Original Manuscript

Volume 52: 1–26

© The Author(s) 2022
Winding optimization of Article reuse guidelines:
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composite frame by dry fiber DOI: 10.1177/15280837221114639
journals.sagepub.com/home/jit

rovings

Jaroslav Mlýnek1 , Michal Petrů2 , Martina Ryvolová3  and

Seyed Saeid Rahimian Koloor3 

Abstract
Light-weight fibers reinforced polymer (FRP) composite frames are essential parts of
vehicles body in the aerospace and automotive industries. Composite frames are often
designed in complex curved 3D geometry through the dry winding process. The winding
process of homogeneously wound-up layers of fibers without overlapping and gaps is the
main challenge in the fabrication of frames with consistent thickness and acceptable
quality. In this study, an industrial robot and winding head are set with a novel optimum
process to wind the dry fiber with the specified angles on the frame, to fabricate it with
minimum overlapping and local commulation of fibers, yet without gaps. Mathematical
models and algorithms are developed to determine the optimal number of simultaneously
wounds rovings of fibers in a given layer. In addition, this study addresses the optimum dry
winding of curved parts of frames that form a torus geometry. It is shown that the
combination of layers of rovings wound successively on the frame at angles of 45°, 90° (i.e.
the rovings are laid along with the frame), and
45°, is the most used variant of winding

1
Department of Mathematics, Faculty of Science, Humanities and Education, Technical University of Liberec,
Liberec, Czech Republic
2
Department of Machine Parts and Mechanisms, Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Technical University of
Liberec, Liberec, Czech Republic
3
Institute for Nanomaterials, Advanced Technologies and Innovation, Technical University of Liberec, Liberec,
Czech Republic

Corresponding author:
Seyed Saeid Rahimian Koloor, Institute for Nanomaterials, Advanced Technologies and Innovation, Technical
University of Liberec, Studentská 2, Liberec 461 17, Czech Republic.
Email: [email protected]
Creative Commons Non Commercial CC BY-NC: This article is distributed under the
terms of the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 License (https://
creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/) which permits non-commercial use,
reproduction and distribution of the work without further permission provided the original work is attributed as
specified on the SAGE and Open Access pages (https://us.sagepub.com/en-us/nam/open-access-at-sage).
2 Journal of Industrial Textiles

that provides the composite frame with higher strength. Results indicated that an optimal
selection of the number and width of the rovings minimizes the overlap of the wound
rovings, which saves up to 20% of the utilized fibers. The derived theory is verified on
practical tests and experiments, which confirms the development of new suitable
procedures to improve the fabrication of FRP composite frames.

Keywords
Robot winding, composite frame, mathematical model, helix, torus, roving, winding angle

Introduction
In the past decades, composite materials are increasingly replacing classic materials (such
as wood, and metal) for their physical properties, energy-saving, and economic
benefits.1–3 In general, composites are recognized with excellent mechanical properties,
such as low weight, resistance to weathering, resistance to corrosion even in aggressive
environments, long lifespan, etc.,3-5 A fiber-reinforced polymer (FRP) composite frame is
a structure with a circular or rectangular cross-section that is made in close or open form,
and that primarily is subjected to tensile, compressive, torsional, and bending loads.6,7
Fiber-reinforced polymer composite frames are used in the aerospace industry (e.g. as
fuselage reinforcements, attaching windows to the fuselage, reinforcing the helicopter
cabin),1,8,9 automotive applications (e.g. as car chassis, cab and door reinforcement),8 and
also in shipbuilding. Engineering, energy generation (e.g. as wind turbine blade rein-
forcement), agriculture;10,11 pipeline transportation (e.g. oil, liquids, and gas),1,12 and
sports equipment, are other use of FRP composite frames.6
The most commonly used production processes of FRP composite frames are braiding
technology and filament winding. Braiding enables high adhesion of fibers to the frame
surface, even in the case of a geometrically complicated frame shape,13,14 which enables
the minimal risk of composite cracking during its loading. For special applications, it is
possible to combine materials in partial directions (for example, carbon fibers/aramid
fibers), or it is possible to exchange standard fibers to support synthetic yarn in one
direction (unidirectional braiding).15–20 However, braiding technology is not applicable
for the production of a composite closed frame with fiber reinforcement (technically
difficult to implement).
The winding technology is used to manufacture frames with complex geometries, such
as spherical and cylindrical vessels, tubes of various diameters, and a variety of convex
and concave shapes.21–27 The main advantage of filament winding is the reinforcement
content can be 60%–75%, to 80%, obtaining excellent mechanical characteristics. The
second advantage is that the stiffness and strength of the composite are possibly enhanced
in chosen directions by modifying the winding angle.
Some research has been done on the winding and optimization of composite frames.
Duan et al.28 proposed and verified a two-stage optimization scheme for the composite
frame design. They performed tensile, bending, and torsional stiffness calculations of
Mlýnek et al. 3

