may be used species and structure emphasized in
for anatomical studies. The freezing the slide.
microtome, if available, is one of the most
useful equipment for preparation of sections.
However, free hand sectioning may be easily
substituted for the microtome although the
sections may not be as good. Skill in making
sections can be developed through practice.
For materials which are foliose, good
sections may be produced by cutting a piece of
the blade, then folding this several times and
placing it between two glass slides in such a
way that a part of the specimen is exposed
beyond one end of the upper slide. Use the
upper slide as a guide for cutting. Be sure to
use new razor blades. The plane of cutting
should be tilted towards the far • end of the
material in such a way that several cuts could
be made before the upper slide is slid back a
little to expose more of the materials for further
cutting. Many of such sections should be made
PART III
COUNTRY REPORTS
STATUS OF SEAWEED CULTURE IN INDIA

by

V.S.K. Chennubhotla

Central Marine Fisheries Research Institute Cochin-31, India

propagation. Some trials were made with


1. INTRODUCTION spores as well. An appraisal of different
techniques adopted were as follows:
In India, Gulf of Mannar, Gulf of
Kuteh, Palk Bay, Lakshadweep and Bay 1.1 Culture of Gelidiella acerosa
islands are the important areas having Bhanderi (1974) cultured the apical
considerable natural resources along the 6 region of the Gelidiella acerosa by inserting
100 km long coast line of the country. these fragments in a string and suspended
About 680 species of seaweeds in a seawater aquarium at Port Okha,
belonging to the groups Chlorophyta, Gujarat. He observed a linear growth of
Phaeophyta, Rhodophyta and Cyanophyta 0.01 cm/day and an increase of 0.01 g/day
occur naturally in varying degrees of in weight. Krishnamurthy et al. (1975)
abundance in shallow bays, lagoons and conducted some experiments with 2 cm
coastal areas which offer suitable substrata fragments of G. acerosa in a lagoon on the
for their growth and propagation. southern side of Krusadi Island. After four
months, the fragments grew to full sized
Apart from their utility as a source of plants of about 10 cm in length with seven
food, food derivatives, vitamins, proteins, to eight branches.
etc., seaweeds provide the raw material for
many agar and algin-based industries. The In the same area Subbaramaiah et
exploitation of carrageenophytes such as al. (1975) carried out experiments on 2 cm
species of Hypnea, Acanthophora, length fragments of G. acerosa fastened to
Laurencia, etc. has yet to make a beginning a nylon string at fixed intervals and the
in the country as these are available in seeded string was wound round a rope kept
sizeable quantities. submerged in coastal waters. The
maximum growth attained was 6.6 cm and
In view of the constant demand for the rate of production was 3.13 g/m/month
the seaweeds, research programmes on (wet). The total production of seaweed was
seaweed resources and their culture were 421 g/m (wet) in a year.
taken up by the Central Marine Fisheries
Research Institute, and Central Salt and Experimental field cultivation of G.
Marine Chemicals Research Institute at acerosa using submerged coral stones as
Mandapam at their Regional and Field the substrata was done at Ervadi (Patel et
Centre, respectively, and various other al., 1979). An annual yield of 115.83
research organizations belonging to the g/m2/day (dry) on overall basis was
State Fisheries Departments/Universities. obtained which was 33 times over the seed
As regards seaweed farming, experiments material. Patel et al. (1980) reported a
were mainly carried out on species of Ulva, maximum yield of 122 g/m2 (dry) in one of
Gelidiella acerosa, Gracilaria edulis, their six monthly harvests made in January
Gracilaria corticata, Gelidiopsis variabilis, 1979 from the field cultivation of G. acerosa
Gelidium pusillum, Hypnea musiformis, at Ervadi.
Acanthophora spicifera, Hormophysa
triquetra, Cystoseira sp. and species of 1.2 Culture of Gracilaria edulis
Sargassum.
Raju and Thomas (1971) cultured
The experiments were mainly Gracilaria edulis by long line rope method
conducted by the method of vegetative in a sandy lagoon in Krusadi Island.
Fragments of 1 cm and 2.5-3 cm length The Central Marine Fisheries Research
were used for planting and they grew to a Institute at its Regional Centre at
length of 35-40 cm in about five months Mandapam conducted culture experiments
period. Three harvests were made at the especially with Gracilaria edulis and
end of 5, 8 and 10-1/2 months and the total Gelidiella acerosa. In seawater aquaria
harvest during the year was about 3.5 kg Gracilaria corticata (Umama-heswara Rao,
per 1 m length of rope. 1973) was cultured which showed an
increase in length from 1.8 to 5.5 cm in 90
Krishnamurty et al. (1975) carried days. Experiments with Gracilaria edulis in
out cultivation of G. edulis in a lagoon in the 0.5 m2 coir nets yielded very good results.
Krusadi Island. Fragments of 2.5 cm length The average height of the plants varied
were introduced in the twists of the ropes from 14 to 16 cm at the end of two months
which were tied to bamboo poles planted to and the fragments gained a weight of 213
the sea bottom. In about five months period, and 257 g, respectively. Experiments
the plants attained a length of 30 cm and conducted in 4 x 2 m size coir rope nets
the average weight of plant was about 300 yielded 4.4 kg (fresh weight) of seaweed
g. A total of three harvests were made in a per square meter in 80 days
period of 10 months. (Umamaheswara Rao, 1974a).
1.3 Culture of other red algae
The culture experiments were
Bhanderi (1974b) recorded a linear conducted by introducing fragments of the
increase of 0.02 cm/day and an increase of seaweed into the twists of the coir ropes
0.07 g/day in weight in his culture which in some cases were fabricated in the
experiments on Gracilaria corticata in form of nets of different sizes which in turn
seawater aquarium. In experiment with were tied to wooden poles fixed in the
Gelidiopsis variabilis, he obtained a linear coastal waters.
increase of 0.12 cm/day with an increase in
Experiments conducted in the
weight of 0.04 g/day.
submerged floating condition
Mairh and Sreenivasa Rao (1978) (Chennubhotla et al., 1978) proved to be
cultured Gelidium pusillum in the laboratory more beneficial than that at subtidal level.
under free floating conditions and using
The cultivation was attempted at
nutrient enricher and obtained maximum
slightly deeper water, i.e. 3-4 m depth on
fresh weight and full size within three to four
HDP rope nets to avoid intensity of
months. Rama Rao and Subbaramaiah
sedimentation and grazing by fish. The yield
(1980) cultured Hypnea musciformis and
obtained was about four times the initial
obtained four fold increase in 25 days.
weight after 70 days. Chennubhotla et al.
Thivy (1964) conducted culture (1977c) cultured G. acerosa by tieing small
experiments in ponds at Porbandar by fragments along with substratum (coral
attaching small plants of Sargassum piece) to the coir ropes in the net. One
cinctum, S. vulgare and S. wightii to coir frame was introduced with 0.9 kg and the
nets with the help of tape. The plants grew other with 1 kg seed material. A yield of 2.5
to a height of 15-52 cm for an initial 5-10 cm and 3 kg were obtained, respectively after
length within 40 days. 76 days.
Bhanderi and Trivedi (1977) made Experiments conducted by keeping
an attempt to study the possibility of the G. acerosa seeded coral stones kept in
culturing Hormophysa triquetra by cages were introduced in 2 to 4 meters
vegetative propagation in an aquarium. The depth. The growth of the seaweed was
fragments gained seven times (fresh found to be very luxuriant.
weight) over the initial weight at a rate of
The culture was attempted by
0.333 g/day.
fastening fragments of G. acerosa to coral
2. SEAWEED CULTURE EXPERIMENTS stones with the help of iron nails, reached
AT CENTRAL MARINE FISHERIES harvestable size after five months and 1 kg
RESEARCH INSTITUTE (CMFRI) of seed material yielded 3.1 kg of full grown
plants.
Fragments of Sargassum wightii floating plants were found to be longer
obtained from the basal portion of plants (1.25-1.7 m) and produced branches while
with holdfast were inserted in the twists of the attached ones were shorter (0.75-0.83
the coir ropes and cultured in inshore m).
waters of Gulf of Mannar at 1 m depth in
The effect of different culture media
mid-water level. An average growth of 15.5
on growth and sporulation of laboratory
cm was recorded from an average initial
raised germlings of Ulva fasciata was given
length of 7.7 cm within 60 days
by Oza and Sreenivasa Rao, (1977). Kale
(Chennubhotla et al. 1976, unpublished).
and Krish-namurty (1967) studied the effect
Cultivation of Acanthophora of plain seawater, Erdschreiber seawater
spicifera was carried out on 2 HDP rope and artificial seawater medium (modified
nets in 60 x 30 m sized ponds which are ASP-6) on the growth of germlings of Ulva
connected through a feeder canal to the lactuca var rigida.
sea. An average yield of 22.615 kg (wet
Mairh and Krishnamurty (1968)
weight) was obtained after 45 days from the
observed 100 percent germination of
two nets which was found to be 3.6 times
spores of Cystoseira and subsequently 94
the initial seed material. The remnants were
percent of their survival. The germlings
allowed to grow for the second harvest
survived and grew to young and healthy
which was made after 35 days. An average
plants under experimental conditions.
yield of 14.4 kg was obtained in the second
Chauhan and Krishnamurty (1967) cultured
harvest (Chennubhotla et al, unpublished).
the oospores of Sargassum swartzii in
Experiments on Ulva lactuca, pre- petridishes lined with filter paper. They
treated with ascorbic acid were cultured in developed into germlings and some of them
the sea-water of different salinities in the grew for a period of five weeks.
laboratory. It was observed that the trials Experiments were also conducted using
with 18 percent salinity boosted up the different substrata such as coral pieces,
production to eight times in 92 days shells, granite stones, nylon threads and
(Chennubhotla et al, unpublished). rough stones. Some of the oospores
2.1 Culture of spores attached to the substrata developed into
healthy germlings while a large number did
The number of spores produced by not survive. Continuous illumination of the
an alga is enormous. In nature only a small culture experiments with a light intensity of
number of spores grow to mature plants 600-800 lux, 23-26°C temperature and
since viability, settlement and development circulation of a thin stream of filtered
of these spores are controlled by hydrobio- seawater were found favourable for healthy
logical factors such as water movement, growth of germlings. Chauhan (1972)
tidal exposure, water temperature, observed the survival of germlings in
competition for space and predators or Sargassum swartzii for about six months
grazing organisms. When the spores are under the controlled laboratory conditions.
raised into germlings on suitable substrata Of the eight different substrata used, the
in the laboratory or nursery and then concrete blocks, bricks and filter paper were
transplanted to the field, a high rate of found to be good substrata as they retained
germlings grow to harvestable size plants. 84.55 percent, 78.42 percent and 62
Some work in this direction of culturing the percent of the germlings, respectively. The
spores of economically important seaweeds filtered seawater and enriched seawater
was carried out in recent years. were found to be most suitable culture
Subbaramaiah et al. (1967) cultured media for the growth of germlings. The use
germlings of Ulva laduca. The germlings of media like ASP-6 and ASP-12 did not
were kept growing in attached or in a free give good growth of germlings. Continuous
floating condition in petridishes containing illumination was found to be more beneficial
sterile sea-water which was changed once than 18 hours photoperiod.
a week. In two months time the germlings Raju and Venugopal (1971) made
differentiated into cylindrical plants with 2-3 an attempt to allow the oospores of
branches arising from the basal cells. The Sargassum plagiophyllum to settle on a
concrete substratum with a view to find out Although there were variations with respect
the time required for the appearance and to the quantity of seed material introduced,
growth. The concrete cylinders were the yield rate showed fluctuations during
lowered in Sargassum beds. Observations certain seasons. In order to understand
revealed that the appearance of Sargassum these variations, relevant environmental
germlings on the cylinder took 10 months data were collected from the inshore waters
and another eight months to grow to where culture operations were carried out.
maturity. Observations after one year
The average values of each
revealed that there were a number of new
environmental parameters such as surface
plants which had germinated from the
temperature, salinity, O2 and nutrients
spores within the year and some had
during each culture operation were
regenerated from persisting holdfasts.
compared in relation to biomass increase
There appear to be potentiality for
and duration of culture period (Table 1). It
regeneration for a third year in a few plants.
was observed that no single environmental
Umamaheswara Rao and Kaliape-rumal
parameter could be pinpointed as
(1976) maintained the oospores of
responsible for variation in production. At
Sargassum wightii in a medium of seawater
best it could be inferred that a complexity of
enriched with agar and found that 47.6
environmental factors operating in a
percent of germlings were in healthy
dynamic inshore area may be responsible
condition at the end of 60 days.
for seasonal variation in the yield of
Krishnamurthy et al. (1969) raised the
seaweeds. The Gulf of Mannar and Palk
germlings of Gracilaria edulis and G.
Bay experience contrasting seasonal
corticata on a nylon fabric from carpo-
changes ' in wind velocity and direction and
spores under laboratory conditions. They
wave action. The solar radiation in the
were transferred to the sea. After four
region, rainfall, transport of inorganic and
months, young plants appeared and they
organic material into the region are some of
took another four months to attain maturity
the factors Other than those observed
and develop reproductive structures.
parameters.
Chennubhotla et al. 1977
(unpublished) conducted laboratory culture
experiments on the viability, germination 2.3 Survey of seaweed resources
growth of germlings of Turbinaria ornata The surveys conducted in various
and Gracilaria edulis under controlled maritime states of India have revealed that
temperature of 18±2 and light intensity of 4 the resources of seaweeds along the coasts
K lux. The spores of T. ornata were found to can be put around 1 lakh tonnes. The
be viable even after a period of two months, break-up figures are as follows:
but growth of germlings was not
satisfactory. Carpospores of G. edulis were
allowed to germinate and parenchymatous Stn. Annual
stage of development was noticed. No. yield
It is understood that UNDP/BOBP Area in tonnes References
Programme at Madras has embarked on (fresh
culture of seaweeds by tetraspores in weight)
Mandapam-Vedalai area. This may throw I Tamil Nadu 22 044 Subbaramaia
light on the aspect of spore culture in the h et al.
natural environment. (1979a)

