ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING

(2307101)

UNIT I: Single Phase Electrical Systems

1.

a. Resistor: A resistor is a passive two-terminal component that opposes the flow

of electric current. It is commonly used to control the amount of current or
voltage in a circuit.

b. Capacitor: A capacitor consists of two conductive plates separated by an

insulating material. It stores electrical energy in an electric field and is often
used to smooth out voltage fluctuations or store charge.
c. Inductor: An inductor is a coil of wire that stores energy in a magnetic field
when current flows through it. It resists changes in current and is used in
applications like filtering and energy storage.

d. Diode: A diode is a semiconductor device that allows current to flow in one

direction only. It is commonly used for rectification (converting AC to DC),
voltage regulation, and signal demodulation.

e. Transistor: A transistor is a semiconductor device that can amplify or switch

electronic signals and electrical power. It is a fundamental building block in
modern electronics.
f. Voltage Source: A voltage source provides a specific voltage level across its
terminals, either as a constant value (DC) or as an alternating value (AC).
g. Current Source: A current source provides a specific current level through its
terminals. It can also be either constant (DC) or alternating (AC).

h. Battery: A battery is a device that stores chemical energy and converts it into
electrical energy. It's commonly used as a portable DC voltage source.

i. Ground: In electronics, ground serves as a reference point for voltage

measurements. It is often represented by a ground symbol and is used as a
common point of reference in circuits.

j. Switch: A switch is a device that can open or close an electrical circuit, allowing
or interrupting the flow of current. It's used to control the state of a circuit.
k. Fuse: A fuse is a safety device that protects a circuit from excessive current by
breaking the circuit when the current exceeds a certain threshold. It helps
prevent damage to components and possible fires.

l. Circuit Breaker: Similar to a fuse, a circuit breaker is a safety device that

automatically interrupts the circuit when there's an overload or short circuit.
Unlike a fuse, it can be reset after tripping.
m. Amplifier: An amplifier is a device that increases the amplitude of an electrical
signal, making it larger. It's crucial in signal processing, audio systems, and
communication devices.
 n. Transformer: A transformer is a device that transfers electrical energy between
two or more circuits through electromagnetic induction. It's used to step up or
step down AC voltages.

o. Relay: A relay is an electrically operated switch that is controlled by a smaller

electrical signal. It's often used to control larger currents or voltages with a
smaller control signal.

2.

▪ Direct Current (DC):

• Direct Current, often abbreviated as DC, is an electric current that flows in a

single direction.
• In a DC circuit, the voltage remains constant over time, and the flow of
electric charge is unidirectional.
• Batteries and most electronic devices, like cell phones and laptops, operate on
DC power.
 ▪ Alternating Current (AC):

• Alternating Current, abbreviated as AC, is an electric current that changes

direction periodically.
• The voltage and current in an AC circuit oscillate in a sinusoidal waveform.
AC is the type of electricity that is delivered to homes and businesses through
power lines.
• It's used for its ability to be easily transformed into different voltage levels,
making long-distance power transmission more efficient.

Some key differences between AC and DC:

1. Direction of Current:
o DC: The electric current flows in a constant direction.
o AC: The electric current changes direction periodically, typically in a
sinusoidal waveform.
2. Voltage Polarity:
o DC: The voltage remains constant in terms of polarity.
o AC: The voltage changes polarity periodically as the current
direction changes.
3. Energy Transfer:
o DC: Transfers energy steadily and uniformly.
o AC: Transfers energy in cycles, alternating between positive and
negative values.
4. Power Transmission:
o DC: Not as efficient for long-distance transmission due to energy
losses over distance.
o AC: More efficient for long-distance transmission due to the ability
to change voltage levels using transformers.
5. Applications:
o DC: Often used in electronic devices and batteries.
 o AC: Used for power distribution, lighting, motors, and most
household appliances.
6. Generation:
o DC: Can be generated using batteries, solar cells, and rectifiers.
o AC: Generated by alternators and generators.
7. Conversion:
o DC: Can be converted into AC using inverters.
o AC: Can be converted into DC using rectifiers.