composite beams with a circular cross-section, that were expressed as explicit integral
functions of the fiber winding angles. Numerical results showed that the proposed two-stage
optimization eliminates the initial design dependence on fiber winding angle optimization;
which helps to find a better design. A multistage design was developed by Yan et al.29 and
Duan et al.,30 which optimizes the winding angle, material, and laminate stiffness.
Similar issues are addressed in the book“Composite filament winding”23,31 where by
combining the object geometry, roving parameters, strength, and feasibility to determine
the optimal geometry for winding an object. Modeling of material properties depending
on the physical-mechanical properties of the pressure vessel through the numerical
simulation and derivation of the spiral winding angle was described by Zeng et al.32 Guo
et al.33 developed a method for determining optimal beam winding trajectories. The
method links structural design requirements with optimal structural properties including
fiber orientation and volume reinforcement ratios. The resulting solution could be used
directly to program the wrapping process. Similar problems have been addressed by
Prado34 and Bodea.14
Some studies have focused on establishing the relationship between fiber arrang-
ment, winding geometry, material, and mechanical properties of the composite.35
Supian et al.36 investigated the effect of the orientation of the hybrid winding of a
composite tube on energy absorption and failure modes. Differences in response to
dynamic loads for FRP with different types of reinforcement (metal, woven fabric,
winding reinforcement) were studied by Gowid et al.37 Li et al.38 built a model to predict
the local change in fiber angle due to forming at 220°C. They used tubes with ther-
moplastic winding (CF/PA6 combination) for the experiment, while they compared the
prediction of the winding angles resulting from the forming process with the real
winding angles obtained by an automated precision measurement system.
Many researches have been done on the dry winding of composite frame, while some
also studied the optimization process, however such optimization lack in focusing on the
fiber arrangement to minimize the overlapping and accommodation of fibers without
gaps. Therefore, this motivates the authors of this work to investigate specifically a novel
approach of optimization procedure that involved an industrial robot and winding head to
purposely arrange the dry fiber on a frame structure without overlapping and gaps. The
research is also extended to a degree of considering complex structures such as torus.
In this regard, the optimized winding process is described in the following section
Material and winding optimization. The mathematical model of the winding is briefly
described in Subsection Fiber winding, the geometrical representation of wound rovings
by helixes is shown in Subsection General rules of winding optimization, and the de-
termination of the optimal number of rovings used and their width is solved by Sub-
sections Selection of the optimal number of fiber rovings and width of roving and Winding
a curved part of the frame focuses on the problem of determining the optimal number of
rovings and their width when wound in a curved part of the frame. The results of the
practical tests and experiments are presented in Section (Results and discussion).
4 Journal of Industrial Textiles

Material and winding optimization

This section focuses on the winding method and process. Winding heads and industrial
robots are used during the winding of rovings on the non-bearing frame with a circular
cross-section.39,40 The winding head contains three revolving rings with coils for fiber
rovings (see Figure 2(a)). Rovings lead from the coils to the feeder-winding ring, which is
a circle in the center of the winding head. A small ring diameter concentrates the rovings
to one area, and rovings are placed/winded on the frame’s core. The winding head is fixed
in the robot’s working space, while the non-bearing frame (that is usually made of
polyurethane) is attached to the end of the working arm (end-effector) of the industrial
robot (see Figure 2(b)). Based on the determined trajectory of the robot, the frame passes
through the winding head; three fiber layers are created simultaneously. The trajectory of
robot arm movement depends on the shape of the frame.
Figure 1 shows a schematic of the development of the composite frame. The content of
the paper focuses on the highlighted portion of the diagram.

Figure 1. Overview diagram of the composite frame development process.

Mlýnek et al. 5

Fiber winding
During the winding process, based on the right determined trajectory of the robot, the
frame structure is gradually passed through the winding head. Three layers of fibers with
different directions/angles (often 45°, 90°, – 45°) are placed on the surface of the frame
(Figure 2(a)). A detailed procedure for calculating and determining the off-line trajectory

Figure 2. Winding head with three coil rings and frame (a), and connection of frame to the robotic
arm and robot cooperation with winding head during the winding process (b).

