EEC 124 ELECTRONICS I

LECTURE NOTES

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By: Engr Aishatu Garga Ali

 EEC 124 – (ELECTRONICS I) LECTURE NOTES
1.0 MATTER
Matter is anything that has mass and occupies space. All matter is composed of atoms; all atoms consist of
electrons, protons, and neutrons except normal hydrogen, which does not have a neutron.
Atom: According to the model of atom proposed by Bohr in 1913, an atom is composed of a number of electrons
moving in circular or elliptical orbits around a relatively heavy nucleus of protons and neutrons as shown in Fig
1.0. Atom is the smallest particle of an element that retains the characteristics of an element. The atoms are
the building bricks of all matter. An atom consists of a central nucleus of positive charge around which small
negatively charged particles, called electrons revolve in different paths or orbits.
Each of the known 118 elements has atoms that are different from the atoms of all other elements. This gives
each element a unique atomic structure.

Figure 1.0 Structure of an atom

According to the classical Bohr model, atoms have a planetary type of structure that consists of a central nucleus
surrounded by orbiting electrons as shown in figure 1.0. The nucleus consists of positively charged particles called
protons and uncharged particles called neutrons. The basic particles of negative charge are called electrons. Each
type of atom has a certain number of electrons and protons that distinguishes it from the atoms of all other
elements. For example, the simplest atom is that hydrogen which has one proton and one electron, as shown in
Figure 1.0. As another example, the helium atom, shown in Figure 1.1 has two protons and two neutrons in the
nucleus and two electrons are orbiting round the nucleus.
1.1 Electron, Protons and neutrons
All solids, liquids and gases are principally made up three particles, electrons, protons and neutrons in which
two are basic (electrons and protons).
Electron is the smallest of the two which carries a negative electrical charge;
Protons: A proton is about 1840 times more massive than an electron. It carries a positive electric charge that is
equal in size but opposite in sign to the charge carried by an electron. Therefore, all protons carry the same amount
of positive charge.
Neutrons: A neutron has about the same mass as a proton but carries no electric charge.
To understand electronics, we need to know about protons, neutrons and electrons.

When a material is in an uncharged state, it contains as many protons as electrons. However, if we remove some
electrons from the material, the net positive charge on it exceeds the remaining negative charge so that the material
exhibits a net positive charge. This phenomenon can be experienced by anyone wearing clothes manufactured
from man-made fiber; while the garment is being worn, some electrons transfer to the wearer, and the static charge
built-up in this way may cause the wearer to experience an electrical shock during removal of the garment.
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1.2 Atomic number
All elements are arranged in the periodic table of the elements in order according to their Atomic number. The
atomic number equals the number of protons in the nucleus, which is the same as the number of electrons in
an electrically balanced (neutral) atom. For example, Hydrogen has an atomic number of 1 and helium has an
atomic number of 2. In their normal (or neutral) state, all atoms of a given element have the same number of
electrons as protons; the positive charges cancel the negative charges, and the atom has a net charge of zero.

Figure 1.1 Two simple atoms (a) Hydrogen (b) Helium

1.3 Atomic Structure

The electrons orbit in distinct layers or shells. The radius of the orbit depends on the balance between two forces:
the mechanical force outside the electron due to its motion and the electrostatic pull inside between the positive
charge on the nucleus and the negative charge on the electron. The shell in which an electron finds itself depends
on its energy; a high –energy electron orbits in a shell further away from the nucleus than the lower-energy
electron.
The shells have alphabetical letters, and numbers beginning with the K-shell which is the shell nearest to the
nucleus). K = 1, L = 2, M = 3, etc.) and it has been shown that the maximum number of electrons which can orbit
in any shell is 2n2, where n is the “number” of the shell. The maximum number of electrons which may orbit in
shells K to N is given in table 1.1 below.
Table 1.1
Shell Shell number Maximum no. of electrons
K 1 2
L 2 8
M 3 18
N 4 32

From the above table, the hydrogen atom has one electron, therefore the K –shell contains only one electron, and
the shell is said to be an incomplete shell. The neon has two electrons which fully occupies the K shell and it is
said to be a complete full shell. Silicon with fourteen protons has fourteen electrons in orbit, which completely
fill the K-shell and L-shell and partially fill the M-shell. In a complex

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 Figure 1.3 Atomic structure of Silicon
structure like silicon, figure 1.2 the electrons in the inner shells are tightly bound to the nucleus due to the
electrostatic force involved. Electrons farthest away from the nucleus (those in the M-shell in silicon) can be
detached from the atom more easily and are said to be loosely bound. The gaps between the shells are regions
where electrons cannot orbit, and are described as forbidden energy gaps.
1.4 Atomic Bonds
When atoms combine, they do so by attempting to empty the outer shell by losing electrons, or by attempting to
fill the outer shell by gaining electrons, or alternatively they share electrons with other atoms in order to give
the appearance of a full shell. The later method is of particular interest to electronic engineers, since this is the
way in which some of the most useful semiconductor materials bond together. In the sharing process, each valence
electron forms an orbit around two atoms including the parent atom and one other atom, forming what is known
as a covalent bond between the atoms.
Since an individual atom contains as many electrons as it does protons. It is electrically neutral in its normal state.
However, the addition of an electron gives it a net negative charge; and the removal of an electron gives it a
net positive charge. The process of adding or removing electrons when an atom carries either a negative a positive
charge it is known as an ion and the process of producing this charge is known as ionization. When an electron
receives energy from an external source, such as heat or light, the extra energy allows it to move to a higher
orbit. This process is known as excitation.
1.5 Holes and Electrons
When an atom loses an electron, the electrical charge balance is upset and the atom takes on a net negative charge.
This electron charge is described as a negative charge carrier. When an atom gains an electron as a result of
vacant hole in bonding, it is regarded as a positive charge carrier
1.6 Current and Charge
When the electrical circuit between a generator and an electrical load such as a lamp or heater is complete, electric
current flows round the circuit. Electric current is simply the movement of electrical charge carrier (such as
electrons) around the circuit. Consider now the movement of electrons when the circuit I complete, the electrons
are attracted from the negative pole of the supply and flow via the load to the positive pole of the supply.