2.2 Environmental factors in


relation to seaweed culture
In the Central Marine Fisheries
Research Institute, the culture experiments
were conducted in different seasons of the
years from 1976 to 1985 continuously.
II Gujarat 20 000 Chauhan and have revealed- that on the culture frames
Krishnamurty. the agarophyte Gracilaria edulis reaches
(1968) the maximum length (harvestable size)
Bhanderi and within three months while in nature it takes
4 to 5 months time.
Trivedi (1975)
Sreenivasa These studies have further indicated
Rao et al. that the minimum period for the seed
(1964) material to reach harvestable size is two
Chauhan and months for G. edulis and that the length of
Mairh (1978) the algae at the time of harvest would be 20
to 25 cm. The suitable period for carrying
III Maharashtra 20 000 Untawale et
out the culture operations are October to
al. (1979) April in Gulf of Mannar and May to
IV Lakshadwee 8 000 Subbaramaia September in Palk Bay.
p Islands h et al.
(1979b) Harvesting is done by hand picking
or by cutting the crop with sickles leaving
V Goa 2 000 Dhargalkar
the basal portions to the net for
(1981) regeneration. One kilogram of seed material
VI Kerala 1 000 Chennubhotla of G. edulis yields an average of 3 kg/m2 of
et al. (1987) net after 60 days of growth. In one-ha area
73 044 of nets (i.e. 1000 nets) 30 tonnes of fresh
VII Unexplored 27 000 G. edulis could be harvested. Based on the
areas above studies, the economics of culture of
Total 100 000 G. edulis has been worked out for a hectare
area and details are given below.
The seaweeds along the Indian
coast are mainly harvested by small- as For the cultivation of G. edulis in
well as large-scale industrialists by one-ha area, 1 000 coir nets of 5 x 2 m size
engaging divers. Seaweed collection is an are used. Two thousand casuarina poles of
occupation by itself and offers employment 1.5 m height and 10 000 kg for fresh seed
to rural population. There are a number of material (for initial introduction) are
agents who deal directly with the collection required. The cost of 2 000 casuarina poles
and supply of seaweeds to the industries. is Rs 6 000/-(approximately) and the cost of
The methods of collection of seaweeds are 1 000 coir rope nets is Rs 33 000/- including
very crude at present and hence extension charges for fabrication. The seed material
work is very essential to educate the people will be collected for the initial introduction
in collection and management of the natural from the natural beds and from the cultured
beds in a judicious way. crop for the subsequent seeding. Wages for
seeding harvesting and maintenance of the
3. ECONOMICS OF SEAWEED farm for four persons at the rate of Rs 10/-
CULTURE per day for 360 days work out to Rs 14
In view of the importance of marine 400/-. The total expenditure for one year
algae as a source of food, fodder fertilizer would be Rs 54 000/- including a
and . pharmaceutical compounds, miscellaneous expenditure of Rs 600/-. The
augmentation of this resource by different estimated cost is arrived at on the
methods has to be undertaken. The assumption that a minimum of four harvests
economics worked out by the Central could be made in a year. A total of 120
Marine Fisheries Research Institute indicate tonnes (fresh weight) of crop could be
that at least a minimum of Rs 500/- per obtained from the four harvests in a year
month accrues to the farmer by taking up when the yield is 3 kg/m2. If the seaweed is
cultivation in one hectare area. dried (75 percent moisture) and marketed at
a rate of Rs 2 000/-per tonne, the net profit
Culture experiments conducted in would be Rs 6 000/-for one year.
the inshore coastal waters from 1972 to
1986 in Gulf of Mannar and in Palk Bay
If the harvested seaweed is dried and 4.2 The seaweed farmer and his family
converted as agar, the profits will be members or some families jointly have
around Rs 100 000. toundertake on cooperative basis, the
3.1 Predators cultivation of seaweeds and extract agar.
At Mandapam, the culture frames were 4.3 The cultivation of seaweeds is beset
often the target of attack by certain fishes with problems such as grazing by fish in
like Siganus javus and S. canaliculatus. the sea and hence some times the yield in
The crabs, Thalamita crenata and T. the crop and thereby the production may
integra caused extensive damage to come down from the expected level.
growing parts of the seaweeds by merely Hence, some attempt should be made to
clipping them with their Chelipeds as they find out the methods of controlling the
crawl about amongst the seaweed (fames grazing of the crop by fishes and other
el al., 1980). The problem of predators can predators.
be solved to a great extent by enclosing 4.4 In order to enable the fishermen or
the cultivation area with latticed fence or a landless labour to undertake the seaweed
net of a suitable mesh size. cultivation, the government or some
3.2 Effects of hormones on the funding agencies may offer credit
seaweed growth facilities with subsidies under the
programmes such as IRDP, DPAP, etc.
Studies on this aspect are very limited. which will be of immense use to them.
Oza (1971) has found that low
4.5 Use of hormones and fertilizers
concentrations of IAA progressively
must be tried in the culture fields or the
stimulated the growth of Gracilaria corticata
seed material may be pre-treated with
while higher concentrations were found to
hormones.
be lethal. Raju (1971) conducted
experiments on the effect of hormones and 4.6 Evolving of hybrid varieties of
fertilizers on the photo-synthetic carbon seaweeds by genetical methods may be
assimilation in Ulva fasciata, Sargassum given due consideration.
sp. and Gracilaria corticata. The 4.7 Transplantation of commercially
photosynthetic uptake of C14 was found to important exotic species like Eucheuma
be maximum in G. corticata followed by U. and Caulerpa lentillifera will be attempted
fasciata treated with gibberrellic acid. In in Indian waters in suitable locations.
Sargassum maximum effect on
photosynthetic C14 assimilation was BIBLIOGRAPHY
observed in plant supplied with ammonium
sulphate. Tewari (1975) found that Bhanderi, P.P. Culture of the agar yielding
Chlorflurenol in hormonal range increased 1974 seaweeds on ropes from
the fresh weight and the number of Gujarat.J. mar. biol. Ass. India.
proliferations. But the elongation growth 16(3): 847-848.
was found to be inhibited. Chauhan and Bhanderi. P.P. and Y.A. Trivedi. Seaweed
Joshi (1979) reported that Indole-3-acetic 1975 resources of Hanumandandi reef
acid at the concentration of 105 proved a and Numani reef near Okha
stimulant on the growth of Sargassum Port.Indian J. mar. Sci., 4(1): 97-99.
swartzii germlings than the other Bhanderi, P.P. and Y.A. Trivedi. Rope
concentrations tried. The 10-3 to 10-6 M culture
concentration of gibberettic acid helped in 1977 of algin yielding seaweed
increasing the length of pseudophylls of the Hormophysa triquetra (Linnaeus) Ku
sporelings. Bot. Mar., 20(3).
Chauhan,V.D.and V. Krishnamurthy.
4. CONCLUSIONS AND
1967 Observations on the output of
RECOMMENDATIONS
oospores, their liberation, viability
4.1 Attempts have to be made to and germination in Sargassum
simplify the seaweed culture technology so swartzii (Turn.) C.Ag. Proc. Semi.
as to reduce the cost of production and to Sea Salt and Plants, CSMCRI,
make the technology economically viable. Bhavanagar, pp. 197-201.
Chauhan, V.D. and V. Krishnamurthy. An Krishnamurthy, V., P.V. Raju and R.
1967 estimate of algin bearing seaweeds Venugopal.
in the Gulf of Kutch. Curr. Sci. 37. 1969 An aberrant life history in Gracilaria
648.Chauhan, V.D. and H.V. Joshi. edulis. J.Ag. Curr. Sci. 38(14): 343-344.
Effect of Krishnamurthy, V., P.V. Raju and P.C.
1979 Indole-3-acetic acid and gibberellic 1975 Thomas. On augmenting seaweed
acid on the early growth of resources of India. J. mar. biol. Ass.
Sargassum.Proc. Int. Seaweed India.17(2): 151-155.
Symp. Marine Algae of the Indian Mairh, O.P. and V. Krishnamurthy. Culture
Ocean Region. 1968 studies on Gelidium pusillum
CSMCRI,Bhavanagar, India p. 23 (Stack). La Jollis. Bot. Mar., 21(3):
(Abstract). 169-174.
Chauhan, V.D. and O.P. Mairh. Report on Oza, R.M. Effect of IAA on the growth of
1978 the survey of marine algae 1971 fragments of Gracilaria corticata.
resourcesof Sourashtra coast. Salt. Seaweed Res. Util, 1: 48-49.
Res. India,14(2): 21-41. Oza, R.M. and P. Sreenivasa Rao. Effect
Chennubhotla, V.S.K., N. Kaliaperumal and of
1978 S. Kalimuthu. Culture of 1977 different culture media on growth
Gracilariaedulis in the inshore and sporulation of laboratory raised
waters of Gulf of Mannar germlings of Ulva fasciata sellis.
(Mandapam) Indian J. Fish.25 (1 Bot. Mar. 20(7): 427-431.
and 2). 228-229. Patel, J.B., B.V. Gopal, V.R. Nagulan,
Chennubhotla, V.S.K., S. Kalimuthu, 1979 K. Subbaramaiah and P.C. Thomas.
1977 M. Najmuddin and M. Experimental field cultivation of Geli-
Selvaraj.Fieldculture of Gelidiella diella acerosa at Ervadi, India.
acerosa in the inshore waters of Proc.Int. Symp. Marine Algae of the
Gulf of Mannar, Supple-ment to Indian Ocean Region. CSMCRI,
Jour. Phycos. 13. Bhavanagar, pp. 24-25 (Abstract).
Chennubhotla, V.S.K., S. Kalimuthu and Patel, J.B.. B.V. Gopal, V.R. Nagulan,
1986 M. Selvaraj. Seaweed culture: Its 1980 K. Subbaramaiah and P.C.
feasibility and industrial Thomas.Experimental field
utilization.Proc. Symp. Coastal cultivation of Gelidiella acerosa at
Aquaculture, 4: 1206-1209. Ervadi. Symp.Coastal Aquaculture.
Chennubhotla, V.S.K., B.S. Marine Biol. Ass India. Cochin, pp.
Ramachandrudu, 189 (Abstract).
1987 P. Kaladharan and Raju, P.V. The effect of its situ application
.K.sharmaraja.Seaweed resources 1971 of growth hormones and fertilizerson
of Kerala coast.Seminar on photosynthetic C14 incorporation in
Fisheries Research and Develop- some marine algae. Bot. Mar. 14(2):
ment in Kerala, Trivandrum. 129-131.
Dhargalkar, V.K. Studies on marine algae Raju, P.V. and P.C. Thomas. Experimental
1981 of the Goa coast. Ph. D. 1971 field cultivation of Gracilaria
Thesis,Bombay University, Bombay. edulis(Gmel.) Silva. Bot. Mar.
186 pp. 14(2): 71-75.
James, P.S.B.R., V.S.K. Chennubhotla and Raju, P.V. and R. Venugopal. Appearance
1980 J.X. Rodrigo. Studies on the fauna 1971 and growth of Sargassum
associated with the cultured plagiophyllum (Mart.) C.Ag. on a
seaweed Gracilaria edulis. Proc. fresh substratum.
Symp. Coastal Aqua-culture, MBAI, Bot. Mar. 14(1): 36-38
Cochin.
Sreenivasa Rao, P., E.R.R. Iyengar and
Kale, S.R. and V. Krishnamurthy. Effect of 1964 F. Thivy. Survey of algin bearing
1967 different media on the germlings of seaweeds at Adatra reef, Okha.
Ulva lactuca var rigida. Phycos, 6 (1 Curr.Sci. 33: 464-465.
and 2): 32-35.
Subbaramaiah, K., K. Rama Rao. M.R.P.
Nair.
1979a C.V.S. Krishnamurthy and M. Para-
masivam. Marine algal resources Thivy, F. Marine algal cultivation. Salt.
of Tamil Nadu. Proc. Int. Symp. Res.
Marine Algae of the Indian Ocean
Region. CSMCRI, Bhavanagar, 1984 Ind. 1: 23-28.
India, p. 14.
Umamaheswara Rao, M. The seaweed
Subbaramaiah, K., K. Rama Rao and poten-
M.R.P.
1973 tial of the seas around India. Proc.
1979b Nair. Marine algal resources of Lak- Symp. on Living Resources of the
shadweep. Proc. Int. Symp. Marine Seas Around India (1968). pp. 687-
Algaeof the Indian Ocean Region. 692.
CSMCRI,Bhavanagar, India. pp. 6-7
Umamaheswara Rao, M. On the cultivation
(Abstract).
1974 of Gracilaria edulis in the
Tewari, A. The effect of morphaction on
nearshore areas around Mandapam. Curr.
1975 the vegetative growth of Gelidiella Sci. 43(20): 660-661.
acerosa. Phycos. 14(1 and 2): 125-
Umamaheswara Rao, M. and N.
128.
Kaliaperumal.
1976 Some observations on the liberation
and viability of oospores in
Sargassum wightii (Greville) J.Ag.
Indian J. Fish.,23(1 and 2): 232-235.