Figure 3. Connection of closed frame to the robot-end-effector before starting the winding
process (a), and example of the 3D shaped frame (b).
6 Journal of Industrial Textiles

of the robot is described in the literature.8 Both frame types (open or closed) can be wound
by rovings using this technique (see Figures 2 and 3(a)).
Note 1. Roving is a longitudinal fiber system that enables single filaments to be arranged in
parallel, without twists. Fiber rovings (from carbon, glass, basalt, or aramid fibers) are used to
produce areal and 3D composite reinforcement. The thickness of the fiber rovings depends on
the number of filaments and the width of the roving. The available thicknesses of the rovings
are; 3K–0.14 mm, 12K–0.18 mm, 24K–0.22 mm, and 48K–0.5 mm. This study uses roving
24K with a layer thickness between 0.21 – 0.24 mm through the frame winding process.
Performing the correct winding (i.e. correct winding angle and homogeneity of
winding) of individual fiber layers is an essential prerequisite for producing composite
with the required physical and mechanical properties.41 Adherence to the correct winding
of fibers rovings in each layer of reinforcement is conditioned by the perpendicular
passage of the frame through the plane ρ of winding of the fibers (see Figure 4 - plane ρ1 of
the fiber winding corresponding to coil ring k1 of the head when winding the first layer of
fibers). At the same time, it is necessary that intersection points of frame axis o with plane
ρ1 and axis s of winding head with plane ρ1 have the smallest possible distance (see
Figure 4 - in this case, the points of intersections of the plane are identical – point M1).
These conditions are described in detail in previous works by the same authors.1,9
To achieve the correct fiber angle in the winding of a given layer at a constant speed of
frame passage through the winding head, it is necessary to determine the correct angular
speed of rotation of the ring with coils. This issue is solved in detail in previous work.1
The calculation of distance h of winding fibers on the frame from the coil ring at the
required angle is also solved in detail in1 (see Figure 4 – distance h1 of winding plane

Figure 4. Model of the winding process that shows the formation of the first fiber layer on the
composite frame; the frame goes through a winding head (Figure 2(a)) represented by three coil
rings, and three layers of fiber are created. The schema of the first fiber layer formation is shown in
this figure.
Mlýnek et al. 7

ρ1 from coil ring k1). At the same time, the article1 deals with the winding of 3D frames,
which consist of several parts with different radii.
In the case of a geometrically complicated shape of a frame (see Figure 3(b)), it is
difficult to determine a suitable robot trajectory. Optimization of the robot trajectory for
such cases using a differential evolution algorithm is described in detail in previous
works.1,9
After winding the fibers, the frame is impregnated with resin and then thermally cured
using, for example, (resin transfer molding) RTM technology.42

General rules of winding optimization

The wound fiber roving can be represented by a helix formed on the surface of the frame.
The roving has the shape of a rectangle in a cross-section. The height of the roving does
not need to be considered for our purposes. The u-axis passes through the center of the
roving (see Figure 5). The width of the roving is denoted by m, and the overlap of two
consecutive wound rovings is denoted by δ. Then it applies to the distance d of two
adjacent axes
d ¼ m
δ: (1)

The roving is wound on the frame; the u-axis of roving forms a helix on the frame
envelope (see Figure 6(a) and (b)), detail can be found in.43 Right-hand helix hR is formed

Figure 5. The winding part is represented by three rovings (red, blue, and green) in the plane.
Axes u1, u2, and u3 pass through the centers of rovings 1, 2, and 3 of width m. The overlap of
rovings δ is formed by winding two consecutive rovings.
8 Journal of Industrial Textiles

Figure 6. One turn of right-handed helix hR (a), and left-handed helix hL (b). Characteristic triangle
of the helix (c).