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Supply electrons cannot “accumulate” at any point in the circuit; they must complete the return path inside the
generator to return to the negative pole. Current (symbol I) has the unit of the ampere (symbol A). Certain devices
such as cells and capacitors have the ability to store a quantity of electricity.
Electrical quantity or electrical charge (symbol Q) is the capacity of a piece of electrical apparatus to store (or
to discharge) a certain current for a given length of time. For example, the storage capacity of an accumulator is
stated as a certain number of ampere-hours (unit symbol AH).
Thus an accumulator with a storage capacity of 40 Ah can discharge electricity at the rate of 1A for 40 hours or
2A for 20 hours. However, the hour is long period of time, and we normally specify quantity or charge in ampere
second or coulombs (unit symbol C).
Thus, Electrical Quantity = Current x time; Q=It (Coulombs)
An electron is a charge carrier whose electrical charge is E= 1.6× 10-19 C
That is, a current of 1 A flows in a circuit when 1 / (1.6× 10-19) = 6.25 × 1018 electrons, Passes through each point
in the circuit in one second.
WORKED EXAMPLE
Example 1.1 If a current of 3 A flows in a circuit for 120 ms, calculate the quantity of electricity which is involved.
Solution: I = 3 A; t = 120 ms = 120 x 10-3 s = 0.12s
Q = I t = 3 x 0.12 = 0.36 C
Example 1.2
If a charge of 8C moves past a given point in a circuit in 0.2s. Calculate the current in the circuit.
Solution: Q = 8 C: t = 0.2s.
I = Q/t = 8/0.2 = 40 A
Example 1.3
If an insulated conductor is charged to 3, C, how many additional electrons has it acquired?
Solution: Q = 3C: negative charge on an electron = 1.6 x 1019C.
Number of electrons = 3 / (1.6 x 10-19) = 1.875 x 1019 electrons
2.1 CONDUCTORS, INSULATORS AND SEMICONDUCTORS
2.11 Conductor: A conductor is a material through which free electrons will flow easily. In such materials, the
valence electrons can easily be taken away from their parent atoms by applying electromotive force. Elements
with one, two or three valence electrons are example of good conductors of electricity. Copper, Silver and
aluminum are example of good conductors of electricity.
2.12 Insulator: are elements or compounds whose electrons are not easily excited. They are strongly held by the
nucleus and cannot become free. If there are no charge carriers, there can be no electric current. Such materials
are called non-conductors or insulators
They are Elements whose valences orbits are almost filled-up with valence electrons.

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They hardly give up electrons instead they prefer to fill up their valance orbit with electrons; They are therefore
poor conductors of electricity. They are better known as insulators or dielectrics.
2.13 Semiconductor: Semiconductors are materials with intermediate characteristics between good conductor
and good insulators, some of these materials normally have four valence electrons. Carbon, silicon, Silicon and
germanium are example of semiconductors. Silicon and germanium are used in the manufacture of diodes,
transistors etc. Carbon is used in the production of resistors and some sliding contacts such as motor brushes. A
resistor can be considered a material that supports the flow of electric current better than an insulator but not a
well a conductor.
2.2 SEMICONDUCTORS
A semiconductor material is one whose electrical properties lie in between those of insulators and good
conductors. Examples are: germanium and silicon. They are quadravalent meaning they have four (4). electrons
in their outermost shell. In terms of energy bands, semiconductors can be defined as those materials which have
almost an empty conduction band and almost filled valence band with a very narrow energy gap. Semiconductors
like germanium and silicon, have crystalline structure. That is the atoms are arranged in three-dimensional
periodic fashion. The periodic arrangement of atoms in a crystal is called lattice.
2.22 Atomic Bonding in Semiconductors
Semiconductors like germanium and silicon, have crystalline structure. Their atoms are arranged in an ordered
array known as crystal lattice. Both these materials are tetravalent i.e. each has four valence electrons in its
outermost shell. The neighboring atoms form covalent bonds by sharing four electrons with each other so as to
achieve 8 electrons in the outermost orbit.
2.23 Types of Semiconductor
There are two types of Semiconductors: Intrinsic Semiconductor and Extrinsic Semiconductor.
An intrinsic semiconductor is one which is made of the semiconductor material in its extremely pure form.
Extrinsic semiconductors are those intrinsic semiconductors to which some suitable impurity or doping agent
or dopant has been added in extremely small amounts (about 1 part in 108).
2.24 Doping of semiconductor
The adding of small amounts of impurity to crystals or a pure semiconductor is called doping. Silicon can be
doped with either pentavalent atoms such as arsenic, antimony & phosphorus or trivalent atoms such as gallium,
indium, aluminium & boron.
Depending on the type of doping material used, extrinsic semiconductors can be sub-divided into two classes as
follows: (i) N-type semiconductors and (ii) P-type semiconductors.
2.25 N-type Extrinsic Semiconductor. This type of semiconductor is obtained when a pentavalent material like
phosphorus (P) is added to pure Silicon crystal. As shown in Fig. (a) each p atom forms covalent bonds with the
surrounding four silicon atoms with the help of four of its five (5) electrons. The fifth electron is in excess and is
loosely bound to the phosphorus atom. Hence, it can be easily excited from the valence band to the conduction
band by the application of electric field or increase in thermal energy. Thus, practically every phosphorus atom
introduced into the silicon lattice, contributes one conduction electron into the silicon lattice without creating a
positive hole. Phosphorus is called donor impurity and makes the pure silicon an N-type (N for Negative)
extrinsic semi-conductor.