Table 1. Data on seaweed production and related environmental factors in


Gulf of Mannar and Palk Bay, Southeast Coast of India
Mean values of hydrological data
Initial
No. of Surfac
weigh Averag
days of Final eTemp Salinit
to seed egain O2ml Po4
Year culture weight e- y N03 Sio6 PH
materi of seed /1 ug-at/1
operatio (kg) rature( (%)
al (kg)
n °C)
(in Kg)
1976 40 0.9 4.00 0.077 28.6 29.16 4.57 0.29 0.49 12.59 8.2
0 5
Gulf of
Manna 30 1.0 4.30 0.110 27.7 32.79 4.65 0.45 0.53 8.25 8.2
r 0 0
1977
Gulf of
Manna 88 34. 162.1 1.456 27.3 30.31 4.38 1.55 0.15 0.73 8.13
r 7 5
1979 60 1 800. 4.70 48.33 29.68 32.03 4.59 2.78 12.10 3.65 8.18
00
Gulf of
Manna
r
1980 90 6.6 16.17 0.105 29.48 35.29 4.59 0.59 3.13 6.36 8.20
5 8
Palk 70 560. 733.7 2.481 28.69 31.76 5.1 0.82 9.85 18.11 8.10
Bay 0 4 7
1984-
85
Gulf of
Manna 60 2.4 7.50 0.085 27.3 30.00 4.9 7.9
r 0 5
1985
Gulf of
Manna 55 1.8 9.50 0.140 29.3 29.72 5.5 0.12 0.44 60.00 7.4
r 0 0 1
THE DEVELOPMENT OF SEAWEED CULTURE IN
KEPULAVAN, SERIBU, JAKARTA

by
Darjamuni Staff, Marine Fisheries
Production
Jakarta Fisheries Service
J1. Medan Merdeka Selatan No. 8-9
Block G, 21st Floor, Jakarta, Indonesia

I. INTRODUCTION problem is the collector does not buy the


Kepulavan Seribu lies north of Jakarta. Eucheuma product on a regular basis. To
Most of the coastal waters in Kepulavan overcome these problems the government
Seribu is suitable for seaweed culture, e.g., advised the farmers to join in cooperatives.
Pari Island, Laneang Island, Panggang Island, The collector/exporter must buy the
etc. There are many species of seaweeds Eucheuma product from the cooperative.
which have economic value that can be On April 1988 the exporter in Jakarta
cultivated such as Eucheuma, Gracilaria, exported about 20 mt dried product from the
Gelidium and Hypnea. But most of the market Kepulavan Seribu to Hong Kong.
demand preferred on Eucheuma mainly. The Since seaweed is tradeable commodity and
other species are under research by source of foreign currency, it is reasonable
Department of Agriculture. that the government of Indonesia pushing up
In Kepulavan Seribu, seaweed culture is not seaweed production by applying new methods
the source of the main income but only a and technology.
secondary activity to fill spare time. So, the
production is still low and not managed as a
business.
We began culturing Eucheuma cottonii
since October 1986 using seedlings from Bali.
There are two culture methods in Kepulavan
Seribu:
a) OFF bottom method; and
b) Floating method.
1.1 Area
Kepulavan Seribu has a high potential for
producing seaweed but at the moment only
about 1.5 ha have been planted to Eucheuma
cottonii. -

1.2 Production
The Eucheuma cottonii production in
Jakarta is still low till January 1988, the wet
production is only 300 mt. We hope in the
long run seaweed culture will be projected as
tradeable goods to fulfill the demand of
international market. On the other hand, it
means increasing fishfarmer's income.

1.3 Marketing
The most important problems in seaweed
marketing is the very low market price
compared with the production cost. The
farming site is too far from Jakarta. The other
REPORT ON EUCHEUMA CULTURE PRODUCTION IN
BALI PROVINCE, INDONESIA, 1987

by
Ketut Kiteartika
Staff, Marine Resources Section
Dinas Perikanan, J1. Patimura No. 77
Denpasar, Bali, Indonesia

1. INTRODUCTION 3. MARKETING
Bali Province has a coastline of about Most of the seaweed production from
470 km. It consists of several islands, namely: Bali Province were mainly marketed to the
Nusa Penida, Nusa Lembongan, Nusa Ceni- other districts especially in Java (Surabaya and
ngan, Nusa Dua, Pulau Serangan and Pulau Jakarta), with the exception of Eucheuma
Menjangan. Most of the coastal areas in Bali which are generally marketed for export to
Island are characterized by growing reefs, other countries.
particularly by sandy bottoms which gradually
slopes toward the sea. 4. PROBLEMS
2. PRODUCTION The problems of the Eucheuma culture
The production of Eucheuma culture in in Bali Province are as follows:
Bali Province is about 73 899.40 mt. These a) The plants are grazed by small fishes and
production has been produced from an area of are affected by heavily rainfall in the
179.1 hectares and has come from three culture site.
different places namely:
b) Eucheuma plants are being disturbed by
a) Badung 5 070.00 mt different species of seaweeds such as
b) Jemberana 39.40 mt Ulva species which cause the main
c) Klungkung 68 790.00 mt branches of the plant break down.
73 899.40 mt
CURRENT SITUATION OF SEAWEED AQUACULTURE
DEVELOPMENT IN KOREA1

I. INTRODUCTION
1.1 Geographic characteristic of Korean Koreans enjoyed seaweed as daily food from
coast ancient time, and could do seaweed culture
easily owing to such rich marine environmental
The surrounding waters of Korean peninsula
benefaction.
has special environmental characteristics
according to the eastern, western and 1.2 The sea current and water masses
southern coasts. There are correlation between the sea
The first, is the eastern coast characterized currents of Korean adjacent sea and that of
by a sudden drop in water depth, the surf is Pacific Ocean especially the current of Korean
strong, many submerged rocks/reefs, and the waters is mainly influenced by Tsushima warm
coastline is monotonous without irregular current which is the branch stream of Kuroshio
curves; the current is more influenced by the current originating from eastern Philippines and
Liman cold current than the Tsushima warm is flowing upwards to the western Pacific through
current; seaweed culture of this area is the eastern China Sea. Therefore, the
possible to place long line rope structure for characteristic of currents and water masses in
sea mustard and sea tangle. accordance with the three sides of Korean
waters is characterized as follows: (a) in the
The second, the southern coast, is southern coast, the Kuroshio current forms the
characterized by severe curved coastline as West Sea (Yellow Sea) warm current flowing
fiord, and there are many islands including into the western sea through the southern part of
many inlet bays. The current is influenced Jeju Island; (b) in the eastern coast, the
strongly with Tsushima warm current. The Tsushima current forms the Korean east sea
rising and falling tidal wave as well as warm current, and this is faced with the Liman
moderate water depth is adequate to place cold current, the North Korea cold current
various cultural structure such as hanging, long flowing downwards with lowered temperature by
line rope and bamboo raft type. There are cold weather and thawed ice during winter; and
many species of cultural organisms. Therefore, (c) in the western coast, the Yellow Sea warm
this coastal area has become the center of current flowing in through western Jeju Island as
culture in Korea, and almost all of the major the branch stream of Tsushima current flowing
seaweed culture such as sea mustard and upwards to the northwestern coast of China
laver is centered on this area. during April to August. The strength of , this
The third, the western coast, is characterized current is relatively weak comparing to the China
with many isles including complicated coastal line waters flowing downward by forming
coastline, though this phenomena is relatively cold current. Consequently, the two kinds of
smaller than the southern coast. There is a currents are forming a reflux in the central part of
long stretched shallow water with a broad tidal Yellow Sea, and Yellow Sea bottom cold current
land. The high tidal wave of ebb and flow is is going downward as a result (Figure 1).
well known worldwide. Consequently, the laver
culture has been practiced since long ago, and
floating net culture system of laver is now
under extension.

1
Reported by Mr. Jung Jin-Tae, Staff, National Fisheries Research and Development Agency, Republic of Korea.
Figure 1. Sea current of Korean coastal area

1.3 The distribution of water temperature in West Sea (the Yellow Sea) resulted mainly
surrounding waters of Korea from the fact that the heat advection into the
The seasonal variation of sea surface East Sea by the Tsushima current is more
temperature in Korean waters ranges from 5 to pronounced than that into the West Sea by the
27°C in general (Figure 2). The sea surface Yellow Sea warm current. On the other hand,
temperature (SST) in Korean waters depends the maximum SST in the neighbouring sea of
not only on incoming radiation but also on heat Korea occurs between mid-August and early
advections by winds and ocean current as September (Figure 3).
mentioned above. The heat advection by the
Asian monsoon decreases the mean SST and 1.4 The distribution of seaweed (algae)
increases the annual range of SST, while the The algae distributed in Korean coastal area
heat advection by warm currents such as is predominant in the temperate zone flora
Tsushima current and the Yellow Sea current (this flora occupied over 70 percent of the total
increases the mean SST and decreases the amount of algae). In accordance with the
annual range of SST. Also, it is shown that the different coasts the situation of flora is
higher mean SST and smaller range of SST in classified as follows:
the East Sea (the sea of Japan) than in the

Figure 2. Monthly variation of SST according to the major cultural areas


Figure 3. Mean oceanographic chart of the adjacent sea of Korea (SST)

1.4.1 East coast a) The annual plants (in common name)


Although there are predominant Laver, sea mustard, green laver, the family of
family of northern seaweed flora than any Gulf weeds and others.
other coast resulting from the influence of
b) The perennial plants (in common
cold current, it is shown that the central part
name)
of the eastern coast is also distributed with
the family of temperate zone flora near-, ing Hijiki, Irish moss (Rock moss, carragheen),
about 70 percent among total seaweed flora. seaweed cava, tangle (kelp), agar, seaweed
tenella, Zostera marina (scientific name), and
1.4.2 West coast
others.
Although the distribution of the family 1.5 Major culturing seaweed
of temperate zone flora reaches about 71
percent among total seaweed flora and is Here, the major algae being cultured now in
poor in the northern flora, owing to the weak Korea are as follows:
cold current as the special tidal land is 1.5.1 Laver {Porphyra spp.)
broad, the algae is distributed only to the
surrounding coast of isles so the flora of This is the major algae cultured as well
seaweed is poor. as sea mustard, and the history of culture is
the oldest one. The culture area stretches from
1.4.3 South coast southern coast to the eastern coast, and the
The family of temperate zone flora center of culture is located in Wando, Shinan,
occupies about 70 percent among total Hadong, etc. in southern coast and Seochon,
seaweed flora, and there are many large and Anmyundo, etc. in western coast (Figure 4).
small islands as well as severe curved 1.5.2 Sea mustard (Undaria pinatifida)
coastline in the geographical condition.
Many, subtropical temperate zone algae is This is one of the most cultured alga
distributed in the coast of Jeju island. It is and is distributed all along the coastal areas.
general characteristic in Korean coast There are abundant, good quality Undaria in
belonging to the temperate zone that the the eastern coast growing in natural state. The
algae after reaching highest growth during technique of artificial seeding was introduced
spring (from March to May) is declining in Korea in 1962 and the production amounted
during summer. to 300 thousand tons in 1986; the center of
culture area is Wando in the southern coast
Now, the algae showing abundant and Ilgwang, Kijang in neighbouring Pusan
distribution in Korean coast in accordance (Figure 4).
with life cycle are as follows:
1.5.3 Sea tangle (Laminaria)
This is generated abundantly in the
Although the Gelidiaceae is found all
north eastern coast going upward to latitude
over the Korean coast, the production of this
of 38° parallel line. The culture of this
alga is from natural algae collection until now.
species is practised a little in the east
But recently, because the price of raw material
southern coast.
as agar products is high, the culture of
1.5.4 Hijiki (Hijikia) Gelidium amansii is under experiment in
Although this is found almost all over southern coast.
the Korean coast, the culture of this species 1.6 The status of shallow sea culture in
is practised only in Jeju island including Korea (Figure 5)
Wando of southern coast.
Korea has shown rapid progress in
1.5.5 Agar (Gelidium spp.)
marine cultural fisheries from the late 1960's.
Although the total amount of maricultural
production attained 19 thousand tons, only