on the surface of the frame at a positive angle of winding (denoted by +), with a negative
angle of winding (denoted by –) is formed left-handed helix hL.
The following sections focus only on the winding in a positive direction and the
creation of a right-handed helix. The following relations derived for a positive winding
angle will be completely analogous even for the case of a negative winding angle.
Figure 6(a), shows one turn of helix hR (the turn of roving). Helix hR is defined by axis o
(axis of wrapped frame), radius r (radius of frame), and pitch v (height of one helix turn,
measured parallel to axis o of helix). The value of v is equal to the distance of points A
and B in Figure 6(a). A characteristic triangle defines helix angle α (see Figure 6(c), the
length of the hypotenuse of the right triangle is equal to the length of helix hR in one turn,
tg α = 2πr
v
). This angle α is also formed by the tangent t at each point P of the helix with its
orthogonal projection t1 (see Figure 6(a)).
Thus, the defined angle α is named the angle of winding of the roving. Angle β is
defined as
π
β¼
α: (2)
2
Note 2. Textile and composite specialists often use β angle (defined in equation (2)) to
mark the winding angle.
In 3D Euclidean orthogonal coordinate system, the parametric equation of helix hR in
the homogenous form can be expressed as (see 43)
hR ðtÞ ¼ ðxðtÞ, yðtÞ, zðtÞ, 1Þ ¼ ðr cost, r sint, v0 t, 1Þ, (3)

where v0 is reduced pitch of helix (length of translation during rotation of helix by one
radian along o axis, v0 ¼ 2πv ), t 2 < 0, ∞Þ. Point A = (r, 0, 0, 1)T is the initial point of
right-handed helix hR (see Figure 6(a)). One turn of hR is defined by relation (3) for
t 2 < 0, 2π > .
Mlýnek et al. 9

Note 3. Parametric expression of left-handed helix hL (Figure 6(b)) can be expressed in

the form hL ðtÞ ¼ ðr cost,
r sint, v0 t, 1Þ, t 2 < 0, ∞:) The winding of the roving at a
negative angle is represented by a left-handed helix.
The equation of the right-handed helix hR can also be expressed as the rotation of the
point A1 = (r, 0, 0, 1)T around axis z (in our case o ≡ z, see Figure 6(a)), and its translation
in a positive direction of axis z
0 10 10 1
cos t
sin t 0 0 1 0 0 0 r
B CB CB C
B CB CB C
B sin t cos t 0 0C B 0 C B C
T B C B0 1 0 C B0C
h1R ðtÞ ¼ ðxðtÞ, yðtÞ, zðtÞÞ ¼ B C:B C:B C
B CB CB C
B 0 0 1 0C B v0 t C B C
B C B0 0 1 C B0C
@ A@ A@ A
0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 1
0 10 1 0 1
cos t
sin t 0 0 r r cos t
B CB C B C
B CB C B C
B sin t cos t 0 0 C B C B r sin t C
B C B0C B C
¼ B C:B C ¼ B C:
B CB C B C
B 0 0 1 v0 t C B0C B v0 t C
B CB C B C
@ A@ A @ A
0 0 0 1 1 1

Now a helix h2R that has the same parameters as h1R, and only A2 is its initial point is
considered. Point A2 also lies on a circle with center S1 and radius r, angle A1S1A2 = λ (see
Figure 7(a)). Then point A2 has coordinates A2 = (r cos λ, r sin λ, 0, 1)T and helix h2R(t)
can be expressed in the form of
2 3 2 3 2 3
cos t
sin t 0 0 1 0 0 0 r cos λ
6 7 6 7 6 7
6 7 6 7 6 7
6 sin t cos t 0 0 7 6 7 6 7
T 6 7 6 0 1 0 0 7 6 r sin λ 7
h2R ðtÞ ¼ ðxðtÞ, yðtÞ,zðtÞ,1Þ ¼ 6
6
76
7 6
76
7 6
7
7
6 0 0 1 07 6 7 6 7
6 7 6 0 0 1 v0 t 7 6 0 7
4 5 4 5 4 5
0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 1
2 3 2 3 2 3 2 3
cos t
sin t 0 0 r cos λ r cos t cos λ
r sin t sin λ r cosðt þ λÞ
6 7 6 7 6 7 6 7
6 7 6 7 6 7 6 7
6 sin t cos t 0 0 7 6 7 6 7 6 7
6 7 6 r sin λ 7 6 r sin t cos λ þ r cos t sin λ 7 6 r sinðt þ λÞ 7
¼6 76 7¼6 7¼6 7:
6 7 6 7 6 7 6 7
6 0 0 1 v0 t 7 6 0 7 6 v t 7 6 v t 7
6 7 6 7 6 0 7 6 0 7
4 5 4 5 4 5 4 5
0 0 0 1 1 1 1

Note that relations rðcos t cos λ
sin t sin λÞ ¼ r cosðt þ λÞ and rðcos t sin λ þ sin t cos λÞ ¼
r sinðt þ λÞ (see 44) are used in the last equality.
One turn (i.e. t 2 < 0, 2π > ) of helices h1R and h2R is displayed in Figure 8.
Initial point A2 of helix h2 is rotated about the z-axis by angle λ with respect to the
initial point A1 of the helix h1(see Figures 8 and 9). Attention will now turn to determine
the distance of helices h1R and h2R. The unfolding of the cylindrical surface with one turn
of the helices h1R and h2R into the plane is shown in Figure 9.
10 Journal of Industrial Textiles

Figure 7. Initial points of right-handed helices. Two adjacent initial points are rotated by angle
λ = π/2 (a), and λ = π/6 (b).