3.

A.

• A series AC circuit is a circuit configuration where components like resistors,

inductors, and capacitors are connected one after the other along a single path
through which alternating current (AC) flows.
• This type of circuit is characterized by the fact that the same current flows
through all components in the circuit.

➢ Key Characteristics:

▪ Current: In a series circuit, the current (I) remains constant throughout the
circuit. Since there is only one path for the current to flow, it must be the same
for all components.
▪ Voltage: The total voltage (V_total) across the series circuit is the sum of the
individual voltage drops across each component. This is in accordance with
Kirchhoff's voltage law (KVL).
▪ Impedance: In an AC circuit, each component (resistor, inductor, capacitor)
has an impedance (Z) that includes both magnitude and phase. The total
impedance of the series circuit (Z_total) is the algebraic sum of the individual
impedances.
▪ Phasor Diagrams: Phasor diagrams are used to represent the relationships
between current and voltage in components like inductors and capacitors.
These diagrams help visualize phase differences.
▪ Resonance: Series AC circuits can exhibit resonance when the inductive
reactance (XL) equals the capacitive reactance (XC). At this point, the
impedance becomes purely resistive, and the circuit is resonant.
 B.

Parallel AC circuits are a type of electrical circuit configuration in which multiple

components or branches are connected in parallel across the same voltage source.
In a parallel AC circuit, each component or branch has the same voltage across its
terminals, but the current flowing through each branch can vary independently.

4.
Ohm's Law is a fundamental principle in electricity and electronics that describes the
relationship between voltage, current, and resistance in an electric circuit.
5.
Impedance in AC circuits is an extension of resistance in DC circuits. It is a complex
quantity that incorporates both the resistance and reactance (which accounts for
phase shifts due to inductive and capacitive elements) of a component in an
alternating current (AC) circuit. Impedance is denoted by the symbol Z and is
measured in ohms (Ω).
6.

A. KIRCHOFFS CURRENT LAW

KCL is named after Gustav Kirchhoff, a German physicist who formulated these
laws in the mid-19th century.

KCL states:

"The algebraic sum of currents entering a junction (or node) in an electrical circuit
is equal to the algebraic sum of currents leaving the junction."

In simpler terms, KCL means that the total current flowing into a junction or node
in an electrical circuit must equal the total current flowing out of that junction or
node. This law is based on the principle of conservation of electric charge, which
states that electric charge is neither created nor destroyed within a closed system; it
can only flow from one point to another.

Mathematically, KCL can be expressed as follows:

ΣI _in = ΣI _out

Where:
- ΣI _in represents the algebraic sum of currents entering the node.
- ΣI _out represents the algebraic sum of currents leaving the node.

Fig 1: Node with four Conductors

 NUMERICALS ON KCL

**Example 1:** Simple Series Circuit

1. Consider a simple series circuit with three resistors connected in series to a 12-volt
voltage source. The resistors have values of 4 ohms, 6 ohms, and 8 ohms. We want to
find the current through each resistor using KCL.

1. First, apply KCL at the single node in the circuit, which is where all the currents meet (the point
where the resistors are connected in series).

**ΣI_in = ΣI_out**

Since this is a series circuit, the current is the same through all resistors.

Let's call this common current "I."

2. Using Ohm's law (V = IR), calculate the current "I" for each resistor:

For the 4-ohm resistor:

I = V / R = 12 V / 4 ohms = 3 A

For the 6-ohm resistor:

I = V / R = 12 V / 6 ohms = 2 A

For the 8-ohm resistor:

I = V / R = 12 V / 8 ohms = 1.5 A

So, in this circuit, the current through the 4-ohm resistor is 3 A, the current through the 6-ohm
resistor is 2 A, and the current through the 8-ohm resistor is 1.5 A.
 **Example 2:** Parallel Circuit

Now, let's consider a parallel circuit with three resistors connected in parallel to a 24-volt
voltage source. The resistors have values of 2 ohms, 4 ohms, and 6 ohms. We want to find the
total current supplied by the voltage source and the current through each resistor using KCL.