Figure 4. A map showing major seaweed aquaculture areas


Figure 5. Yield of total shallow sea cultural Figure 6. Yield of total fisheries
products, (1986) products (1986)

culture with supply of artificial seeding in


4.1 percent was part of the total Korean
governmental basis as well as the activation of
fisheries production in 1962. The production of
license system in private cultivation area has
947 thousand tons in 1982 has shown about
acted effectively to the rapid progress of
50 percent increase compared to that in 1962
mariculture in Korea.
and which occupied 25.9 percent of total
Korean fisheries production (Table 1 and 1.7 The status of seaweed culture in
Figure 6). On the other hand, the development Korea
of culture areas which reached about 100
The major seaweeds cultivated in
thousand hectares in 1986 showed occupying
Korea are laver, sea mustard, kelp including
about 55 percent in total possible maricultural
hijiki and green laver which is now under
area that is estimated about 183 thousand
extension stage (Figure 7). In Table 2, it is
hectares. This maricultural fishery has made
shown that the culture of laver has been under
such a rapid progress due to great influence
continuous increase, and sea mustard under
by decreased fisheries resources in offshore
stagnation without fluctuation, but the kelp
and curtailment in deep-sea fishing that
under decreasing state from 1980 to 1986 in
resulted from 200 miles economic zone by the
accordance with the areas. It has shown that
coastal states along with increased demand of
the amount of
sea food as a provisions nowadays.
Consequently, the extension service in mari-

Table 1. Annual yield of aquacultural products in Korea


(unit: thousand
tons)
Year/Yield 1962 1970 1980 1981 1982 1983 1984 1985 1986
Total 470 935 2 410 2 812 2 644 2 793 2 910 3 103 3 660
fisheries
product
Total cultural 18 119 541 701 596 644 678 788 947
product*
Composition 4.1 12.7 22.4 24.9 22.9 23.1 23.3 25.0 25.9
ratio
*Total cultural product = Total marine cultural product
2.1 Development of cultural technique
The original cultural method of laver
reportedly began in 1623 on Kwangyang Bay
(adjacent to the estuary of Sumjin river) in
central southern coast of Korea and this was
preceded 50 years than Japan. The original
cultural method is now obsolete and extinct
(except Kwangyang Bay); Korea was involved
in placing bundles of leafless branches of
bamboo, or other trees at or just above the
mean water level located well away from
brackishwater during September to October.
Since then, this was improved as a fixed semi-
floating type that was made of split bamboo
Figure 7. Yield of total cultivated seaweed rattan and fixed with pole on either or both
products, (1986) sides in the 1630's on Wando island of
Jeonnam Province (in accordance with this
products in laver and sea mustard, the highest principle, movable type fixed with pole on both
amount of which recorded in 1986 have been sides to place split bamboo rattan in parallel
varied with relative high amplitude through the with the sea surface was improved by Japan).
years. The important problems faced from now But it was later in 1962 that artificial production
on is that: How to keep stable production by of monospore and culture of conchocelis
preventing natural disaster in marine filament was practised in Korea. Owing to this
environment along with how to minimize technical development, the technique of
fluctuation in production by strengthening the nursery nets storage and floating net cultural
regulation concerning the license of private system was introduced in Japan, and free
cultural area. Consequently, as shown in living conchocelis culture method was
Table 3, the two species occupy an important dispersed during 1970's. As a result, annual
position in Korean seaweed culture. laver production was attained over 23 x 108
sheets of dried products from 1979 (Figure 8).
2. CULTURE OF PORPHYRA SPP. IN
KOREA

Table 2. The annual cultivated area (licensed) of seaweed in Korea


(unit: ha)
Year/Areas 1962 1971 1980 1981 1982 1983 1984 1985 1986
Total 19 156 46 670 78 573 85 561 83 825 88 465 89 557 96 885 101 189
cultivated
Total 5 316 17 016 28 584 35 369 37 275 43 578 47 661 51 547 54 008
seaweed
cultivated
Total laver 730 13 459 20 593 25 144 27 256 33 355 37 953 42 011 44 451
cultivated
Total sea 271 2 960 7 590 9 445 9 253 9 530 9 116 8 944 9 009
mustard
cultivated
Total sea kelp — — 237 291 241 125 32 50 50
cultivated
Table 3. The annual yield of seaweed products according
to major cultural species
(unit: mt)
Year/Division 1962 1971 1980 1981 1982 1983 1984 1985 1986
Total shallow 18 106 147 221 540 564 701 065 596 316 643 798 628 321 787 571 946 965
sea
Total 6 054 48 818 527 880 383 063 314 535 347 227 383 661 377 461 524 117
seaweed
Total laver 4 247 34 801 56 274 80 490 79 784 87 963 136 484 109 819 143 369
Total sea 804 11 103 196 147 294 622 225 045 237 128 230 188 256 436 346 434
mustard
Total sea kelp — — 940 1 963 3 987 11 606 7 927 11 796 9 445
2.2 Characters of laver
Since 1980 the annual production has been
There are about 10 kinds of species
kept over 30 x 108 sheets, and over 62 x 108
cultivated in Korea. Among them: P. tenera,
sheets of dried laver was produced in 1986
Kjellman and P. yezoensis are more important
while annual production of 1987 decreased to
cultural species than others.
34 x 108 sheets resulting from bad condition in
marine environment. Consequently, it has a) Phylum: Rhodophyta
shown that the harvest of cultivated laver Class: Bangiophyceae
depends greatly on the influence of the marine Order: Bangiales Family:
environment condition in Korea until now. Bangiaceae

Figure 8. The annual yield of laver since 1962 (Dried products)


b) Size and shape November. These neutral spores also
Length of fully grown frond of P. yezoensis germinate and grow into fronds. When
varying from 15 to 36 cm, and that of P. germlings grow into fronds of 3 to 5 cm in
lenera from 17 to 35 cm, sometimes up to 1 length in November, sexual reproductive
m. organs are formed on the fronds. These
organs continue to release fertilized
c) Color carpospores until the fronds disappear in May.
Fronds very dark purple. Released carpospores attach to shells on the
d) Life cycle (Figure 9) sea bed to germinate and become conchocelis
filaments. Conchocelis filaments bore into the
Life cycles of both species are the same. shell and grow in the pearl layer of the shell to
The algae germinate from spores released form colonies of 1 cm in diameter by August to
from conchocelis filaments (sporophyte) from September when they start -to release spores
September to November and appear as small called conchospores.
germlings of 1 mm in length from mid to late Generally speaking, the characteristic of
October, when the water temperature drops to laver in the life cycle and ecology differ from
22°C. The germlings grow rapidly to fronds almost all of the agricultural cultivated species
(gametophyte) 15 to 20 cm long, or more, by in the side of carrying out accessory
mid to late November and flourish during reproduction by asexual spores given off by
winter in waters of 3 to 8°C. In April, fronds of the young thalli. The growing of laver into
the algae wither and disappear by May when fronds is a result of repeating complicated
the water temperature rises to 14°C. process of life cycle such as: (1) car-
Germlings of 150 μ to 1 mm in length form a phospore ‫( ﺣ‬2) conchocelis rosa‫( ﺣ‬3) con-
large number of neutral spores during the chospore (monospore) ‫( ﺣ‬4) germling (young
period between late September and early thalli) (5) neutral spore (mono-

1, Carpospore; 2, Conchocelis; 3, Conchosporangium; 4. Parasporangium; 5, Conchospore; 6, Germination of


Carpospore; 7, Discharge of Monospore; 8, Monospore; 9, Leafy thali (Gametophyte); 10, Antheridium; 11, Carpogone;
12, Cystocarp.

Figure 9. Life cycle of laver


spore) ‫( ﺣ‬6) fronds of thalli. The process a) Culture by oyster shell
between (4) and (5) differ from any other This starts from collecting the thalli during
cultivating species, that is, germling December to mid-January. The thalli is cold
germinated from carposhore form neutral stored until March to April before concho-celis
spore, in return, this neutral spore germinate culture begins, thalli is dried in dark place until
germ-ling. After repeating this process many the moisture contents are about 20-30
times, germling grows into fronds of thalli. percent. The conchocelis culture begins with
inputting carpospore solution into the oyster
shells, and the method of inputting carpospore
solution is either by hanging the stringed
oyster shells into the concrete tank
perpendicularly, or by placing the shells
loosely into the plastic container filled with sea
water (Figures 11 and 12).
(i) Preparation of carpospore solution
Put the cold stored thalli into the container
filled with sea water (10 g dried thalli per 1 liter
of sea water) The thalli which release
carpospore after two to six hours had elapsed,
show change of water color. The carpospore
solution prepared is put into the culture tank
filled with sea water, and the carpospore bore
into the shells after one week elapsed
e) The process of laver culture (Figure 10) and grow into conchocelis filaments.
2.3 Cultural technique in genera
2.3.1 Culture of conchocelis filaments
This is carried out by placing oyster shells
either loose or stung on wires, in indoor tanks
in the early spring and adding chopped thalli.
The conchocelis plants are then cultured in the
tank until the artificial seeding of conchospores Figure 11. Artificial seeding in container
begins in October.

Figure 12. The method of sting wires on the shells


Monthly process of conchocelis culture nets in the sea which is practised in timely
after inputting carpospore solution is season; and (2) artificial collection of spore in
shown below. the sea or in the tank with oyster shells
bearing matured conchocelis.
Month Process Water a) Natural spore collection in the
temperature sea with nets
control
This is to set up culture nets to the
From Attaching of From 10 to
seashore in the fall to collect released concho-
February carpospore solution 15°C spore in natural state when water temperature
to March into oyster shell is about 22°C. Whatever collecting device is
From mid- Growing of From 16 to used, catching of monospores is best when the
march to conchocelis 24°C water temperature is 22 to 23°C. After a storm
April filaments is considered to be a particularly good time as
are in the second to fourth days, after the first
From May -do- Forming the
or fifteenth of each lunar month. The western
to June sporangium coast of Korea is not concerned with the lunar
From 18 to month where it is practised everyday in the
25°C morning during the period.
From July -do- Proliferation
b) Artificial seeding of conchospores in
to of the sea
August sporangium
(carpospore This is carried out by placing conchocelis-
bearing oyster shell cultured in indoor tank,
being
beneath the spore collecting nets which is
liberated) spread horizontally in the sea with supporting
control pole, and the nets and conchocelis bearing
under 28°C shells are kept as is for the seeding period of
September Maturing of three days.
conchocelisfilaments c) Artificial seeding of conchospore in
Monospore concrete water tank
collection with
conchocelis bearing This is to place the mature conchocelis-
bearing oyster shells on the bottom of concrete
shells
tank, and conchospores released from the
b) Culture of free living conchocelis conchocelis filaments attached to the twine of
the nets dipped into the tank. The release and
This method was introduced in 1975 for
attachment of spores is induced by stirring the
the first time in Korea and over 30 percent
water in the tank. Nets are of the same quality
of total culturists now in Korea is adopting
as those used in the sea, and it is set one
this method. This method is to grow the
upon another up to 30 to 50 layers in
nurtured free living conchocelis filaments,
thickness. The laver net are knitted with twigs
after planting it into the oyster shell in May
of palm, etc. and the stretched mesh size of
until it may be used in monospore
the net is 30 cm, the length is 18 m, and the
collection.
width is about 1.5 m. There are several
But recently, it was found out that the free methods for seeding the spores into the nets.
living conchocelis release spore by forming The device is classified as follows: (a)
carposporangium without substrate and rotary type.
monospore collection by free living
conchocelis without substrate has been
possible.
2.3.2 Artificial seeding of conchospore
This is to collect either the monospore
(conchospore) released from conchocelis
filaments, or neutral spore germinated from
germling (young plant). The method is
divided into: (1) natural spore collection with
Figure 13. Porphyra seed collector in indoor tank (rotary type)