Figure 8. Graph of one turn of helices h1R and h2R.

Mlýnek et al. 11

Figure 9. The unfolding of the cylindrical surface with one turn of helices h1R and h2R into the
plane.

Figure 9 shows that the relationship sin} ¼ λrd is valid, where α is the helix angle, and
d is the distance of two adjacent helices. From there it follows the relationship
d ¼ λ rsin α: (4)

Relation (4) implies that the distance, d depends on the size λ of rotation, radius r of
helices h1R and h2R, and the size of helix angle α. Function sin is increasing on interval
(0, π/2). This means that with increasing angle α (required angle of winding of the fiber
rovings), the distance d will also increase.
The winding of one roving at an angle þπ4 ðþ45° Þ, the second at an angle of
π4 ð
45° Þ
utilizing the winding head and an industrial robot are shown in Figure 10(a). The ring of
the winding head with ten spools wound on fiber rovings shows in Figure 10(b).

Selection of the optimal number of fiber rovings and width of roving

The ideal winding of rovings is such that the individual fiber layers are homogeneous. The
wound rovings are placed side by side, follow each other smoothly, the entire surface of
the frame is covered with fibers, and there is no overlap of adjacent rovings. This ideal
winding is only possible with a straight frame. However, achieving this condition is
difficult if the frame is geometrically more rugged (2D or 3D configuration). To achieve a
qualified and acceptable composite frame winding process, it is essential to ensure the full
coverage of the frame surface with minimal δ overlap of adjacent rovings, see Figure 5.
As mentioned in the introduction of this section, axes u1, and u2 of two adjacent fiber
rovings (see Figure 5) create two adjacent helices h1R and h2R, during the winding
process. The distance of these helices is given by relation (4). Equation (1) defines the
relationship between the width m of the rovings and distance d of the two wound rovings.
Now the focus is on determining the optimal number n of wound rovings and the width
m of roving. A straight frame with radius r and helix angle α (see Figure 6(a)) is
considered. The number of used rovings increases with the frame radius r and helix angle
α (winding angle). In general, narrower rovings are more appropriate than wider rovings
to achieve a homogeneous winding of fibers onto the frame.
12 Journal of Industrial Textiles

Following the relations (1) and (4), the width m of used fiber rovings is given by the
relation
m ¼ d þ δ ¼ λ rsin α þ δ: (5)

The size of frame radius r and the required α winding angle for the specified fiber layer
is fixed. Equation (5) allows two basic procedures:

1. Determining the number n of rovings used in the winding process of one layer of
fibers (i.e. the number of bobbins used on the coil ring) for the specified m width of
roving.

Figure 10. (a) Fiber rovings on the surface of the frame at angles + π4 (+45°) and
π4 ð – 45°), and
(b) ten spools with rovings as feeding devices on the ring of the winding head.

2. Calculation of optimal roving width m for specified number n of rovings used

during the winding process.

Determining the optimal number of rovings. It is assumed that the width m of fiber roving,
radius r of the frame, and winding angle α is specified. The optimal number n of rovings
for winding the layer of fibers is calculated. The rotation angle λ between two adjacent
windings (see Figures 7 and 8) of rovings is expressed from relation (5). Rotation angle λ
about the z-axis is expressed by the relation (5) and zero overlaps of adjacent rovings (i.e.
δ = 0) is assumed. Then it applies m ¼ λ rsin α and so λ ¼ r sinα
m
. The optimal number n of
strands for winding a given layer is specified by the relation n ¼ 2πλ . Substituting λ into the
last relationship results in
Mlýnek et al. 13

 
2πr sin}
n¼ (6)
m

The entire surface of the frame is covered with wound rovings and at the same time,
there are minimal overlaps of the rovings for the number n of rovings given by relation (6).
Note 4. The ceiling dxe of a real number, x is defined as dxe ¼ minfp 2 Z; p ≥ xg, where
Z denotes a set of integers.
An actual angle of rotation between the two following rovings is denoted as ~λ and

~λ ¼ 2π , (7)
n
where n is given by relation (6). Then actual overlap ~δ is equal to
~δ ¼ m
~λ rsin α: (8)

Values of optimal number n of used rovings, corresponding to the rotation angle ~λ

between the two following rovings, and the corresponding overlap ~δ are gradually given
by relations (4), (6), (7), and (8) for specified width m of roving, radius r, and winding
angle α.