1. Apply KCL at the junction point (node) where all the currents meet:
**ΣI_in = ΣI_out**
In a parallel circuit, the total current supplied by the voltage source is equal to the sum of the
currents through each branch.
Let's call the total current "I_total."
2. Using Ohm's law (V = IR), calculate the current for each resistor:
For the 2-ohm resistor:
I_2ohm = V / R = 24 V / 2 ohms = 12 A
For the 4-ohm resistor:
I_4ohm = V / R = 24 V / 4 ohms = 6 A
For the 6-ohm resistor:
I_6ohm = V / R = 24 V / 6 ohms = 4 A
3. Calculate the total current:
I_total = I_2ohm + I_4ohm + I_6ohm
I_total = 12 A + 6 A + 4 A = 22 A
So, in this parallel circuit, the total current supplied by the voltage source is 22 A, the current
through the 2-ohm resistor is 12 A, the current through the 4-ohm resistor is 6 A, and the current
through the 6-ohm resistor is 4 A.

B. KIRCHOFFS VOLTAGE LAW

KVL deals with the conservation of energy in electrical circuits and is essential for
analysing circuit behaviour.
KVL states:
"The sum of voltage rises around any loop equals the sum of voltage drops"
OR
“The algebraic sum of all voltages around any loop equals zero”
Mathematically, KVL can be expressed as follows:
ΣV_drop = ΣV_source
Where:
- ΣV_drop represents the algebraic sum of voltage drops (changes in electric
potential) encountered as you travel around a closed loop in the circuit.
- ΣV_source represents the algebraic sum of electromotive forces (emf) or voltage
sources encountered as you travel around the same closed loop.

Fig 2: Closed Circuit

According to KVL, the voltage equation can be written as,
-Vs +V1 +V2 = 0
Vs = V1 + V2
∑ Vrises = ∑ Vfall
 **Example 1:** Simple Series Circuit with Two Resistors
Consider a simple series circuit consisting of a 9-volt battery and two resistors
connected in series. The resistors have values of 3 ohms and 6 ohms. We want
to find the voltage drop across each resistor and the total voltage supplied by
the battery using KVL.

1. Apply KVL to the closed loop formed by the battery and the two resistors.
We'll assume that the current flows in a clockwise direction in the loop.

**ΣV_drop = ΣV_source**

In this case, there is only one voltage source, which is the 9-volt battery, and two
voltage drops across the resistors.

Let's denote the voltage drop across the 3-ohm resistor as V_3ohm and the voltage
drop across the 6-ohm resistor as V_6ohm.

KVL equation:

V_source - V_3ohm - V_6ohm = 0

2. Determine the voltage drop across each resistor using Ohm's law (V = IR):

For the 3-ohm resistor:

V_3ohm = I * R = I * 3 ohms

For the 6-ohm resistor:

V_6ohm = I * R = I * 6 ohms
3. Now, express the voltage drops in terms of current "I":

V_3ohm = 3I (since R = 3 ohms)

V_6ohm = 6I (since R = 6 ohms)

4. Substitute these expressions into the KVL equation:

9V - 3I - 6I = 0

5. Simplify the equation:

9V - 9I = 0

6. Now, solve for the current "I":

9I = 9V
I = 9V / 9
I=1A

7. With the current "I" known, you can calculate the voltage drops across each
resistor:

V_3ohm = 3I = 3 * 1 A = 3 V
V_6ohm = 6I = 6 * 1 A = 6 V

So, in this series circuit:

- The current flowing through the circuit is 1 ampere (1 A).
- The voltage drop across the 3-ohm resistor is 3 volts.
- The voltage drop across the 6-ohm resistor is 6 volts.
 - The total voltage supplied by the 9-volt battery is distributed across the resistors,
with 3 volts dropped across the 3-ohm resistor and 6 volts dropped across the 6-
ohm resistor, consistent with KVL.