(Figure 13); (b) vertical movement type less, the stronger the effect will be. Also, when
(balance type); (c) running water type (belt the laver become activated in photosynthesis
conveyor type); and (d) bubbling type, etc. under the water temperature of 15 to 16°C, the
demand of nutrient salts become highest in
2.3.3 Correlation between timely artificial this time than any other season. Meanwhile,
seeding and growing of laver the peak time in growing rate of thalli coincides
At the start of September, every culturist is with the optimum water temperature of 15 to
careful of practising timely spore collection 16°C, and also the convection of current is
along with placing the nursery nets in the sea. weakened at that time. As a result, the thalli's
Generally, there is poor annual harvest when growth is impaired with the imbalance between
sea water temperature drops with the coming the demand and supply of the nutrient salts.
fall. Meanwhile, in the late reduction of sea Such a phenomena causes disease and the
water temperature, artificial seeding was also laver finished its life cycle.
late along with placing of nursery nets and a) Optimum sea water temperature in
showed rich annual harvest. After all annual artificial seeding at the sea.
harvest is correlated with timely seeding (spore
collection) along with placing culture nets in When the monospore collection is carried
the cultivation grounds. Harvesting of grown out in the sea by placing conchocelis-bearing
laver usually begins in November, and takes shells beneath the collecting nets, the most
about 40 to 60 days from the start of growing important factor to decide the period is the sea
to harvest time. Therefore, after 40 days had water temperature. Although the con-chospore
elapsed the amount of thalli in the cultivation filaments release spore from 26°C in water
grounds reaches its peak, and the growing rate temperature, it is done well under 24°C. In the
of thalli is suddenly fast. If the water releasing of spore from germ-ling (young
temperature is lowered fast, the artificial plant), this temperature has no problem in
seeding and placing of the nursery nets in the considering the attaching diatom, etc. on the
sea is hastened. Consequently, the amounts of nets. However, the; optimum water
thalli reached its peak rapidly. If the growing temperature is 22.5°C in general. If the
rate of thalli is fast as much as the nutritive nursery net is placed over 23 °C in order to
salts in sea water is demanded the higher harvest thalli as soon as possible, the result
discharge of waste material from the thalli is will fail in collecting spores or the attached
shown. If the growing rate is slowly decreasing green laver, diatoms, etc. and will result to
or there is stagnation and the sea water poor harvest.
temperature tends to be more upward with the b) A comparison between harvest and
result of stratosphere phenomena without marine environment
convection of current, the supply of nutritive
salts will be slow along with the elimination of As mentioned above, harvest is correlated
waste material discharged from the thalli. A with marine environment such as water
decreased harvest in cultivation grounds will temperature, light, specific gravity of water,
be shown. In addition, if the wind and rainfall is sea current, - and the condition of rainfall, etc.
(Table 4). Disease of laver is occurring
frequently during November to December with 2.3.5 Growing of laver plants
the result of long stagnation of high water
temperature. Such a disease occurs in ebb The growing season of laver fronds lasts
tide when stagnation of sea current, warm from November to early April. Cultivation
temperature along with no wind continue ground should be located in the sea with as
temporarily. much nutrient salts and sea Water movement
as possible. Waves and wind are desirable to
2.3.4 Germinating of conchospores and secure rapid water exchange as long as the
growth of germling cultural structure is not destroyed. The nursery
The laver nets seeded with conchospores in net of which the germling grows to 2-3 cm in
the sea or in the tank are spread in the sea length is spread in the surface
with the cultural structure to await spore layer of the sea horizontally to grow the laver
germination. To increase the passage of sea fronds.
currents on the surface of nets twines, only up 2.4 The structure for growing laver
to five nets are stacked upon each other for There are many types of man-made structures
germination. The nets are set at a level which for growing laver such as old fashioned type of
keeps the net exposed to air for about four placing only bamboo bundles or any other
hours a day to get rid of undesirable algae. trees at or just above the mean water level,
About 15 to 20 days after seeding, the now obsolete and extinct except at the estuary
germling of laver become visible on the nets. of Sumjin river, to floating net culture system
The germling grows to 2-3 cm in length after fixed with anchor, developed lately. But the
40-50 days after seeding and the nets are major type now in use is classified as movable
ready for use as nursery nets. The density of type with pole and floating net culture system.
germlings is several hundreds per cm of net The structure which was used from the old
twine. The nets are either placed in the sea for days in Korea and is used until now is
cultivation, or stored in freezer for use in later classified as follows.
months.

Table 4. Analysis of harvest in comparison with marine environment


during October 1-December 31

Duration of
Stagnation of
water
water Rainfall
Year Production* temperatur Storm days
temperature (mm)
e
(14-15°C)
(22-24°C)
8
1986 63 x 10 52 days Nov. 12-Nov. 17 times 12 times
(5 days) (49 days) (81 mm)
1987 35 x 108 66 days Nov. 16-Dec. 7 times 4 times
(19 days) (11 days) (14 mm)
*Production: Total national yield of dried laver (1 sheet = 24-30 g)
Source: District: Central southern coast of Korea (Wando)
at fast growth of laver was developed in Japan
and was introduced in 1972 in Korea. But the
practical use of this floating net culture system
was begun from 1981. According to fisheries
regulation, the floating net culture system is
distinguished from any other man-made
structure in water depth. It is designated to be
placed under 10 m water depth. Any other
structure such as movable, floating but fixed
with pole type is designed under 7 m in water
depth. After all, the difference between
floating net culture system and other structure
fixed with pole type is only 3 m gap in water
depth. If the floating net culture system
increase, we are faced with problems that not
only the shallow cultivation ground under 10 m
in water depth will become narrow if it is
*'Hong' means the cultural structure of occupied with floating net culture system but
laver also, it will be difficult to observe the intervals
of placing the structure over 500 m, and will
bring up the problem of high intensive culture.
Finally, in order to develop the cultivation
ground more effectively, it is necessary to
develop the floating net culture system by
correcting the fisheries regulation concerning
the depth in which the floating net culture
system is designated now "under 10 m" and to
place the structure "under 20 m" in water
depth in the future.
2.5.2 Utilizing cold-stored nursery nets and
extending the cultivation period
When sea water temperature rise at night
in the cultivation ground, the algae take
physiological injury, and in case of severe
injury, the thalli falls out from the nets. But if
such phenomena of rising in sea water
temperature occur during early mid-
November, it is necessary that the nursery
nets be stored in freezer. Generally, the
nursery net germinated in autumn can be
stored in a freezer for one to two months for
cultivation in later months. Nursery nets
2.5 Any other technical problems attached germling of 1-3 cm in length
withdrawn from cultivation ground, follows
2.5.1 Developing floating net culture
dehydration with air drying in dark place or
system for an effective use of
(dehydrated in centrifugal) to reduce the
cultivation grounds
moisture content to 30-40 percent, and be
The laver is cultivated in shallow sea by stored in -20°C freezer (usually stored until
placing the man-made structure with culture early December, this is called cold-stored
nets and the net9 should be exposed to air two nursery nets). In December when the
times a day. This is necessary to stop disease oceanographic condition becomes
and keeps stable growth of laver with good favourable, the nursery net is placed on
color, and control the fertilization of diatoms, cultivation area, and the germlings of 1-3 cm
green lavers when the fronds grew in some in length begins growth again. Owing to the
estimated length. It is helpful to cultivate artificial seeding developed, it is faster to
without exposure to spur the growth of algae place laver nets on the cultivation area. As a
plants. The floating net culture system aiming
result, harvest of grown laver begins from area of covering culture nets and licensed
early November. The thalli to be annuated cultivation ground to be 20-25 percent in case
declines in quality with the curtailment of of floating net culture system, and 20-30
cultivation period and shows various diseases. percent in case of any other culture structures
Yet, many culturists now in Korea has not (Figure 14). Under this law regulating the
been equipped with freezer for cold storage of standard of placing culture structure in
nursery nets except some industrialized cultivation ground, it is not designated
culturists. Finally, they are faced with the specially to the difference between the floating
problem of how to supply the cold storage net culture system which could be placed
system of nursery nets effectively for small- offshore and any other structure fixed with
scale fisheries. pole type which could be placed only on
2.5.3 Arrangement of cultivation grounds seashore. Therefore, the problem is that the
and high intensive cultivation floating net culture system which is expanded
from now on will cover almost all of the
The standard of placing cultural structure in
offshore cultivation ground. The cultivation
cultivation grounds is regulated now in Korea
ground of estuaries/ shore will be disturbed by
by the law of the Ministry of Agriculture, Forest
sea current. Consequently, in order to keep
and Fisheries, to keep the ratio between the

(1) placing pine trees/bamboo bundle; (2) bamboo culture, movable type fixed with pole; (3) net
culture, movable type fixed with pole; and (4) floating net culture system (ladder type)
Figure 14. Development of laver cultural structure
laver from disease resulting from the sea rectangular wooden frame placed upon a
current disturbance, it, is necessary to lower screen mat made of fine stems of bamboo,
the standard ratio of placing culture structure reed, or synthetic design sticks. The wet
in cultivation ground. In case of floating net sheet of laver formed on the screen is dried in
culture system, the ratio which is now 20-25 nature or hot air chamber (40 + 1°C) and then
percent (covering culture nets area/ licensed peeled off the screen (the sheet formed thus
cultivation area) is to be 10-15 percent in weighs 2.5 to 3.0 g). The sheet of dried laver
general, and in case of any other structures are folded in half (sometimes not folded) and
the ratio of 20-15 percent, in general to be 20 packaged together for marketing.
percent on the offshore, and to be 15 percent One 1.8 x 40 square meter culture net
on the estuaries/shore. produce an average of 7 500 sheets of laver
2.6 Harvesting and processing (50-200 sheets), or 20 kg of dried laver
2.6.1 Harvesting product per net. If it is estimated that one
fourth of intensive cultivation is covered by
Harvesting of grown laver fronds usually laver net, this amounts to 100 nets/ha
begins from early November to April in Korea. producing a total of 20 000 kg of dried
This is done either by hand picking or with products during six to eight months growing
machine such as vacuum cleaner like a season.
machine attached with a rotating knife or
other type of machine attached with long The standard size of one sheet of dried
rotating knife (the length of knife is about 1.2 laver product is 21 cm long, 19 cm breadth,
m fitting to the breadth of cultural nets), over and one sheet weighs average from 2.4 to 3.0
which the net is being moved and the laver is g, and one bundle is equal to 10 piles which
picked up (Figure 15). But until now in Korea, consists of 10 sheets, so one bundle equals to
harvest is done almost all by hand picking. 100 sheets. The yield of dried product is 600-
After thinning the density of laver by 800 g per 10 kg of wet raw material (harvested
harvesting, the smaller fronds left on the nets laver).
flourish again. Thus, laver is usually In accordance with Fisheries Statistics in
harvested five times from each net until 1986, the production ratio showed 2.08 kg of
growth declines and the net is then replaced laver (wet base) per m2 of culture net and this
by a new nursery net which has been kept in was compared with Japan of which was
low temperature storage in case harvest is calculated 3.17 kg/m2 of culture net.
finished in early December. In some parts of
the southern coast such as Kohung 2.7 Marketing
Peninsular of Jeonnam Province, harvesting
is done possibly nearly 10 times from each Almost all of the processed laver is now
net by developing the floating net culture consumed in domestic market. There are
system cultivated with "upset net culture some differences in marketing routes
method" to expose the floating net reversely according to the districts. The marketing
sometimes. routes now in Korea is shown in the following
figure (Figure 16). As shown in the figure,
2.6.2 Processing
either the producers/culturists themselves deal
The harvested frond is processed into dried with wholesale/retail dealers directly, or is
laver sheets by the culturists themselves or by dealt through the consignment of Local
the processors equipped with machine. Many Fisheries Cooperative Association (LFCA).
culturists now in Korea consign to the However, over 90 percent of culturists are
processor. The mechanical drying is processing dried products by the processor
expensive, 800-1 000 wons per bundle of equipped with machine, and about 10 percent
dried product, but the basic cost is about 400- of culturists are processing laver by sun dry
500 wons per bundle, and the entire process method until now.
is automized by machine. The manufacturing
process begins with washing the laver fronds
in sea water, followed by chopping the washed
laver into small pieces (10-15 mm in square),
and stirring in fresh water to make a laver
suspension (about 1 kg of laver pieces are
placed in 20 liters sea water and stirred). The
resulting suspension is spread within a small
Figure 15. Harvesting of laver, upper; hand picking, under; mechanic harvest
Figure 16. The marketing routes of laver