Calculation of optimal roving width. It is assumed that rotation angle λ between two adjacent
rovings (and thus the number n of roving used), radius r of the frame, and winding angle α
are entered. Then, the optimal width m of roving is calculated. Overlap δ is equal to zero in
the case of optimal width m of roving. Then it implies from relation (5)
m ¼ λ r sin α: (9)

The optimal width m f of the rovings will be chosen so that m

f is the smallest width of
roving supplied by the manufacturer, which also meets the condition m~ ≥ m , where m is
given by relation (9).
If the number of rovings n used for winding is known, then the angle λ of rotation for
the neighboring two wound rovings is equal to the value
2π
λ¼ : (10)
n
The optimal m width of fiber roving for a specified number n of rovings, frame radius r,
and winding angle α can be calculated using relations (9) and (10).

Winding a curved part of the frame

Winding a curved part of a frame with a circular cross-section is the most challenging task
of winding technology. In general, the frame could be a 3D curved structure. However, the
curved part of the frame is very often shaped only in 2D and forms part of a torus (see
Figure 2(b), Figure 11(a), detail is provided in the literature ).43 Attention is given to a
14 Journal of Industrial Textiles

more detailed study of winding such a part of the frame. The torus is defined by its center
S, radius R of the torus axis o, and radius r of a circular cross-section of the torus, as shown
in Figure 11(b).
The outer part s1 of the torus surface is larger than the inner part s2 of the torus surface
(see Figure 11(b)). This disproportion relates to the difficulty of making a homogeneous
fiber layer. Figure 12 shows the winding of the roving on the surface of the torus at an
angle of
π6 ð
30° Þ and
π6 ð
60° Þ. The distance of the corresponding boundary points
after one turn of roving is greater on the outer circumference of the torus than on the inner
circumference. Said distance increases with growing winding angle α.
Now, the attention is on the size of the circumference of circle p1 and circle p2 of the
torus in Figure 11(b). Circle p1 creates the outer circumference and circle p2 inner
circumference of the torus. Circumference size Oðp1 Þ of the circle, p1 is equal to Oðp1 Þ ¼
2πðR þ rÞ and circumference size Oðp2 Þ of the circle, p2 is equal to Oðp2 Þ ¼ 2πðR
rÞ,
where R > r. It is seen that Oðp1 Þ > Oðp2 Þ, then it applies to the proportion
Oðp2 Þ 2πðR
rÞ 2πR
2πr 2πR þ 2πr 4πr 2r
¼ ¼ ¼
¼1þ : (11)
Oðp1 Þ 2πðR þ rÞ 2πR þ 2πr 2πR þ 2πr 2πR þ 2πr Rþr

It follows from relation (11), that the greater value of R than the value of r, the closer is the
Oðp2 Þ
proportion Oðp 1Þ
to 1, and thereby better the curved part of the frame can be wound.

Optimal number of rovings for winding of curved frame part. As it is stated in the introduction,
curved parts of the frames most often form parts of tori. Therefore, we will solve the
problem of winding the frame in the shape of a torus. As already mentioned in subsection
fiber winding, it is necessary for right winding the frame passes perpendicularly to the

Figure 11. Frame curvature often copies the shape of a torus (a). Floor plan of a torus -
description of torus parameters (b).
Mlýnek et al. 15

Figure 12. Roving on a torus at (a) an angle of
π6 (
30°), and (b) an angle of
π3 ð
60°).

winding plane of fiber rovings (see Figures 4 and 2(b), detail is described in the
literature).1,8,9
It was assumed torus is connected to the robot-end-effector, rotates around its center S
and goes through the winding head (and therefore through rotated coil ring k1 which
forms the first layer of wound fibers, similar to Figure 4) and orthogonally goes through
the winding plane ρ1 (i.e. its axis o orthogonal to ρ1, see Figure 11(b)). It is assumed a
constant circumferential velocity of the torus. The circumferential speed of axis o is
denoted as utorus . The required winding angle of the fiber rovings is denoted as α. The
circumferential velocity utorus of torus axis, o is given by the relation
utorus ¼ R:ωtorus , (12)