**Example 2:** Simple Series Circuit with Three Resistors

7. Series RLC Circuit: Analysis and Example Problems

Consider the circuit consisting of R, L and C connected in series across a supply

voltage of V (RMS) volts. The resulting current I (RMS) is flowing in the circuit.
Since the R, L and C are connected in series, thus current is same through all the
three elements. For the convenience of the analysis, the current can be taken as
reference phasor. Therefore,
 Voltage across R, VR=IR
Voltage across L,VL=IXL
Voltage across C,VC=IXc

Where,

• XL = jωL = Inductive Reactance,

• Xc = 1/jωC = Capacitive reactance.
• VR is in phase with I.
• VL is leading the current I by 90°.
• VC is lagging the I by 90°

The total voltage is the phasor sum of VR, VL and VC, i.e.,
V=VR+VL+VC

Three cases of series RLC circuit

Case 1 – When XL > XC, in this case the circuit is said to be inductive causing
current to lag the applied emf.
The phase angle between current (I) and emf (V) is positive, indicates that current
lags behind the voltage.
Case 2 – When XC > XL, in this case the circuit is said to be capacitive, causing
current to lead the applied emf.
The phase angle between current (I) and emf (V) is negative, indicates that current
leads the voltage.

Case 3 – When XC = XL, thus, the phase angle φ is zero, so the circuit acts as a
purely resistive circuit and has unity power factor.
Numerical :
A 240 V, 50 Hz AC supply is applied a coil of 0.08 H inductance and 4 Ω resistance
connected in series with a capacitor of 8 μF. Calculate the following −
• Impedance,
• Circuit current,
• Phase angle between voltage and current,
• Power factor,
• Power consumed,
• Q-factor of the circuit at resonant frequency.

Solution:

Here consider value of C = 8x10-6

• Impedance of the circuit
 • Circuit current

• Phase angle between voltage and current

The negative sing of phase angle shows that current is leading the voltage.

• Power Factor

• Power consumed

• Q-factor of circuit at series resonance

Power Factor Basics

The term "leading" or "lagging" is used to describe the relationship between the
current and voltage waveforms in an AC circuit, which, in turn, determines the
power factor.

1. Leading Power Factor:

- Definition: A leading power factor occurs when the current waveform leads the
voltage waveform in phase. In other words, the current reaches its peak ahead of
the voltage.
 - Cause:Leading power factors are typically associated with capacitive loads, such
as capacitors. In a capacitive circuit, the current leads the voltage due to the energy
storage and discharge characteristics of the capacitor.
- Effect on Power Factor:A leading power factor is considered to be positive, and
it improves the overall power factor of the system.
2. Lagging Power Factor:
- Definition: A lagging power factor occurs when the current waveform lags
behind the voltage waveform in phase. In this case, the voltage reaches its peak
ahead of the current.
- Cause: Lagging power factors are associated with inductive loads, such as
motors and transformers. In an inductive circuit, the current lags behind the voltage
due to the time required to establish the magnetic field.
- Effect on Power Factor: A lagging power factor is considered to be negative. It
tends to reduce the overall power factor of the system.
3. Unity Power Factor:
- Definition:Unity power factor occurs when the current and voltage waveforms
are perfectly in phase, i.e., they peak and trough at the same time.
- Cause: Unity power factor is typically associated with purely resistive loads. In
these cases, the current and voltage are in phase because there are no reactive
components (inductance or capacitance) in the circuit.
- Effect on Power Factor: Unity power factor is considered ideal, as it indicates
that all the power is being used effectively.

Power factor is a crucial parameter in AC circuits, especially in industrial settings,

as it affects the efficiency of the electrical system and can result in higher energy
costs. It's important to design and operate systems to maintain a power factor as
close to unity as possible to maximize efficiency.

PURE R, PURE L and PURE C AC Circuits:

7.2 Parallel RLC Circuits
A Parallel RLC circuit is a type of electrical circuit that contains resistors (R),
inductors (L), and capacitors (C) connected in parallel across a voltage source. This
configuration allows for the combination of the individual impedance characteristics
of these components.