The consumer's price is about 3 to 5 cold storage system for the storage of nursery
thousand wons per bundle. nets. On the other hand, expanding of culture
The harvesting of laver frond begins from areas with culture nets placed has given
November and finishes from March to early increase in production, and consequently, the
April, therefore, the dried product is necessary change in processing from manual harvest to
to be stored for a long time. In case the sun drying to mechanical harvest and
moisture content of the product after mechanical drying. Therefore, expenditure for
processing is about 10-12 percent, it should be purchasing of mechanics as well as
dried again so that the moisture content would equipments inputting into the cultural structure
be 5 percent before storage. The moisture enhanced inevitably the cost of final products.
content of over 10 percent brings about But in the side of customer, the price is keeping
changes in color, taste, etc. for long time 3 000 to 4 000 wons per bundle or 12 000
storage of over two months. Dried laver is wons/kg of dried products. The processor is
usually sold as a set of 10 sheets packaged, also faced with the problem of "how to make
and this weighs approximately 24-30 g and is the consumer's price stable and how to lower
called pile. the basic cost without damage to the culturist
through the development of various products
2.8 The problem of laver industry in Korea as low cost".
Recently, the laver culture industry of Korea
has shown remarkable increase in production 3. CULTURE OF UNDARIA PINATIFIDA IN
due to the technical development such as KOREA
artificial seeding, supplies of culture nets'
made of synthetic fibers, floating net culture 3.1 Development of culture technique
system including improved culture species Sea mustard, brown algae belonging to the
(such as P. tenera Kjellman form, genus Undaria is a cold water algae occurring
Tamatsuensis mura, and P. yezoensis). widely in temperate zone, for the whole life
Almost all of the products are consumed in cycle, a temperature of 10 to 20°C is suitable.
domestic market. Yet, the production is The ecological condition of this algae is
unstable annually because of variation in restricted in estuaries and other brackishwater
marine environment along with deficiency in region which typically occurs in open sea
situation with inflow of water from rivers pinatifida is the most widely distributed and
influence greatly the growth of this algae. This favoured for consumption.
algae grows all along the Korean coast except a) Phylum: Pheophyta
at higher latitude over 40°C parallel in western Class: Pheophyceae
coast. Order: Laminariales
It has been an important foodstuff along Family: Alariaceae
with laver from old days in Korea. What is b) Size and shape
more, it is cheaper than laver and has become Maximum 1-2 mm in thallus length, grows
a necessary food for soup cooking especially
larger in east than south.
for a pregnant woman.
c) Color
The history of culture by artificial seeding
Fresh fronds is dark brown to greenish
lately from 1963 in Korea and the culture
brown but when cooked (boiled) the color is
method before then was extremely primitive.
turning brighter to brownish green to green.
Inputting stone only at suitable depth for
attachment of young plants or weeding algae d) Life cycle and ecology
competing with sea mustard for existence is Undaria pinatifida is an annual plant which
done by brushing the rock or reef for the grows on rocks and reefs at a depth of 1 to 15
attached fertilized eggs from spermatozoa on m in places facing the open sea or near open
the substrate during late fall of every year. seas influenced by warm ocean currents.
From 1967, cultivation by floating rope type When the 10 days average of water
method was developed. The culture product temperature rises above 14°C in April in the
reached over 100 thousand tons (wet) southern part of Korea, the discharge of
annually from 1970 especially in 1974, the zoospores begins from the sporangium formed
amount of culture product was 180 thousand on sporophylls at the base of the fronds. The
tons (Figure 7). With the decreased discharge of zoospores continues until the
consumer's price resulting from over temperature reaches 23°C peaking at 17 to
production as compared to the domestic 22°C.
demand, the production decreased. But owing The discharged zoospores are 9 μ in length
to the exportation to Japan with blanched- and locomotive with flagella. They drift in the
salted products that developed from 1975, the sea with the water current, adhering to any
culture production has began to increase substrate they contact by chance. Zoospores
again. Now, the annual yield of culture product germinate on the substrate and grow to
is being kept on about 200-300 thousand tons. gametophytes at water temperatures up to 24
On the other hand, natural harvest which was °C. They stop growing at temperature higher
28 thousand tons in 1972 (the production ratio than 24 °C and form resting gametophytes with
between natural harvest was 28:29 in 1972), thicker cell walls to tolerate the high
decreased under 6 thousand tons per annum temperature (Figure 18).
which is harvested only in the eastern coast.
Now cultivation of sea mustard is occupying Gametophytes are microscopically small
over 60 percent among total yields of bodies which perform sexual reproduction
seaweed culture and the major culture areas when mature at water temperatures of around
center on Wando of Jeonnam district and 20°C in October. Spermatozoas discharged
Kijang, Ilgwang near Pusan of Korean into the sea from the male gameto-phyte
southern coast which produce over 80 percent fertilized eggs formed on the female
among total yields of sea mustard in Korea. gametophyte. The fertilized eggs germinate
into sporophytes which grow well at
temperatures lower than 17°C. Sporophytes
3.2 Characteristics of sea mustard,
grow fast in winter to form large edible fronds.
Undaria pinatifida
In the spring, the sporophytes form sporangium
There are three kinds of species; Undaria on sporophylls at the base of frond to perform
pinatifida (Harvey), Suringar, U. undarioides a sexual reproduction to produce
(Yendo) Okamura and U. peterseniana (Kjell- gametophytes. Having discharged zoospores,
man) Okamura. Of these species, U. sporophytes wither and thus, finish the year
long life of the plant.
Figure 17. The annual yield of sea mustard (wet basis)

(1) Zoospore; (2, 3, 4) Germination; (5, 6) Gametophyte (male); (7, 8, 9)


Gametophyte (female); (10) Fertilized oosphere; (11) Sporephyte; (12) Plumule;
(13) Sporophyte; (a) Oogonium; (b) Oosphere; (c) Spermatozoid; (d) Rhizoid;
(e) Sporophyll.
Figure 18. Life cycle of Undaria
e) Process of culture diameter braided cotton strings (frame with
strings for collection of zoospore) (Figure 19).

Figure 19. Spore collector for Undaria


culture

The zoospores are released from the plant


and attach to the strings in late spring or early
3.3 Culture technique
summer; the gametophytes ultimately the
The life history of Undaria pinatifida, as of young sporophytes develop on the strings
other brown algae is rather complex and during the summer and early fall.
involves an alternation of generations between
In carrying out artificial sowing the useful
sexual and asexual form. The asexual form or
method is as follows: after drying the
sporophyte is the obvious macroscopic plant of
sporophylls collected in culture area in dark
which the fronds of the main thallus are used
place for one to several hours, place them
as food.
into the tank filled with sea water. Then the
The sporophyte phase grows during the sporophylls start discharging zoospores within
winter months when the temperature is 5 minutes which lasts about 20 to 30 minutes.
between 10 and 15°C. The cultivation of Now, take out the sporophylls in the tank.
Undaria begins with collecting sporophyll, After 30 minutes have elapsed from the start
which was left on the culture structure for use of inputting it into the tank, place the spore
of spore sowing after finishing harvest of plant collector (the plastic/wooden frame wrapped
(sporophyte) from December to May. with string to collect the zoospore) into the
In nature during winter months, the tank. After 30 minutes have elapsed the spore
sporophyte develops asexual zoospore and collector is taken out from the tank (being the
these are released from sporophyll in spring strings of spore collector are attached with
and early summer when the water zoospore in full) and are transferred to sea
temperature rises above 14°C. After a brief water or cultural tank for culture of
planktonic life, the zoospore settle and adhere gametophyte germlings.
to a solid surface (stone, shells, etc.) and
The suitable amount of sporophylls used in
germinate to produce the macroscopic sexual
spore sowing is about 3 kg (wet basis) per 1
plant, the gametophyte.
km of string length or is estimated 10
Germination of zoospore and growth of the individuals per 200 meter in length of strings.
gametophyte occurs between water
The sea water in the tanks should be
temperature 15 and 20°C.
controlled to keep the water temperature
3.3.1 Artificial spore production under 20°C and specific gravity over 1.020.
(spore sowing) 3.3.2 Culture of gametophyte germling
In order to do spore sowing, first of all, the There are two methods to culture germ-
mature sporophytes (the plants) are brought lings: one is to culture them in the sea by
into the laboratory and placed in hanging spore collector from a raft; and the
concrete/plastic tanks. Into these tanks are other is to culture them in indoor concrete
placed rectangular plastic/wooden frames tanks (the suitable capacity of the culture tank
(generally 40 x 50 cm2) around which is is to fill 1 ton of sea water, and the strings of
wrapped 90 cm of approximately 1.6 m/m the spore collector is about 300 meters in
length); the culture of gametophyte germlings
starts by putting the spore collector into the water temperature below 15°C and the specific
tanks. In Korea, the culture of germlings is gravity should be above 1.025.
carried out in indoor concrete tanks. The Before the main culture of the sporophyte
spore collectors with attached zoospores are (young thalli) by floating rope culture system,
hung vertically in the tank where zoospores the spore collector is hung to the main rope of
germinate on the strings of the spore culture structure for about two weeks until the
collector. young thalli grows to 0.5-1 cm in length. After
In this germling culture, the water that, strings covered with young thalli
temperature, light and water flow should be (sporophytes) of Undaria are wound around
controlled according to the growing stages the main or branch line of the floating rope
carefully and also, in some cases nutrient salts type culture structure placed in the sea.
such as sodium nitrate and sodium phosphate
are added to the water to stimulate the growth 3.3.4 Harvesting
of germlings. Gametophyte ' enter a resting Undaria fronds are harvested from a boat
stage over 25 °C in summer. During the resting with a knife in cultivation ground from
stage, germlings are kept in still water and the December to May. There are some differences
temperature should be controlled under 28°C. in harvest period between the east southern
Over that temperature the germling is easy to part and the central southern part, in
be killed and also it is very important to control accordance with the oceanographic condition
the light in accordance with the water of water temperature and sea currents (Figure
temperature (in southern part of Korea the 20). Generally, the central part of southern
sea water temperature upwards over 25°C in coast finish in April, but the east southern part
August, and the growth of game-tophyte continues until end of May. Nowadays, the
continues until early August, and from mid- disease of thalli by the appearance of
August the gametophyte begins resting. In Harpacticoida has given great problems in
case of this, supply of nutrient salt is cultural area especially from March. The
necessary). When the water temperature drops damage resulting from the Harpacticoida
below 23°C in autumn, the gametophyte can reached over 20 percent decrease in total
resume their growth, and the light conditions of annual harvest in recent years.
waters tanks are increased to 2 000-4 000 lux. 3.4 The floating culture system of
Gametophyte matures at water temperature of Undaria pinatifida
20°C and sexual reproduction takes place.
When fertilized eggs germinate as In the cultivation of Undaria, the culture
sporophytes, lighting is increased over 5 000 method now in Korea mainly consists of the
lux, and the exchange of water and addition of floating rope type or hanging rope type.
nutrient salts are effective to accelerate the The main lines of the culture structure are 1
growth of sporophytes. to 3 cm in diameter and 70 to 80 m long; in
If the growth of sporophytes is not efficient, case of long line rope type, it is composed of
tank water should be cooled to 20°C, or spore synthetic fibers (or strong rubber for
collectors should be hung in the sea. continuous use) which are kept afloat and are
fixed at suitable intervals in the sea with
Conditions of water temperature and light in anchors.
accordance with the growing stages is shown
(see table below). In the floating rope method, branch lines are
hung from the main lines. The strings covered
3.3.3 Floating culture of Undaria with young thalli (sporophytes) of Undaria are
sporophytes either wound around the main or branches
In September or November, the sporophytes lines or cut into short pieces, several
grow to 100 to 1 000 μ in size, attach the centimeters long and inserted between the
strings of the spore collector and are ready for strands of main or branch lines (Figure 21).
further culture in the sea. Thus, floating culture The method of winding around the main line is
of Undaria has begun in autumn, from popular. The water depth at which the main
September to November when the water line should be set 1 to 5 m below the surface.
temperature drops below 20°C. The culture The depth from the sea surface should be
ground should be located where temperature
is below 15°C since the Undaria grows well at
controlled from 1 to 4 m in accordance with the
growing stages.
Growing stage Water temperature Light Month
Sporophylls form not concerned with April-July
sporangium special temperature
Sporangium discharge 14 to 22°C April-July
zoospore (opt. 17 to 20°C)
Zoospore germinate 17 to 20°C 2 000-6 000 lux May-July
gametophyte, growing (growth stop at 23°C)
of gametophyte
Resting of gametophyte 25 to 30°C 500 lux July-August
Maturing of gameto- drops under 20°C 1 000 lux September-October
tophyte and germina-
tion of germling
Growing of germling 17 to 10°C October-November
(opt. 15°C)
Growing fronds of 13 to 5°C November-April
thallus (opt. 10°C)