where ωtorus is the angular velocity of the torus. The angular velocity of rotated coil ring k1
(see Figure 4) is denoted as ωcr and its circumferential velocity as ucr . Then it is true
ucr ¼ L:ωcr , (13)

where L is the radius of coil ring kl (see Figure 4). Recall that v indicates the pitch of the
helix formed by the roving when wound on the general frame at α angle (see Section
General rules of winding optimization). Then relation ν ¼ 2πr tg α (see Figure 6(c)) is
used and can be written
ucr 2πL 2πL L
¼ ¼ ¼ , (14)
utorus v 2πr tg α r tg α

where α ϵ (0,π/2).
It follows from relations (12), (13), and (14) ωωtorus
cr L
R ¼ r tg } , that implies tg α ¼ rωcr .
L Rωtorus

It follows from here

16 Journal of Industrial Textiles

 
Rωtorus Rωtorus
ωcr ¼ and α ¼ arctg : (15)
r tg } rωcr

The required ωcr angular velocity of rotated coil ring k1 for the rovings to be wound at
the specified angle α is determined from relation (15) to the assuming a constant angular
velocity ωtorus of the torus. The calculated ωcr angular velocity is determined with
respect to the axis o of the torus and its peripheral speed ucr . But the peripheral speed of
the outer circuit of the torus (circle p1, see Figure 11(b)) is equal to the value ðR þ rÞ ωtorus
and peripheral speed of the internal circuit (circle p2) is equal to ðR
rÞ ωtorus . Then real
winding angle αouter of the outer circuit is equal to (see relation (15) on the right)
 
ðR þ rÞωtorus
αouter ¼ arctg (16)
rωcr

and real winding angle αinternal of internal circuit is equal to

 
ðR
rÞωtorus
αinternal ¼ arctg : (17)
rωcr

The outer circumference p1 (see Figure 11(b)) of the torus has a higher speed cir-
cumferential than internal circumference p2. It is seen from relations (16) and (17) that
winding angle αouter on outer circumference p1 of the torus is greater than the winding
angle αinternal on internal circumference p1 (because arctg is increasing function).
The possibilities of using derived relationships to achieve optimized winding of
rovings on the frame are shown in the following section.

Results and discussion

In this section, the derived mathematical relations and conclusions for specific input
parameters and their application to practical examples are applied.

Calculation of optimal number of rovings

Table 1 contains the calculated optimal number of rovings n used for winding: specific roving
width m, frame radius r, and prescribed winding angle α. The overlap ~δ of neighboring rovings
are simultaneously determined in each row of Table 1. Relations (6), (7), and (8) are used to
calculate the values n and ~δ in Table 1. Only a small number n of rovings for optimal winding is
needed for a smaller frame radius r, a smaller winding angle α, and a larger roving width m (see
relation (6)). There may even be a case where it is optimal to wind only one roving (see Table 1).
Based on the values given in each row of Table 1, the percentage p value of the area of the
roving overlaps with respect to the total wound area can be calculated by a simple relation
δ: ðn
1Þ
p¼ :100: (18)
n:m
Mlýnek et al. 17

For example, for the fourth row of the table from the bottom (m = 15(mm), r = 30(mm),
α = 5°, n = 2), p = 22, 6330%; for the last row (m = 15(mm), r =30(mm), α = 60°, n = 11),
p = 1,0145%. Using relation (18), appropriate (with minimal p) and inappropriate choices
of input parameters can be determined.

Table 1. The specified optimal number n of rovings and the corresponding overlap ~δ of adjacent
rovings for the specified input parameters: rovings width m, frame radius r, and winding angle α.

Width of roving Radius Winding angle Overlap

(m) (r) (α) ~
Number of rovings (δ)
(mm) (mm) (°) (rad) (2πr sin α)/m (n) (mm)