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Fig.2.1 (a) The lattice of pure silicon sharing electrons with 4 atoms. (b) Silicon doped with phosphorus gains
free electrons.
2.26 P-type Extrinsic Semiconductor: This type of semiconductor is obtained when a trivalent like boron (B)
are added to a pure germanium crystal. In this case, the three valence electrons of boron atom form covalent bonds
with four surrounding germanium atoms but one bond is left incomplete and gives rise to a hole as shown in
Fig.2.2 (a). Thus, boron which is called an acceptor impurity causes as many positive holes in a germanium
crystal as there are boron atoms thereby producing a P-type extrinsic semiconductor. Here, conduction is by the
movement of holes in the valence band. Holes form the majority carriers whereas electrons constitute minority
carriers.
Stages of Movement of a Hole in an Electric Field
Boron is trivalent, with only three electrons in its outer shell. It shares these electrons with its neighbor’s but,
atmost it has only seven electrons for its outer shell. This leaves one vacancy a hole. If a free electron is available,
it will be attracted to the atom to fill this hole. When a hole is filled with an atom, the hole attracts electron along
the bar. This electron leaves a hole at atom B. The holes at B attract an electron from atom C. In turn, this hole is
filled by an electron from atom D. Each electron had moved a short distance the bar and has been captured. The
hole has moved a long distance from A to B to C to D. The electrons move along the bar from negative to positive,
but the hole moves in the opposite direction, from positive to negative.
In an N-type semiconductor material, Electrons are the Majority carriers while Holes are the Minority carriers.
In an P-type semiconductor material, Holes are the Majority carriers while Electrons are the Minority carriers.

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Fig. 2.2 (a) Silicon doped with boron gains holes. (b) (a) – (d); stages in the motion of a hole in an electric field.
ELECTRICAL FORCE AND POTENTIAL
If we have two objects or atoms or particles of the same charge they repelled each other. If they have opposite
charges, they are attracted to one another. In summary, Like Charges Repel Unlike Charges Attract.

Like charges repel unlike charges attract

Fig 2.3 Lines of force around a positively charged object.
If there is a positively charged object fig 2.3, is fixed in position with another positively charged object is placed
at A, it is repelled along the line to position B or beyond because of electric force between them. The line of
movement is the line of force. Placing a negatively charged object at C causes attraction along the line of force.
These line of force around the object make up an electric field. To move B towards A, we have to use force.
Meaning we have to do work on B against the electrical force. If we push B until it gets to B’, B gains energy
from the work we do. This gives it potential energy. If we stop pushing B and release it, B will be repelled away
from A along the line of force. It loses some of its potential energy and gains an equal amount of kinetic energy.
If the object is negatively charged C, we do work as we pull on the object to stop it from attraction. When the
object reaches C’ it has a potential energy. This equal the amount of energy we use to bring it to C.
2.3 FERMI ENERGY LEVELS
When we dope such a semiconductor with phosphorus or some other pentavalent element we provide electrons
that have higher valance energy than that of the pure semiconductor. An electron can have any amount of energy
within the levels of the bands. It can have as little as the lowest energy of the lowest band or as much as the
highest energy of the highest band.
Probability of findings such an electron with low energy level is 1. Probability of an electron with energy equal
to that of the top of the valence bands is 1/5 or 0.2. Probability of an electron with the highest level of the
conduction band is very close to 0. As we go from the lowest levels to the highest levels, the probability of finding
an electron with a given amount of energy decreases from 1 to 0. At some level between the lowest and highest
the probability must be 0.5. This is called the Fermi level. Fermi energy level (EF) lies in the middle of the energy
gap i.e. midway between the conduction and valence bands.
The Fermi levels are marked on Fig. 2.3. In conductor the level lies in the conduction band. In non-conductor
the Fermi level is in the valence band. In semiconductors the Fermi level lies between the conduction and valence

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bands. Doping a semiconductor to make it into n-type material raises the Fermi level. This is because the doping
provides more electrons. Doping to make a p-type material lowers the Fermi level.

Fig. 2.1 Electron Energy Levels: (a) in Non-Conductors; (b) and (c) in Conductors (d) in N-type material (e)In
P-type material.
In non-conductors (insulators), there is a large energy gap between the valence and conduction bands. We need
a high temperature to make the electrons jump into the conduction band. Such a temperature would destroy the
insulation.
In conductors the energy gap is small or the valence and conduction bands overlap. This makes it easy for
electrons to gain enough energy to leave the atom and become free. In a conductor there are always plenty of free
electrons ready to carry charge in a field.
In semi-conductors such as silicon and germanium, energy gaps are much less than those insulators but higher
than conductors.

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Fig. 2.2 The Femi Level: (a) in a Conductor; (b) in a Non-Conductor; (c) in a Semiconductor, EF is the Femi
Level.
2.1 Electrons Energy levels of Lithium
As an example take the atom of lithium, which has three electrons. The two electrons of the inner shell each have
about the same amount of energy and they have less energy than the single electron in the outer shell.
 In an unexcited atom, the outer electron has the lowest energy. If extra energy is given, it becomes excited
and stronger to move to the next level. This is called excitation level.
 Losing energy to become unexcited and gaining energy to higher excitation levels applies to single atoms
or gas.

Fig. 2.3 Electron Energy Levels in Lithium; (a) in a single unexcited (ground state) atom; (b) in a single excited
atom; (c) in a bar of Lithium.
 In solids, the electrons gain or lose energy from all the atoms around them to add or subtract to their energy
levels. Instead of sharp energy levels, we have energy bands.
 Electrons in the lower bands are permanently part of the electron cloud. Electrons of the outer shell
(valence band) do not have enough energy to become free electrons.
 Increase in temperature or electric field gives extra energy to electrons, they become excited and jump
into the conduction band leaving the atoms and becoming charge carriers.
2.2 Conduction in Metals
Metals have a crystalline structure. The atoms of the metal are in regular rows and columns. They are held in
their places by the strong forces that exist between an atom and its neighbors’. There is space between the atoms.
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The electrons in the electron cloud of each atom have different amounts of energy. Those in the inner shells have
the highest energy. They are attracted strongly by the nucleus. The outer electrons have less energy and are not
so strongly attracted. The outer electrons are also affected by the atoms around them. Sometimes they gain energy,
sometimes they lose it. Those electrons that have the most energy are said to be excited.