1.Resistor (R):
• Offers resistance to the flow of current.
• The impedance of a resistor is purely real and is given by ZR=R.
• In a parallel RLC circuit, the resistor remains constant across all
frequencies.

2. Inductor (L):
• Induces a voltage proportional to the rate of change of current flowing
through it (Faraday's law of electromagnetic induction).
• The impedance of an inductor is given by ZL where j is the imaginary unit,
ω is the angular frequency (2πf), and L is the inductance in Henries.
• At low frequencies, inductors offer high impedance, and at high frequencies,
they offer low impedance.

3. Capacitor (C):
• Stores and releases electrical energy in response to changes in voltage.

• The impedance of a capacitor is given by where j is the imaginary

unit, ω is the angular frequency, and C is the capacitance in farads.
• At low frequencies, capacitors offer low impedance, and at high frequencies,
they offer high impedance.
In a parallel RLC circuit, the total impedance Z total is the reciprocal of the
sum of the reciprocals of individual component impedances:

The resonant frequency fres of the circuit is the frequency at which the
inductive and capacitive reactance’s cancel each other out, resulting in a
purely resistive impedance. It is given by:

Where:
- fres is the resonant frequency in hertz (Hz).
- L is the inductance in henries (H).
- C is the capacitance in farads (F).

At resonance, the total impedance is equal to the resistance (Ztotal=R)

Pl Note: Some more numericals on RLC will be included in final copy.

▪

Here are some typical power ratings for common home appliances:

1. Fan:
- Ceiling Fan: 60-75 watts
- Table Fan: 40-60 watts
- Exhaust Fan: 20-40 watts

2. Tube Light (Fluorescent):

40 watts (for a standard 4-foot tube light)

3. Incandescent Bulb:
40-100 watts (depending on the brightness)

4. LED Bulb:
4-15 watts (depending on brightness and type)

5. Refrigerator:
100-800 watts (varies by size, age, and efficiency)

6. Air Conditioner (Window Unit):

1000-2500 watts (depends on capacity)

7. Air Conditioner (Split Unit):

900-3500 watts (depends on capacity)

8. Washing Machine:
300-500 watts (varies by type and capacity)

9. Microwave Oven:
600-1500 watts (depends on power level and type)

10. Mixer/Grinder:
300-1000 watts (depends on motor power)

11. Iron:
1000-1800 watts

12. Vacuum Cleaner:

500-1500 watts
13. Laptop/Computer:
20-300 watts (depends on model and usage)

14. Television:
- LED/LCD TVs: 30-400 watts (depends on size and type)
- Plasma TVs: 100-500 watts

15. Hair Dryer:

800-1800 watts

16. Water Heater (Electric):

1500-4500 watts (depends on capacity)

17. Induction Cooktop:

1000-2000 watts

18. Toaster:
800-1800 watts

19. Electric Kettle:

1000-1500 watts

20. Dishwasher:
1200-1500 watts

It's important to note that these are approximate power ratings and can vary
based on the specific make, model, and brand of the appliance. Additionally,
some appliances may have multiple power settings or modes, which can
affect their energy consumption.

Understanding the power ratings of these appliances is crucial for designing

electrical systems in homes, calculating energy consumption, and making
informed decisions about energy efficiency. This knowledge is particularly
relevant for electrical engineering students as it forms the basis for more
advanced studies in power systems and energy management.
Numerical on calculating power ratings of home appliances.

1. Example 1: Ceiling Fan

A ceiling fan operates at a voltage of 220 volts (V) and draws a current of
0.5 amperes (A).

Using the formula P = V X I, the power rating of the ceiling fan is:

P = 220 V X 0.5 A = 110 W

Therefore, the power rating of the ceiling fan is 110 watts.

2. Example 2: Refrigerator

Suppose a refrigerator operates at a voltage of 120 volts (V) and draws a

current of 5 amperes (A).

Using the same formula, the power rating of the refrigerator is:

P = 120 V X 5 A = 600 W

So, the power rating of the refrigerator is 600 watts.