Figure 20. Harvesting of Undaria pinatifida


(a)Horissontal single rope(side view) (b)Horizontal single rope (c)Horizontal double rope
(d)Seotangular assembling rope (e)Suspending horizontal single rope (f)Single rope banging
Figure 21. Floating culture method of Undaria
material without storage or packing in the
3.5 Processing plastic bag), except industrialized processing
Grown fronds in market size in cultivation company.
ground is harvested by cutting the strips
nearing the sporophyll with knife on boat 3.6 Marketing
and the harvest is only through hand The Undaria harvested by fisherman follows
picking. Meanwhile, natural grown the marketing chain as shown in Figure 22. In
Undaria is harvested by diving which is reference, the price of cultivated Undaria is 10
practised now in Korea only in the thousand wons per 100 kg after harvesting.
eastern coast of Kang-won province. Now a small amount is sun dried by
After harvesting, Undaria is processed as culturists/fishermen themselves and is
sun dried product, blanched-salted marketed to consumer through
product, or cut type product, etc. General wholesale/retail dealers in domestic market.
processing type practised now in Korea Only the blanched-salted product made of
are as follows: good quality fronds are exported to Japan.
a) Sun dried product Generally, this product for export finishes in
March because of good quality in fronds of
The fronds of sea mustard rewashed thalli and the price of raw material (harvested
with fresh sea water after harvesting and fronds), which is used on this product kept on
they are cut into two similar halves by about 120 thousand wons per 100 kg after
removing the midrib or cut into small size harvest last year. The standard of this product
by removing the end part of thalli and are is regulated as to the moisture content which
dried in the sun or in a hot air dryer. The is under 63 percent, the midrib should be
yield from raw material (fronds) is about removed thoroughly and the contents of salts
10 percent. from 25 to 40 percent. The yield of the product
b) Blanched-salted product from the raw material is about 40 percent. The
Raw material fronds are heated soon products for export are packed in wooden
after harvest at 90-98°C for about 40-60 boxes and the unit of package is 15 kg per
seconds and cooled quickly with water. box. Consequently, the other products made
Then the fronds now vivid green, are by cul-turists/fishermen/processors are sold to
mixed with salt in a ratio of 3:10 (w/w) in domestic market through the marketing
a machine. They are preserved in a tank channel as shown in Figure 22. However, the
for one to two days, then packed in a bag cooking method is simple, that is almost all of
to remove excess water. The product is them are cooked for soup.
stored in a cold room at -10°C for sale. 3.7 The problems of Undaria industry
This product is a major commercial form Undaria is the most productive shallow sea
of Undaria at present and much of them culture species in Korea. Although the total
is exported to Japan. production reached 350 thousand tons in 1986
with developed culture technique, the income
c) Cut products of culturist decreased in general, owing to the
The blanched-salted product is stagnation in price. Also, disease caused by
desalted by washing with fresh water, the Harpacticoida in cultivation area resulting
centrifuged to remove excess water, then from intensive cultivation is now a serious
cut mechanically into small pieces and problem. The damage led to an estimated
dried in a rotary type of flow-through decreased harvest of about 20 percent of the
drier. These cut fronds are stored into total possible production in 1987. What is
uniform sizes by sieving any faded fronds more, the reason why this gives a serious
(if present) which are removed and then damage to Undaria culture is that the disease
appropriate amounts are packed in a bag of the fronds by this microorganism mainly
of plastic film for sale. But now the occurs in March when the harvest of good
processing of this type is treated easily quality fronds reaches the peak. There is no
with hand by fishermen themselves, that special counter measure to keep the fronds
is, to be sun dried after desalting the from this damage. The only preventive
blanched-salted product (used as raw measures are: (1) controlling culture process
Figure 22. The marketing route of Undaria

thoroughly from spore sowing to the growing


stage according to the growth of thalli; (2)
preventing the intensive cultivation (controlling
the intervals of culture structure between the
main ropes of which is now 2-3 m to be 3-5 m;
and (3) keeping marine environment from
pollution, etc. On the other hand, as the
processed products of Undaria is only
consumed for soup so the price between
producer and consumer is limited domestically.
Consequently, in order to increase the
consumption in the domestic market a higher
grade product should be developed in
participation with the industry such as instant
foods as Undaria tea, powdered product,
seasoned product, fish pasted product,
Undaria noodle, etc.
SEAWEED FARMING IN EAST MALAYSIA

by
Annan Shah Ambo Dalli
Fisheries Assistant, Fisheries Department Sabah
Menara Khidmat, Tingkat 8, Jalan Belta
88000 Kota Kinabalu, Sabah

1. INTRODUCTION 4. METHODS OF CULTURING


Sabah and Sarawak are two states in East SEAWEEDS
Malaysia which have a potential of producing Two methods of farming were employed namely:
seaweeds. There are several seaweed
species found growing on reefs in Semporna 4.1 Semi-raft method
area, south of Sabah and in Banggi Island of Semi-raft method is applied only in the lagoon area
the South China Sea in Kudat area, north of where the depth of the water is between 10-20 feet
Sabah. The major seaweed species found are deep and the width is about 200-500 ft. Pegged
namely: Sargassum, Eucheuma, Caulerpa, stakes are placed on opposite sides of the lagoon
Gracilaria, Hypnea, Padina and with floats tied to the monoline at a depth of 3 ft from
Hydroclathrus. water surface.
2. EUCHEUMA FARMING 4.2 Bottom method
Eucheuma culture was developed in Sem- This method is also called stake and nylon line
porna area which has a greater number of method. It is cheaper compared to the other method
coastal inhabitants. It was started in May 1986 for it is made up of two stakes and a monofilament
which was done by the Fisheries Department nylon No. 200 lbs and 15 meters long. Stakes are
Personnel and four fishermen with their pegged one meter apart from each other and 15
families involved. The aim of the Fisheries meters long. A 15-meter nylon line can be planted
Department is to farm Eucheuma as a source with 40-50 plants with a distance of 30 cm from each
of seed stock and to attract the fishermen to plant.
involve themselves in farming in order to
increase their income. As for the information 5. PROBLEMS ENCOUNTERED
gathered, there was no actual data collected. When the culturing started, we encountered some
3. SITE SELECTION AND PRODUCTION problems as follows:
An estimate of about 1.5 hectares of 5.1 Fish predators that graze on the plants.
suitable site was planted with Eucheuma The fish was identified as Siganus sp.
striatum for the initial seedlings which 5.2 Epiphytes
consisted of 30 000 plants with an average 5.3 Environmental factors such as Salinity, light
weight of 250-300 grams per plant. The
and temperature, water movement and water depth
farmers were able to plant four hectares in
which affects the growth rate of the Eucheuma and
October 1987. There were six families who
other sea.
started to culture Eucheuma. The total
number of fishermen involved in planting 5.4 Marketing. Since seaweed farming is still being
Eucheuma at present are 10 families which developed in our country marketing of the product is
cover an area of 10 hectares. This does not also a major problem to the East Malaysian seaweed
include the Fisheries Department Eucheuma farmers.
farm. 6. RECOMMENDATION
The production of Eucheuma in 1987 In the future, more efforts in research on other
amounted to 400 metric tons wet weight. seaweed species should be carried out by the
Some were consumed as food and others Fisheries Department.
were exported as dried material. The total
Eucheuma production as reported does not
include the wild stock harvested by the
fishermen and as far as I know there was no
record available.
SEAWEED INDUSTRY OF THE PHILIPPINES
by
Rizalina M. Legasto Supervising Fishery Extension Specialist II
Fisheries Extension Division
Bureau of Fisheries and Aquatic Resources
Arcadia Bldg., 860 Quezon Avenue
Quezon City, Metro Manila
Gracilaria is harvested in Manila Bay and
1. INTRODUCTION provides income to coastal communities in
The Philippines is blessed with abundant Bataan and Cavite. Unfornately, it is of inferior
aquatic resources which provide food and quality due to pollution surrounding these
livelihood to many Filipinos. Seaweeds are areas. Gathering of Gracilaria is also
one of these resources which are found in undertaken in Buguey, Cayagan and sold at
lagoons and reef areas all over the country. P2.00/kg. These are marketed in Manila and
The country is one of the few in the world gathering is undertaken only as secondary to
which has pioneered the farming of these farming.
plants in substantial quantities.
Sargassum, a brown seaweed containing
Seaweeds are good sources of colloidal alginate is known as "samo". It can also be
material which are used as gelling agents, used as food and in pharmaceuticals.
emulsifer, food stabilizers, pharmaceutical, Sargassum industry developed in Misamis
cosmetic and industrial products. It also Oriental in 1978. This seaweed grows
constitute an important food item, fertilizer and abundantly in shallow coastal waters in the
animal feed. country. It is used as insect repellant and feed
In 1966, seaweeds was the only negligible supplement for poultry and livestock.
Harvesting is by hand picking during . the
item of the country's economy. Export at that
months of January-June.
time amounted to only 800 mt. But with the
development of seaweed farming in 1973 Caulerpa known as "lato" or "ar-arosep" is
foreign revenues had increased to almost fifty utilized as vegetable salad and sold both in
times. Since then what was considered a the foreign and local markets. About 400
minor sea product is now generating 466 hectares of ponds are utilized in Caulerpa
732 486 (32.2 thousand mt) for the country farming in Mactan, Cebu. Retail price in
and now the third fishery export of the Metro Manila markets range from 20-22/kg.
Philippines. Hydroclathrus or "balbalolong" is used
2. EXISTING SEAWEED RESOURCES mainly as a food item in Pangasinan and sold
at 80.00/can.
Production of seaweeds in the Philippines is
dependent on harvest of natural stocks except Other species such as Codium (pokpoklo),
for Caulerpa and Eucheuma which are Porphyra (garnet), Digenea simplex (bodo-
produced through mariculture. Limited bodo) and Gelidium are also utilized in the
information are available on other country but very little information is available
commercially important seaweed such as Geli- on their usage and production.
dium, Sargassum, etc.
3. SEAWEED EXPORT
Among the different seaweeds found in the
Seaweeds exported to other countries come
country, Eucheuma dominates the industry.
in dried and treated form; fresh or salted or as
Eucheuma alvarezii (cottonii type) and £.
seaweed meal powder. Eucheuma produced
denticulatum (= spinosum type) as "gozo" are
through farming are sold in the international
the species commercially cultivated in the
market in treated (chips) semi-refined and
country. Eucheuma, a red alga is an important refined forms. A portion of the local produce of
source of raw material for carrageenin, a Gracilaria and Gelidiella are processed into
colloidal substance used as gelling agent, crude agar which are sold in the local market
stabilizer or emulsifier in food, cosmetics and in the form of dried agar bars.
other products. Graci-laria or "gulamang
dagat" are raw materials for agar which are A small amount of Caulerpa is sent to Japan
used for food, pharma-ceuticals and culture in dehydrated (or salted) form. Sargassum is
media for research laboratories. processed in Central Visayas and exported to
Japan. A significant amount of Gracilaria and
Gelidiella are exported while the rest is locally reported that there are approximately 2 500 ha
produced into agar bars for food. Production of of Eucheuma farms in the Tawai-Tawi and
Codium and Porphyra are dependent on Sulu areas (Smith, 1987). Farmers use 10 m
natural stocks and are consumed locally. nylon lines. Seaweed cuttings weighing about
Major bulk of dried seaweeds goes to 150-200 g are attached to these lines with the
Denmark. Japan is the biggest importer of use of plastic straw. These are suspended and
salted seaweeds and seaweed meal. The total attached to wooden stakes. The distances
export of seaweeds of the Philippines between lines is at least one meter. Seaweed
increased from 16 890 tons in 1982 to 32 293 farming manuals are available from the
tons in 1986. The breakdown of this export ASEAN/UNDP/FAO Project based in Manila.
product in kgs, value and destination is shown In the floating raft method, the monolines
in Table 1. Seaweed is the third largest export are attached to a rectangular bamboo raft.
item of marine product of the Philippines. The best months for growing are from
November to July with March to May as peak
4. CULTIVATION AND POST HARVEST growth months.
PROCESSING
Harvesting is undertaken after 45 days. The
The present farming of Eucheuma utilizes harvested seaweed is sun dried for three to
the monoline or bottom and floating methods. four days.
Seaweed farms range from 2 500-5 000 sq One kilogram of dry seaweeds require 6-9
m. There are about 100 seaweed farms in kg of fresh seaweeds.
Bohol province and an estimate of 3 000 farms
in Tawi-Tawi, Sulu in Mindanao. It has been

Table 1. Export of seaweeds, 1982-1986


Dried/Treated Fresh Salted Kelp meal powder Total
Total
Year Quantity Value Quantity Value Quantity Value Quantity Value Quantity Value
(kg) ( ) (kg) (kg) (kg) ( ) (kg) ( )
1982 16 073 947 82 418 082 173 890 2 172 649 _ _ 532 008 456 749 16 779 845 85 047 480