Fig. 2.4 Part of the lattice of a metal showing free electrons moving in the space between the atoms: (a) not in an
electric field; (b) in an electric field (an electric current).
The electrons move in all directions fig. 2.4 (a), because there is no electric field. If the piece of metal is placed
in an electric field all free electrons will tend to move in the same direction.
In fig 2.4(b). The e.m.f of the cell makes a field. Electrons are repelled from the negative terminal and attracted
towards the positive terminal. We have an electric current. Some electrons will leave this piece of metal and pass
into the positive terminal. Electrons from the negative terminal pass into the piece of metal. As the electrons flow,
negative electric charge is carried from the negative terminal of the cells to the positive terminal. We say that
electrons are charge carriers. They flow from a negative polarity to a positive polarity.
2.3 CONDITIONS FOR CURRENT FLOW
There are the three conditions for an electric current.
(a) There must be charge carriers
(b) The charge carriers are free to move.
(c) There must be an e.m.f. to make them move
If any one of these conditions is absent, there is no current. Some metal, such as silver and copper, are very good
conductors of electricity.
3.0 P-N JUNCTION
When you take a block of silicon and doped part of it with a trivalent impurity (P-type material) and the other
part with a pentavalent impurity (N-type material), a boundary called the pn junction is formed between the
resulting p-type and n-type portions. The pn junction is the basis for diodes, certain transistors, solar cells, and
other devices

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The P-type material has positive majority charge carriers (holes) and the N-type material has negative majority
carriers (electrons). If a piece of intrinsic silicon is doped so that part is n-type and the other part is p-type, a
pn junction is formed at the boundary between the two regions and a diode is created, as indicated in Fig 3.1.
Near the junction, the electrons diffuse across the junction, combining with holes. Region of the P-type takes on
a net negative charge because of the electrons attraction and N-type region takes on a positive charge. The thin
layer of the crystal lattice between these charges has been depleted of majority carriers, thus, is known as the
depletion region. It becomes nonconductive intrinsic semiconductor material. In effect, we have nearly an
insulator separating the conductive P and N doped regions.

Fig 3.1 Formation of the depletion region.

This separation of charges at the PN junction creates a potential barrier. This barrier is overcome by an external
voltage source to make the junction conduct. The formation of the junction and potential barrier happens during
the manufacturing process. The magnitude of the potential barrier is a function of the materials used in
manufacturing. Silicon PN junctions have a higher potential barrier (0.6-0.7V) than germanium junctions (0.3V).

3.2 FORWARD AND REVERSE BIAS

Forward Bias: The battery negative terminal is connected to N-type material and the positive terminal is
connected to P-type material. Electrons diffuse toward the junction and holes diffuse toward the junction. If the
battery voltage is great enough to overcome the junction potential (0.6V in Si), current starts flowing through the
PN junction diode. Such a junction is said to be forward biased.

Fig 3.2 (a) Forward battery bias (b) Reverse battery bias

3.3 REVERSE BIAS

Reverse Bias: If the battery polarity is reversed as in Fig 3.2 (b) majority carriers are attracted away from the
junction toward the battery terminals. The positive battery terminal attracts N-type majority carriers, electrons,
away from the junction. The negative terminal attracts P-type majority carriers, holes, away from the junction.
This increases the thickness of the non-conducting depletion region. There is no recombination of majority
carriers, therefore, no conduction. This arrangement of battery polarity is called reverse bias.

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3.3 JUNCTION DIODES

It is a two-terminal device consisting of a P-N junction formed either in Ge or Si crystal. Its circuit construction
is shown in Fig.3.3 (a). The P-and N-type regions are referred to as anode and cathode respectively. In Fig. (b),
arrowhead indicates the conventional direction of current flow when forward-biased. It is the same direction in
which hole flow takes place.

Commercially available diodes usually have some means to indicate which lead is P and which lead is N as shown
in fig. 3.3 (c). Fig.3.4 (a) shows typical diodes having a variety of physical structures whereas Fig.3.4 (b)
illustrates terminal identifications.

Fig. 3.4 (a) Commercial diodes having a variety of physical structures whereas (b) terminal identifications.

3.4. The stages in the making of a PN junction

The two most commonly-used materials for making PN junction are germanium (Ge) and silicon (Si). Since Ge
has higher electrical conduction than Si, it is often used in low- and medium-power diodes.
On the other hand, Si has been found more suitable for high-power applications because it can be operated at
higher temperatures than Ge.
The diffusion process employs either solid or gaseous diffusion. This process takes more time than alloy
process but is relatively cheaper and more accurately controllable.
The P-N junction may be produced by any one of the following methods:
1. Grown junction 2. Alloy junction 3. Diffused junction 4. Epitaxial growth 5. Point contact junction.

Gaseous Diffusion
In the gaseous diffusion process, an N-type material is heated in a chamber containing a high concentration of a
trivalent impurity in vapors form (Fig.3.5). Some of the acceptor atoms are diffused (or absorbed) into the N-type
substrate to form the P-type layer thus creating a P-N junction.

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 Fig. 3.5. Acceptor atoms are diffused (or absorbed) into the N-type substrate

By exposing only part of the N-type material during the diffusion process (the remainder being covered
by a thin coating of SiO2), the size of the P-region can be controlled. Finally, metal contacts are electroplated on
the surface of each region for connecting the leads.
The diffusion technique is the most frequently-used technique not only for the manufacture of semi-conductor
diodes but also for the production of transistors and integrated circuits etc.