3. Example 3: Microwave Oven

Consider a microwave oven that operates at a voltage of 230 volts (V) and
draws a current of 10 amperes (A).

Using the formula, the power rating of the microwave oven is:

P = 230 V X10 A = 2300 W

The power rating of the microwave oven is 2300 watts.

4. Example 4: Desktop Computers

 Let's consider a desktop computer:

- Voltage (V): 120 volts

- Current (I): 3 amperes

Using the formula P = V X I, we can find the power consumption:

P = 120 V X 3 A = 360 W

So, the power rating of this hypothetical desktop computer is 360 watts.

5. Example 5: AC Motor
To calculate power ratings for an AC motor.

Let's assume we have an AC motor with the following specifications:

- Voltage (V) = 230 volts

- Current (I) = 5 amperes
- Power Factor (PF) = 0.85 (Typical value for many AC motors)

Using the formula for power in an AC circuit:

P = V X I X PF

P = 230 V X 5 A X 0.85 = 977.5 W

So, the power rating of this AC motor is approximately 977.5 watts or

0.9775 kilowatts (kW).

Note: Keep in mind that the power factor (PF) is a dimensionless

number between 0 and 1 that represents the efficiency with which the
motor converts electrical power into mechanical power. In practice,
power factor values are typically between 0.8 and 0.9 for many AC
motors.

▪
1. Single-Phase and Three-Phase Supply:
- Understanding the difference between single-phase and three-phase
electrical supply.
- Recognizing where each type of supply is typically used (e.g., single-
phase for residential buildings, three-phase for industrial applications).

2. Service Connection:
- Learning about the service entrance, which is the point where electrical
power is supplied to the house from the utility company.
- Understanding the components of a service connection, such as the
service drop, meter, and main disconnect.

3. Distribution Board (DB) / Consumer Unit:

- Studying the distribution board or consumer unit, which is a panel that
distributes electrical power to various circuits within the house.
- Learning about the main switch, circuit breakers, and residual current
devices (RCDs) for safety.

4. Circuit Wiring:
- Understanding how circuits are wired in a residential building, including
lighting circuits and power circuits.
- Differentiating between radial and ring circuits.

5. Wire Sizing and Types:

- Learning how to select the appropriate wire size based on the load and
length of the circuit.
- Familiarizing with different types of wires (e.g., copper, aluminium) and
their applications.

6. Switches and Outlets:

- Understanding the different types of switches (e.g., single-pole, double-
pole, three-way) and outlets (e.g., single, double, socket outlets).
- Learning about the wiring configurations for switches and outlets.
7. Grounding and Earthing:
- Studying the importance of grounding and earthing for electrical safety.
- Understanding how grounding rods and conductors are installed.

8. Safety Considerations:
- Emphasizing safety practices when working with electricity, including
using personal protective equipment (PPE) and following proper procedures.

9. Regulations and Codes:

- Familiarizing with local electrical codes and regulations that govern
residential electrical installations.

10. Load Calculation:

- Learning how to calculate the total load of a house to ensure that the
electrical system can handle the connected appliances and devices.

11. Troubleshooting and Maintenance:

- Developing skills in identifying and resolving common electrical issues
in a residential setting.
- Understanding the importance of regular maintenance and inspections.

A simple circuit diagram for the electrical connection of a house:

The diagram typically includes the main components like the service
entrance, distribution board, and various loads. Here's a basic illustration:
 __________________________
| Service |
| Entrance |
| (Meter) |
|__________________________|
| |
| |
| |
| |
____ | |____
| |
| |
____ ____
| DB | | DB |
|____| |____|
|| ||
____| |____ ____| |____
| | | | | |
| | | | | |
| | | | | |
| | | | | |
|________| |__________________| |__|
Load 1 Load 2 Load 3 Load 4
(e.g., Light) (e.g., Fan) (e.g., Socket) (e.g., Heater)

In this diagram:

1. Service Entrance (Meter): This is where the electrical power from the
utility company enters the house. It includes a meter to measure the amount
of electricity consumed.