1983 15 594 056 108 332 508 149 331 2 559 185 1005 22 155 910 075 1 058 680 16 654 467 111 972 528
1984 10 255 505 81 238 046 400 6 300 — — 634 250 1 019 692 10 890 155 82 264 038
1985 23 749 056 364 474 804 803 358 15 796 444 131 183 791 736 4 124 626 8 691 137 28 808 223 389 744 121
1986 29 182 896 455 572 060 166 145 3 186 057 77 470 388 148 2 866 393 7 587 221 32 292 904 466 733 486
Year Kind Quantity Value Major Quantity Value
(kg) ( ) destination (kg) ( )
1982 Fresh 173 890 2 172 649 USA 1 783 815 19 468 271
Treated 654 475 6 037 468 Spain 1 658 340 6 089 624
Dried 15 419 472 76 380 614 Denmark 6 687 101 17 473 431
Kelp meal 532 008 456 749 France 2 874 500 6 945 260
Japan 1 538 596 6 460 127
Total 16 779 845 85 047 480
1983 Fresh 149 331 2 559 185 France 3 155 360 10 109 068
Treated 633 026 15 157 992 USA 2 374 789 18 594 731
Dried 14 961 030 93 174 516 Denmark 5 705 225 22 883 123
Salted 1 005 22 155 Japan 1 859 835 7 375 255
Kelp meal 910 975 1 058 680 England 1 004 550 35 624 853
Total 16 654 467 111 972 528
1984 Fresh 400 6 300 Denmark 3 360 317 28 716 904
Dried 10 217 505 80 023 546 France 1 528 050 4 924 947
Treated 38 000 1 214 500 Hong Kong 1 272 706 4 046 005
Kelp meal 634 250 1 019 692 Japan 631 750 918 752
Total 10 890 155 82 264 038
1985 Dried/treated 23 749 056 364 474 804 Denmark 9 887 301 99 084 429
Fresh 803 358 15 796 444 Japan 5 379 808 49 146 789
Salted 131 183 791 736 France 4 088 043 32 085 938
Kelp meal 4 124 626 8 691 173 USA 2 261 883 30 806 381
United Kingdom 2 299 947 101 327. 651
Total 28 808 223 389 744 121
1986 Dried/treated 29 182 896 455 572 060 Denmark 12 532 440 108 739 116
Fresh 166 145 3 186 057 France 4 145 698 35 138 008
Salted 77 470 388 148 USA 3 646 455 55 890
Kelp meal 2 866 393 7 587 221 United Kingdom 2 550 156 128 412 659
Japan 3 998 661 50 970 009
Total 32 292 904 466 733 486
MARINE PHYCOCULTURE IN CHINA

by
Wang Feijiu
Research Officer, Ministry of Agriculture
Animal Husbandry and Fisheries
Beijing, People's Republic of China

I. INTRODUCTION 1.1 Culture of Laminaria sporelings


In China, the seaweed with commercial The first is collecting zoospores onto the
importance are mainly Laminaria, Undaria, seeding cords. To do this, Laminaria fronds
Porphyra, Gelidium, Gracilaria, Eucheuma with mature sporangial sori are subjected to
and Macrocystis. partial drying in the air and then placed in a
Laminaria is the most important economic small container with seawater. The liberated
zoospores will soon attach themselves to the
seaweed in China. Mariculture of Laminaria on
substratum, the seeding cords. The
artificial floating rafts started in 1952 and the gametophytes and early sporophytes are
production increased steadily until 1980 when cultured in water of 8-10°C in glass-house for
the highest yield of 252 907 tons of the dry three months. After that the juvenile
product was produced. In recent years, the sporophytes can reach 2-3 cm long.
cultivation area and total yield of Laminaria
1.2 Cultivation of sporelings in
declined because the culture of shellfish
the sea and transplantation
developed so quickly that the farmers prefer
cultivating shellfish to Laminaria. Annual yield When the water temperature has already
of Laminaria keeps over 200 000 tons. dropped to about 20°C, we can remove
sporeling cords to the sea from glass-house
Undaria is cultivated by the same raft and hang them on the floating raft. In a month
method as the Laminaria and is often mix- or so the sporelings will have grown to
planted with the latter on the same floating raft juveniles of 10-15 cm long or more. These
in Qingdao and Dalian. The annual production juvenile sporophytes have to be brought to the
keeps only a few thousand tons. It is usually transplanting room and placed in tanks filled
used for feeding abalone and some are with seawater. Since they grow on the cords
exported to Japan. Porphyra is mainly so thickly, they have to be thinned. The best
cultivated in Jiangsu, Zhejiang and Fujian way in our experience is to remove them from
province. It is used for food and extraction of the original sporeling cord and insert them in
agar. Gracilaria and Eucheuma are mainly the twists of the kelp ropes, generally, with
cultivated in Guangdong province also used about 30 juveniles to each rope of 2 m.
for extracting phycocolloid.
1.3 Cultivating methods of Laminaria
Now let me introduce the productive
procedure of Laminaria. The culture of other There are two basic floating raft kelp
brown algae such as Undaria and Macrosystis cultivation methods. One is hanging kelp rope
are almost similar to Laminaria. (also called single-raft) cultivation method.
Another is horizontal kelp rope (also called
The productive procedure of Laminaria
include mainly four steps: (1) culture of double-raft) cultivation method. The floating-
Laminaria sporelings; (2) cultivation of spore- raft, floating line is about 60 m long floated at
lings in the sea and transplantation; (3) the surface by buoys generally made of glass
cultivating methods of Laminaria; and (4) or plastics and anchored terminally by
harvesting and processing. anchoring lines to wooden pegs
driven into the sea bottom. Each kelp rope has Table 1. Production quality and quantity per
about 30 kelps twisted in it and is about 2 m in kelp rose at different dates
length. In the single-raft method, the kelp ropes
are hung down from floating line and weighted Harvest Producti Producti Wet
down by a small piece of stone. In the double- time on in wet on in dry weight
raft method, the end of two kelp ropes are month/d weight weight dry
linked or tied together, the other ends are tied ay (kg) (kg) weight
to floating lines, respectively. The hanging kelp ratio
rope method has the advantage of better water 4/25 21.8 2.2 10:1
movement but has the defect of uneven growth
5/10 24.4 2.7 9:1
of the kelps. The horizontal kelp rope method
has the benefit of more even growth of the 5/26 24.6 3.1 7.9:1
kelp. However, it has the defect of being more 6/11 22.0 3.3 6.6:1
resistant to water motion. Generally speaking, 6/29 17.6 3.1 5.7:1
the single-raft method is better adapted to 7/14 14.5 2.9 5:1
comparatively clearer water regions and the
double-raft method to turbid regions with lower June or early July in North China. In
water transparency such as the Zhejing coast. harvesting the Laminaria, the kelp ropes are
detached from the floating line and collected in
2 HARVESTING AND PROCESSING small boats, many of which are retowed in a
Harvesting takes place when the fronds are long line by a motor boat. When the boats
mature. The time for harvesting is important to reach the wharf or shore, Laminaria are
kelp farmers. Since the Laminaria is sold in the transported to land and dried under the sun.
market on the basis of dry weight, and since
the wet weight to dry weight ratio changes
3 UTILIZATION AND MARKETING OF
from month to month, the criterion for selecting
harvest time should take into consideration the LAMINARIA
highest per unit area production rate plus the Most of the Laminaria japonica produced in
lowest wet-to-dry ratio. China is used for food. Besides its role as a
"health" vegetable in China, Laminaria is also
Table 1 shows the results of an experiment
important as raw material to be processed for
conducted on the quantity and quality of the
its algin, mannitol and iodine content in a
production on kelp drop at different dates.
special programme for the comprehensive
From the table, it is readily seen that mid to utilization of Laminaria. Recently, the kelp
late June is the best time for harvesting. It is, produced in China has also been employed in
therefore, recommended harvesting begins in the processing of synthetic feed use in
mid-June and continue until late mariculture. Formerly, the kelp was sold in the
market only in the crude dried form, but
recently small package of shredded and
seasoned forms with different flavours have
appeared in the market and are very well
accepted by the people.
GRACILARIA CULTURE IN THAILAND

by
Suchat Tachanavarong
Fishery Biologist/Seaweed Team Leader
National Institute of Coastal Aquaculture
Ministry of Agriculture and Cooperatives
Rajadamnern Avenue, Bangkok, Thailand

ABSTRACT
Thailand exports dry seaweed (approximately 20 to 200 tonnes), most of which are of the genus
Gracilaria, which can be processed to agar. At the present time, Thailand has no agar processing industries
and therefore, agar has been imported (around 200 to 300 tonnes/yr valued at 50 to 100 million baht). The
major producing areas are the southern region of Songkhla Lake and the shallow mudflats in Pattani Bay.
Production is mostly from natural beds. Two methods of culture are practiced: pond culture with a production
of approximately 6 442.5 kg/ha/yr; and polyculture in seabass (Lates calcarifer Bloch) cage with a production
of approximately 100 kg/cage/yr (1 cage = 10 x m2). Mostly dry seaweed is exported to Malaysia.

1. INTRODUCTION 2. CULTURE TECHNIQUES


Thailand exports seaweed at quantities Thailand does not produce large quantities
ranging approximately between 20 to 200 of seaweed. Harvest is mostly from natural
tonnes/yr (dry weight) valued at 4 to 10 million beds. The Department of Fisheries is
baht (HAI, 1986). Most of the seaweed conducting research and investigating the
exported are of the genus Gracilaria. Major feasibility of mass propagation of a number of
export markets are Japan, West Germany, seaweed species especially Gracilaria sp.
Hong Kong and Malaysia. In view of this and (Sirikul and Singthaweesak, 1987; Tachana-
due to the absence of processing plants, ravong et. al., 1987).
Thailand has been importing agar at quantities The culture methods practiced in Thailand
ranging between 200 to 300 tonnes/yr at a
are as follows:
value of 50 to 100 million baht. Some of the
production is utilized and consumed in 2.1 Long line
Thailand, but the bulk is exported; in 1984 Raffia and polyethylene lines were used as
seaweed exports totalled around 8.4 tonnes materials for the long line culture method in an
valued at 1.5 million baht (HAI, 1986). experimental culture farm; the results obtained
were not satisfactory (Plate 2).
Gracilaria species are found in shallow 2.2 Pond culture
mudflat areas. They can propagate by sexual Farmers collect young Gracilaria sp. from
and asexual reproduction. They can be eaten natural grounds and transfer them to earthen
in fresh form or dried for export (Plate 1). At pond with a water level of around 0.5-1.0 m
present, eight endemic agarophytes are found (Plate 3). The exchange of water depends on
in Thailand, four species belonging to the the tide. The average production level
genus Gracilaria and four to Polycavernosa, G. obtained in 1985 was 1 030 kg/rai/yr (1 rai = 1
tenuistipitata var. liui, G. firma, G. irregularis, 600 m2) (Tookwinas et. al, 1987).
G. salicornia, P. fisheri, P. changii, P. fastigiata
2.3 Polyculture in seabass cages
and P. percurrens (Abbott, LA. 1987). The
major producing areas are the southern region Seabass (Lates calcarifer Bloch) farmers
of Songkhla Lake and the shallow mudflats in harvest Gracilaria that naturally collects and
Pattani Bay (Figures 1, 2 and 3). grows on the cages. They grow on the
polyethylene net and on the bottom of cages.
Production levels range between 50-100 kg/
100 m2/yr.
Figure 1. Map of Thailand
Figure2. Songkhla lake bathmetry, 1984
Figure 3. Pattani Bay showing the natural beds of Gracilaria sp.
(shaded area)

3 MARKETING 4. PROBLEMS
An export market for dried, wild 4.1 Farmers who harvest from natural
harvested Gracilaria has developed in beds normally collect the whole of the
southern Thailand; this has been Graci laria shoot or with the substrate
unreported. Exact quantities leaving (live shell) and dry them. This practice
Thailand for Malaysia are unknown but causes considerable damage to the
are estimated to range from 30 to 50 natural stocks of Gracilaria. They must be
tonnes annually at a value (first sale) of harvested by cutting, leaving around 5 to
1.8-3.0 million baht in 1987. The major 10 cm of the Gracilaria shoot. The live
producing areas are the southern regions shell must be brought back to the sea.
of Songkhla Lake and the shallow
mudflats in Pattani Bay. Price was in the 4.2 There are no commercial or
range of 30 to 90 baht per kg. The market industrial scale agar manufacturing
appears to be fairly limited and highly facilities in Thailand so the price of
seasonal with nearly all the trade Gracilaria is not stable.
occurring during the Muslim fasting month
of Ramadan.
Plate 1. Dry Gracilaria sp.

Plate 2. Gracilaria seedlings on long line, Songkhla lake


Plate 3. Pond culture of Gracilaria sp., Pattani Bay

REFERENCES
Tachanaravong, S., V. Wattanakul and
Abbott, LA. Some species of Gracilaria and
1987 S. Junyampim. Experiment on culture of
1987 Polycavernosa from Thailand. Paper
Gracilaria sp. in the outer part of Songkhla Lake,
report, 26 pp.
1987. Meeting Report for the Agriculture
Hawaiian Agronomics International, Inc., Technology Transfer Project: Seaweed
1986 (HAI). Progress Report for the Agri-culture production and processing subproject,13-14 Aug.
Technology Transfer Project: Seaweed 1987, NIFI. KasetsartUniversity, Bangkok.
production and processing subproject.
Tookwinas, S., S. Tachanaravong and S.
Department of Fisheries, Ministry of
1986 Jaesoe. Traditional Gracilaria culture at
Agriculture and Coope-ratives, Bangkok.
Pattani Bay. Thai Fisheries Gazette,Vol.
Sirikul, B. and W. Singthaweesak. Experi- 39, No. 2, p. 145-150.
1987 ments on seaweed Gracilaria sp. culture in
Chanthaburi province. Meeting Report for
the Agriculture Technology Transfer
Project: Seaweed production and
processing subproject,13-14 Aug. 1987,
NIFI. Kasetsart University, Bangkok.

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