3.5 Diode structure and symbol

The diode basic structure and schematic symbol is illustrated in Fig 3.3 corresponding to the doped semiconductor
bar at (a). The diode is a unidirectional device. Electron current only flows in one direction. The cathode, bar, of
the diode symbol corresponds to N-type semiconductor. The anode, arrow, corresponds to the P-type
semiconductor. To remember this relationship, Not-pointing bar on the symbol corresponds to N-type
semiconductor. Pointing arrow corresponds to P-type.

Fig 3.3 Structure and symbol of diode

3.5 Diode characteristic curve

If a diode is forward biased as in Fig (a), current will increase slightly as voltage is increased from 0 V. In the
case of a silicon diode a measurable current flows when the voltage approaches 0.6 V in Fig (c). As the voltage
increases above 0.6 V, current increases considerably after the knee. Increasing the voltage well beyond 0.7 V
may result in high enough current to destroy the diode. The forward voltage, V F, is a characteristic of the
semiconductor, 0.6-0.7 V for silicon, 0.2-0.3V for germanium, a few volts for Light Emitting Diodes (LED).

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Fig 3.4 (a) Forward biased PN junction, (b) Corresponding diode schematic symbol (c) Silicon Diode I vs V
characteristic curve.

If the diode is reverse biased, only the leakage current of the flows. This is plotted to the left of the origin in Fig
(c). This current will only be as high as 1 µA. This current does not increase appreciably with increasing reverse
bias until the diode reaches the breakdown voltage. At breakdown, the current increases so greatly that the diode
will be destroyed unless a high series resistance limits the current.

3.6 THE ZENER DIODE

A major application for zener diodes is as a type of voltage regulator for providing stable reference voltages for
use in power supplies, voltmeters, and other instruments. Zener diode maintains a nearly constant dc voltage
under the proper operating conditions. The symbol for a zener diode is shown in Fig 3.6 (a). Instead of a straight
line representing the cathode, the zener diode has a bent line that reminds you of the letter Z (for zener). A zener
diode is a silicon pn junction device that is designed for operation in the reverse-breakdown region. The
breakdown voltage of a zener diode is set by carefully controlling the doping level during manufacture. When a
diode reaches reverse breakdown, its voltage remains almost constant even though the current changes drastically,
and this is the key to zener diode operation. This volt-ampere characteristic is shown again in Fig 3.6 (b) with the
normal operating region for zener diodes shown as a shaded area.

(a) (b)

Fig 3.6 (a) Zener diode symbol (b) General zener diode V-I characteristic

Uses of Zener diode

Zener diodes find numerous applications in transistor circuitry. Some of their common uses are:
1. Voltage regulators;
2. Fixed reference voltage in a network for biasing, comparison purposes and for calibrating voltmeters;
3. As peak clippers or voltage limiters;
4. For meter protection against damage from accidental application of excessive voltage;
5. For reshaping a waveform.

4.0 BIPOLAR JUNCTION TRANSISTORS (BJT)

The transistor is a solid state semiconductor device which can be used for amplification, switching, voltage
stabilization, signal modulation and many other functions. It acts as a variable valve which, based on its input
current.

4.1 Structure and type of BJT: The BJT is constructed with three doped semiconductor regions separated by
two pn junctions, as shown in the epitaxial planar structure in Fig 4.1(a). The three regions are called emitter,
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base, and collector. Physical representations of the two types of BJTs are shown in Figure 4.1(b) and (c). One
type consists of two n- regions separated by a p-region (npn), and the other type consists of two p regions separated
by an n region (pnp). The term bipolar refers to the use of both holes and electrons as current carriers in the
transistor structure.

Fig 4.1 (a) Transistor cross section (b) NPN symbol (c) PNP symbol

4.2 BJT structure and symbol

The pn junction joining the base region and the emitter region is called the base-emitter junction. The pn
junction joining the base region and the collector region is called the base-collector junction as indicated in Fig
4.1(b). The terminals are named E, B, and C for emitter, base, and collector, respectively. The base region is
lightly doped and very thin compared to the heavily doped emitter and the moderately doped collector regions.
Fig 4. 2 shows the schematic symbols for the npn and pnp bipolar junction transistors.

Fig 4.2 Schematic symbol (a) NPN (b) PNP

4.3 Biasing of BJT

Figure 4.4 shows a bias arrangement for both npn and pnp BJTs for operation as an amplifier. Notice that in both
cases the base-emitter (BE) junction is forward-biased and the base-collector (BC) junction is reverse-biased.
This condition is called forward-reverse bias.

Normally we forward bias the emitter-base junction, overcoming the 0.6 V potential barrier. This is similar to
forward biasing a junction diode

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 Fig 4.4 (a) Forward (b) reverse bias of a BJT.

4.4 Operation of BJT

 The forward bias from base to emitter narrows the BE depletion region, and the reverse bias from base to
collector widens the BC depletion region.
 The emitter region is heavily doped with electrons that easily diffuse through the forward-biased BE
junction into the p-type base region where they become minority carriers. The base region is lightly doped
and very thin so that it has a small number of holes.
 Small percentage of all the electrons flowing through the BE junction can combine with the holes in the
base. The few recombined electrons flow out of the base, forming the small base electron current.
 The thin base and the heavily doped emitter help keep the emitter efficiency high, 99% for example. This
corresponds to 100% emitter current splitting between the base as 1% and the collector as 99%. The
𝐼
emitter efficiency is known as α = IC/IE while the beta dc, 𝛽𝑑𝑐 = 𝐶⁄𝐼
𝐵

Fig 4.5 Operation of BJT

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4.5 Transistor d.c biasing

When a transistor is connected to dc bias voltages, as shown in Figure 4.6 for both npn and pnp types, VBB
forward-biases the base-emitter junction, and VCC reverse-biases the base-collector junction.

In order for the transistor to operate properly as an amplifier, the two PN junctions must be correctly biased with
external dc voltages as shown in Fig 4.6 (a) and (b). The operation of the PNP is the same as for the NPN except
that the roles of the electrons and holes, the bias voltage polarities, and the current directions are all reversed.