2. Distribution Board (DB) / Consumer Unit: This is a panel that distributes

electrical power to various circuits within the house. It contains circuit
breakers or fuses to protect the circuits from overloading.
 3. Loads: These are the devices or appliances connected to the electrical
system. Loads can include lights, fans, sockets, heaters, and other appliances.

4. Wiring: The wiring connects the loads to the distribution board and ensures
the flow of electricity.

Keep in mind that this is a simplified representation. In a real house, there

would be multiple circuits serving different areas and types of loads.
Additionally, safety features like grounding, earthing, and protective devices
would be incorporated.

1.Switch operated Tube light

2.Switch operated fan and regulator
3.Switch operated lightning systems in functions.

▪ Fuse, MCBs and Grounding for safety at home:

Fuse, Miniature Circuit Breakers (MCBs), and grounding are crucial safety
components in any electrical system, including homes. They play key roles
in preventing electrical hazards and protecting both people and property.
Here's an overview of each:

1. Fuse:
- Function: A fuse is a safety device that protects an electrical circuit by
interrupting the flow of current when it exceeds a specified amperage. It does
this by melting a wire element inside the fuse when excessive current flows
through it.
- Operation: When the current exceeds the rated value, the wire inside the
fuse melts, breaking the circuit and preventing further damage or a potential
fire.
- Advantages:
- Inexpensive and easy to replace.
- Provides effective protection against short circuits and overloads.
 - Considerations:
- Fuses need to be replaced after they have blown.
- The correct type and rating of fuse must be used for each circuit.

2. Miniature Circuit Breakers (MCBs):

- Function: MCBs perform a similar function to fuses, but they are reusable.
The automatically breaks the circuit when an overload or short circuit occurs.
- Operation: When an abnormal current flows through the circuit, the MCB
trips (opens the circuit) to protect against overheating or fire. It can be reset
once the fault is corrected.
- Advantages:
- More convenient as they can be easily reset after a trip.
- Provide a higher degree of precision in terms of tripping thresholds.
- Considerations:
- MCBs need to be properly sized for the circuit they protect.
- They should be of the correct type (e.g., B-type for general circuits, C-
type for motor loads).
3. Grounding:
- Function: Grounding provides a safe path for excess electrical current to
dissipate into the earth. It helps prevent electric shock, fire, and equipment
damage.
- Operation: In a grounded system, electrical equipment is connected to a
grounding electrode (usually a metal rod driven into the earth). This allows
any excess current to safely dissipate.
- Advantages:
- Enhances safety by minimizing the risk of electric shock.
- Helps protect against lightning strikes and static discharge.
- Considerations:
- Proper installation and maintenance of grounding systems are crucial for
their effectiveness.
- Grounding should meet local electrical codes and standards.
NUMERICALS ON FUSE

Example 1: Fuse Rating Calculation:

Suppose you have a circuit with the following specifications: Maximum

allowable current (I_max) = 15 Amperes (A), Voltage (V) = 230 Volts (V).
Select an appropriate fuse for this circuit.
Solution:
To find the appropriate fuse rating, we use the formula:

P = V X I_max

where P is the power in watts (W), V is the voltage in volts (V), and I is the
current in amperes (A).

Given the voltage and maximum allowable current, we can calculate the
maximum power:

P= V X I_max = 230V X15A = 3450 W

So, you would select a fuse with a rating slightly higher than 3450 Watts,
which might be a standard value like 3500 Watts.

Example 2: Fuse Replacement

Suppose you have a 10A fuse in a circuit, and it has blown due to an overload.
You replace it with a 15A fuse because you don't have a 10A fuse on hand.

Solution:

This is not a recommended practice. The 10A fuse was installed for a reason
- it was chosen to protect the circuit from currents exceeding 10A. By
replacing it with a 15A fuse, you're allowing a higher current to flow through
the circuit, which could lead to overheating and potential hazards.
Always use the correct rated fuse for a circuit. If you don't have the right
replacement fuse, it's better to wait until you can get the correct one rather
than using a higher-rated fuse.