Fig. 4.6 Transistor dc bias circuits.

4.6 TRANSISTOR CURRENT AND VOLTAGES.

Although in an actual transistor VBE can be as high as 0.9 V and is dependent on current. We will use 0.7V.
Throughout this text in order to simplify the analysis of the basic concepts. Since the emitter is at ground (0V),
by Kirchhoff's voltage law, the voltage across RB is V RB = V BB - V BE
Also, by Ohm's law,
V RB = IBRB
4.7 CURRENT AND VOLTAGE ANALYSIS
Consider the basic transistor bias circuit configuration in Fig 4.8. Three transistordc Currents and three dc voltages
can be identified.
IB : dc base current.
IE: dc emitter current
IC: dc collector current
VBE : dc voltage at base with respect to emitter
VCB : dc voltage at collector with respect to base
VCE : dc voltage at collector with respect to emitter
VBB: forward-biases the base-emitter junction, and
VCC: reverse-biases the collector-Emitter junction.

Fig 4.8 Transistor currents and voltages

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When the base-emitter junction is forward-biased, it is like a forward-biased diode and has a nominal forward
voltage drop of V BE = 0.7 V

4.8 COLLECTOR CHARACTERISTIC CURVES

A set of collector characteristic curves that shows how the collector Current varies with the collector to-emitter
voltage, VCE ' for specified values of base current, lB' can be generated.

Notice in the circuit diagram that bothVBB and VCC are variable sources of voltage. Assume that VBB is set to
produce a certain value of IB and Vcc is zero. For this condition, both the base-emitter junction and the base-
collector junction are forward-biased because the base is at approximately 0.7 V while the emitter and the collector
are at 0V.

The base Current is through the base-emitter junction because of the low impedance path to ground and, therefore,
Ie is zero. When both junctions are forward-biased, the transistor is in the saturation region of its operation. A
transistor should never be operated in this breakdown region. When IB = 0, the transistor is in the cutoff region
although there is a very small collector leakage Current as indicated. The amount of collector leakage current for
IB = 0 is exaggerated on the graph for illustration.

(a)

As previously mentioned, when IB = 0, the transistor is in the cutoff region of its operation. This is shown in Fig
4.9 with the base lead open, resulting in a base current of zero. Under this condition, there is a very small amount
of collector leakage current, ICEO, due mainly to thermally produced carriers. Because ICEO is extremely small, it
will usually be neglected in circuit analysis so that VCE = VCC. In cutoff, neither the base-emitter nor the base-
collector junctions are forward-biased. The subscript CEO represents collector to-emitter with the base open.

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 Fig 4.10 Cut-off

4.10 Saturation
When the base-emitter junction becomes forward-
biased and the base current is increased, the collector current also increases (IC= 𝛽 DCIB) and VCE decreases as a
result of more drop across the collector resistor (VCE =VCC - ICRC). This is illustrated in Figure 4.11. When VCE
reaches its saturation value, VCE(sat), the base-collector junction becomes forward-biased and IC can increase no
further even with a continued increase in IB. At the point of saturation, the relation IC = 𝛽 DCIB is no longer valid.
VCE(sat) for a transistor occurs somewhere below the knee of the collector curves, and it is usually only a few
tenths of a volt.

Fig 4.11 Saturation

4.11 DC Load Line
Cut-off and saturation can be illustrated in relation to the collector characteristic curves by the use of a load line.
Figure 4.12 shows a dc load line drawn on a family of curves connecting the cutoff point and the saturation point.
The bottom of the load line is at ideal cutoff where IC = 0 and VCE =VCC. The top of the load line is at saturation
where IC = IC(sat) and VCE = VCE(sat). In between cutoff and saturation along the load line is the active region of
the transistor operation.

Fig 4.12 DC Load line on collector characteristic curve showing cutoff and saturation.
4.12 Transistor as an Amplifier
Amplification is the process of linearly increasing the amplitude of an electrical signal and is one of the major
properties of a transistor. BJT exhibits current gain (called 𝛽). When a BJT is biased in the active (or linear)
region, as previously described the BE junction has a low resistance due to forward bias and the BC junction has
a high resistance due to reverse bias. A transistor amplifies current because the collector current is equal to the
base current multiplied by the current gain. An ac voltage, Vs, is superimposed on the dc bias voltage VBB by
19
capacitive coupling as shown. The dc bias voltage VCC is connected to the collector through the collector resistor,
RC. The ac input voltage produces an ac base current, which results in a much larger ac collector current. The ac
collector current produces an ac voltage across RC, thus producing an amplified, but inverted, reproduction of the
ac input voltage in the active region of operation, as illustrated in Figure 4.13.

Fig 4.13 showing the action of a transistor as an Amplifier.

4.13 Transistor as a Switch

The second major application area is switching applications. When used as an electronic switch, a BJT is
normally operated alternately in cutoff and saturation. Many digital circuits use the BJT as a switch. Figure 4.14
illustrates the basic operation of a BJT as a switching device.
In part (a), the transistor is in the cutoff region because the base-emitter junction is not forward-biased. In this
condition, there is, ideally, an open between collector and emitter, as indicated by the switch equivalent.
In part (b), the transistor is in the saturation region because the base emitter junction and the base-collector
junction are forward-biased and the base current is made large enough to cause the collector current to reach its
saturation value. In this condition, there is, ideally, a short between collector and emitter, as indicated by the
switch equivalent. Actually, a small voltage drop across the transistor of up to a few tenths of a volt normally
occurs, which is the saturation voltage, VCE(sat).

Fig 4.14 Switching action of an ideal transistor

4.14 A Simple Application of a Transistor Switch

The transistor in Fig 4.15 is used as a switch to turn the LED on and off. For example, a square wave input voltage
with a period of 2s is applied to the input as indicated. When the square wave is at 0V, the transistor is in cutoff;
20
and since there is no collector current, the LED does not emit light. When the square wave goes to its high level,
the transistor saturates. This forward-biases the LED, and the resulting collector current through the LED causes
it to emit light. Thus, the LED is on for 1second and off for 1second.

Fig 4.15 A transistor used to switch an LED on and off.

4.15 Transistor categories and packaging

BJTs are available in a wide range of package types for various applications. Those with heat sinks are usually
power transistors. Low-power and medium-power transistors are usually found in smaller metal or plastic cases.
Still another package classification is for high-frequency devices.
4.15.1 General-Purpose/Small-Signal Transistors

General-purpose or small-signal transistors are generally used for low- or medium-power amplifiers or switching
circuits. Fig 4.16 illustrates two common plastic cases and a metal can package.

Fig 4.16 Plastic and metal cases for general-purpose or small-signal transistors.

Fig 4.17 shows multiple-transistor packages. Some of the multiple-transistor packages such as the dual in-line
(DIP) and the small-outline (SO) are the same as those used for many integrated circuits. Typical pin connections
are shown so you can identify the emitter, base, and collector.
4.15.2 Power Transistors
Power transistors are used to handle large currents (typically more than 1 A) and or large voltages. For example,
the final audio stage in a stereo system uses a power transistor amplifier to drive the speakers. Fig 4.17 shows

21
some common package.

Fig 4.17 power transistors and packages

4.16 Troubleshooting a biased transistor

Several faults that can occur in the circuit and the accompanying symptoms are illustrated in Figure 4.19.
Symptoms are shown in terms of measured voltages that are incorrect. If a transistor circuit is not operating
correctly, it is a good idea to verify that VCC and ground are connected and operating. A simple check at the top
of the collector resistor and at the collector itself will quickly ascertain if VCC is present and if the transistor is
conducting normally or is in cutoff or saturation. If it is in cutoff, the collector voltage will equal VCC; if it is in
saturation, the collector voltage will be near zero. Another faulty measurement can be seen if there is an open in
the collector path. The term floating point refers to a point in the circuit that is not electrically connected to ground
or a “solid” voltage. Normally, very small and sometimes fluctuating voltages in the mV to low mV range are
generally measured at floating points. The faults in Figure 4.19 are typical but do not represent all possible faults
that may occur.
4.17 Testing a Transistor with a DMM
A digital multimeter can be used as a fast and simple way to check a transistor for open or shorted junctions. For
this test, you can view the transistor as two diodes connected as shown in Fig 4.20 for both npn and pnp transistors.
The base-collector junction is one diode and the base-emitter junction is the other.

Fig 4.20 A transistor viewed as two diodes.

Recall that a good diode will show an extremely high resistance (or open) with reverse bias and a very low
resistance with forward bias. A defective open diode will show an extremely high resistance (or open) for both
forward and reverse bias. A defective shorted or resistive diode will show zero or a very low resistance for both
forward and reverse bias. An open diode is the most common type of failure. Since the transistor pn junctions are,
in effect diodes, the same basic characteristics apply.

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5.0 JFFET

The JFET ( junction field-effect transistor) is a type of FET that operates with a reverse-biased pn junction to
control current in a channel. Depending on their structure, JFETs fall into either of two categories, n channel or
p channel.

5.1 Basic Structure and symbol

Fig 5.1 (a) shows the basic structure of an n-channel JFET (junction field-effect transistor). Wire leads are
connected to each end of the n-channel; the drain is at the upper end, and the source is at the lower end. Two p-
type regions are diffused in the n-type material to form a channel, and both p-type regions are connected to the
gate lead. For simplicity, the gate lead is shown connected to only one of the p regions. A p-channel JFET is
shown in Fig 5.1(b). Fig 5.1 (c) shows JFET schematic symbols for n and p channels.

(c)

Fig 5.1 JFET (a) basic structure.n-channel (b) (a) basic structure.n-channel (c) symbols

5.2 Basic operation of JFET

To illustrate the operation of a JFET, Fig 5.2 shows dc bias voltages applied to an n-channel device

(a) (b)

Fig 5.2 ( a) A biased n-channel JFET (b) JFET biased for conduction

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  VDD provides a drain-to-source voltage and supplies current from drain to source. VGG
sets the reverse-bias voltage between the gate and the source.
 Reverse- biasing of the gate-source junction with a negative gate voltage produces a depletion region
along the pn junction, which extends into the n- channel and increases its resistance.
 The channel width and the channel resistance can be controlled by varying the gate voltage controlling
the amount of drain current, ID
 Increasing VGG narrows the channel, increases the resistance and decreases the current ID.
 Decreasing VGG widens the channel, decreasing the resistance and increases the current.

6.0 THYRISTORS
Thyristors are devices that are constructed with four semiconductor layers (pnpn). Thyristors includes the 4-layer
diode, the silicon-controlled rectifier (SCR), the diac, the triac, and the silicon-controlled switch (SCS). They act
as open circuits capable of withstanding a certain rated voltage until they are triggered. When triggered, they turn
on and become low-resistance current paths and remain so, even after the trigger is removed, until the current is
reduced to a certain level or until they are triggered off, depending on the type of device. Thyristors can be used
to control the amount of ac power to a load and are used in lamp dimmers, motor speed controls, ignition systems,
and charging circuits, to name a few.
6.1 THE FOUR-LAYER DIODE (Shockly diode)
The basic thyristor is a 4-layer device with two terminals, the anode and the cathode. It is constructed of four
semiconductor layers that form a pnpn structure. The device acts as a switch and remains off until the forward
voltage reaches a certain value; then it turns on and conducts. Conduction continues until the current is reduced
below a specified value. The basic construction of 4-layer diode and its schematic symbol are shown in Fig 6.1
and the equivalent circuit in Fig 6.2.

Fig 6.1 The 4-layer diode Fig 6.2 Equivalent circuit.

6.2 SILICON-CONTROLLED RECTIFIER (SCR)
Like the 4-layer diode, the SCR has two possible states of operation. In the OFF state, it acts ideally as an open
circuit between the anode and the cathode (very high resistance). In the ON state, the SCR acts ideally as a short
from the anode to the cathode (small forward resistance.) The LASCR operates as an SCR except it is triggered
by light.

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6.3 SCR schematic and symbol

Fig 6.3 SCR structure and symbol

6.4 SCR Equivalent Circuit
Like the 4-layer diode operation, the SCR operation can best be understood by thinking of its internal pnpn
structure as a two-transistor arrangement, as shown in Fig. This structure is like that of the 4-layer diode except
for the gate connection. The upper pnp layers act as a transistor and the lower npn layers act as a transistor, the
two middle layers are “shared.”

Fig 6.5 SCR equivalent circuit.

6.5 Turning SCR turn-on
When the gate current, IG, is zero, as shown in Fig 6.6 (a), the device acts as a 4-layer diode in the off state. In
this state, the very high resistance between the anode and cathode is like an open switch. When a positive pulse
of current (trigger) is applied to the gate, both transistors turn ON (the anode is more positive than the cathode).
This action is shown in Fig 6.6 (b) transistor turns ON, providing a path for IB1 out of the Q2 collector, thus turning
ON Q1. The collector current of Q1 provides additional base current for Q2 so that Q2 stays in conduction after the
trigger pulse is removed from the gate. By this regenerative action, Q2 sustains the saturated conduction of Q1 by
providing a path for IB1 in turn, Q1 sustains the saturated conduction of Q2 by providing IB2. Thus, the device stays
on (latches) once it is triggered on, as shown in Fig 6.6 (c). In this state, the very low resistance between the anode
and cathode can be approximated by a closed switch, as indicated

25
Fig 6.6 The SCR turn-on process with the switch equivalents shown.
6.6 SCR Characteristic curve

Fig 6.7 SCR characteristic curves.

6.7 Turning the SCR Off
When the gate returns to 0V after the trigger pulse is removed, the SCR cannot turn OFF; It stays in the forward-
conduction region. The anode current must drop below the value of the holding current, in order for turn-OFF to
occur. The holding current is indicated in Fig 6.7.
There are two basic methods for turning OFF an SCR: anode current interruption and forced commutation.
The anode current can be interrupted by either a momentary series or parallel switching arrangement, as shown
in Fig 6.8. The series switch in part (a) simply reduces the anode current to zero and causes the SCR to turn OFF.
The parallel switch in part (b) routes part of the total current away from the SCR, thereby reducing the anode
current to a value less than IH.

26
 Fig 6.8 SCR turn-off by anode current interruption.
6.8 Half-Wave Power Control
A common application of SCRs is in the control of ac power for lamp dimmers, electric heaters, and electric
motors. A half-wave, variable-resistance, phase-control circuit is shown in Fig 6.9; 120 V ac is applied across
terminals A and B; RL represents the resistance of the load (e.g., a heating element or lamp filament). Resistor R1
limits the current, and potentiometer R2 sets the trigger level for the SCR.

Fig 6.9 Half-wave, variable-resistance, phase control circuit

By adjusting R2 the SCR can be made to trigger at any point on the positive half-cycle of the ac waveform between
0° and 90°, as shown in Fig 6.10. When the SCR triggers near the beginning of the cycle (approximately 0°), as
in Fig 6.10 (a), it conducts for approximately 180° and maximum power is delivered to the load. When it triggers
near the peak of the positive half-cycle (90°), as in Fig 6.10 (b), the SCR conducts for approximately 90° and less
power is delivered to the load.
By adjusting R2 triggering can be made to occur anywhere between these two extremes, and therefore, a variable
amount of power can be delivered to the load. Fig 6.11 (c) shows triggering t the 45° point as an example. When
the ac input goes negative, the SCR turns off and does not conduct again until the trigger point on the next positive
half-cycle. The diode prevents the negative ac voltage from being applied to the gate of the SCR.

27
 Fig 6.11 Operation of the phase-control circuit.
7.0 THE DIAC AND TRIAC
Both the diac and the triac are types of thyristors that can conduct current in both directions (bilateral). The
difference between the two devices is that a diac has two terminals, while a triac has a third terminal, which is the
gate for triggering. The diac functions basically like two parallel 4-layer diodes turned in opposite directions. The
triac functions basically like two parallel SCRs turned in opposite directions with a common gate terminal.
7.1 Diac
A diac is a two-terminal four-layer semiconductor device (thyristor) that can conduct current in either direction
when activated. The basic construction and schematic symbol for a diac are shown in Fig 7.1. Notice that there
are two terminals, labelled A1andA2. The top and bottom layers contain both n and p materials. The right side of
the stack can be regarded as a pnpn structure with the same characteristics as a four-layer diode, while the left
side is an inverted four-layer diode having an npnp structure. Conduction occurs in a diac when the breakover
voltage is reached with either polarity across the two terminals. The curve in Fig 7.1 (c) illustrates this
characteristic. Once break-over occurs, current is in a direction depending on the polarity of the voltage across
the terminals. The device turns off when the current drops below the holding value IH.

(c)
Fig 7.1 Diac (a) Construction (b) Symbol (c) Characteristic curve
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7.2 The Triac
A triac is like a diac with a gate terminal. A triac can be turned on by a pulse of gate current and does not require
the breakover voltage to initiate conduction, as does the diac. Basically, a triac can be thought of simply as two
SCRs connected in parallel and in opposite directions with a common gate terminal. Unlike the SCR, the triac
can conduct current in either direction when it is triggered on, depending on the polarity of the voltage across its
A1and A2 terminals. Fig 7.2 shows the basic construction, schematic symbol and characteristic curve of a triac.

Fig 7.2 Triac (a) Construction (b) Symbol (c) Characteristic

curve.

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