5 10 5 0.0815 1.0952 2 2.2634

30 0.5235 6.2789 7 0.5143
45 0.7853 8.8811 9 0.0660
60 1.0471 10.8772 11 0.0560
20 5 0.0815 2.0480 3 1.3510
30 0.5235 12.5579 13 0.1692
45 0.7853 17.7623 18 0.0660
60 1.0471 21.7544 22 0.0560
30 5 0.0815 3.0720 4 0.8975
30 0.5235 18.8367 19 0.0421
45 0.7853 26.6433 27 0.0660
60 1.0471 32.6316 33 0.0558
10 10 5 0.0815 0.5120 1 4.5266
30 0.5235 3.1394 4 2.1500
45 0.7853 4.4405 5 1.1187
60 1.0471 5.4386 6 0.9358
20 5 0.0815 1.0240 2 4.5266
30 0.5235 6.27895 7 1.0286
45 0.7853 8.88115 9 0.1319
60 1.0471 10.8772 11 0.1116
30 5 0.0815 1.5360 2 1.7899
30 0.5235 9.41835 10 0.5800
45 0.7853 13.3216 14 0.4843
60 1.0471 16.3158 17 0.4024
15 10 5 0.0815 0.3413 1 9.5266
30 0.5235 2.0929 3 4.5333
45 0.7853 2.9603 3 0.1979
60 1.0471 3.6257 4 3.5965
20 5 0.0815 0.6826 1 4.0532
30 0.5235 4.1859 5 2.4400
45 0.7853 5.9207 6 0.1979
60 1.0471 7.2514 8 1.4034
30 5 0.0815 1.024 2 6.7899
30 0.5235 6.2789 7 1.5428
45 0.7853 8.8811 9 0.1979
60 1.0471 10.8772 11 0.1674
18 Journal of Industrial Textiles

Example – winding with the optimal number of rovings

In this practical example, the goal is to wind carbon rovings on a straight core (straight
frame). The winding parameters are; radius of frame r = 16 (mm), roving winding angle
α ¼
π6 ð
30° Þ and roving width m = 9 (mm). Determining the optimal number of n rovings
used in winding is our task and coverage of the entire surface of the frame with minimal
overlaps of consecutive rovings. Covering the entire surface of the frame with minimal
overlaps of adjacent rovings will ensure a homogeneous winding of a given layer of fibers.
The longitudinal central axis of the roving forms a left-handed helix hL (see Figure 6(b)),
pitch v (height of one helix turn, measured parallel to axis o of helix; see Figure 6(c)) is equal to
v ¼ 2π r tgα ¼ 58:04 (mm). Based on the use of relation (6), the optimal number n of used
rovings is n = 6. Then the overlap ~δ of two adjacent rovings is equal to ~δ = 0.62 (mm) based on
the use of relations (6), (7), and (8). Figure 13 shows the winding of a layer of fibers on a
straight core in the length of one roving turn. One (a), three (b), five (c), and six (d) rovings for
winding the layer of fibers on the frame are successively used. The winding is performed with
gaps in the partial figures with one, three, and five rovings. It can be seen that the sufficient
optimal number n of rovings is 6 (see Figure 13(d), the wound layer is without gaps).

Figure 13. Presentation of the winding of rovings to a straight core. One (a), three (b), five (c), and
six (d) rovings are wound on the core according to helix parameters (The individual pictures
present this procedure).

Calculation of optimal width of roving

The optimal m width of fiber roving for a specified number n of rovings, frame radius r,
and winding angle α can be calculated using relations (9) and (10). The optimal values of
the roving width m are given in Table 2.
Mlýnek et al. 19

Table 2. The calculated optimal roving width m for specified winding input parameters.

Optimal width
Radius Winding angle of roving
(r) Number of rovings (α) (m)
(mm) (n) (°) (rad) (mm)

10 4 30 0.5235 7.8539
12 45 0.7853 3.7023
16 60 1.0471 3.4007
20 10 30 0.5235 6.2831
16 45 0.7853 5.5535
20 60 1.0471 5.4413

In practice, it is necessary to choose the smallest integer greater than width m or equal
to m of the rovings supplied by the roving manufacturer at the specified number of rovings
used (i.e. the number of used coils with rovings).
Note 5. Carbon rovings from Toho Tenax producer was used in the fabrication process.
Carbon roving 24K has a width of 9(mm). Twenty-four thousand (24K) carbon filaments
about a diameter 7(μm) create a rectangle cross-section of roving. Rovings with a different
number of filaments are available on the market; for example, 12K or 6K. In proportion to
the number of fibrils, the width of the roving also differs 12K = width 5(mm), 6K = width
2(mm).
The derived mathematical models in Section Material and winding optimization,
enable the determination of the number n of roving and their width m for winding a
compact layer of fibers rovings.

Example – winding curved frame – part of the torus

Let us consider the input values for winding rovings on a torus as listed in Table 3.
Note that the second radius r of the torus corresponds to the radius of the frame.
Firstly, ωcr is determined (angular speed of the rotated coil ring) using relation (15)
Rωtorus 0; 2 : 0; 5 0; 1
ωcr ¼ ¼ ¼ ¼ 5 ðrad=sÞ:
r tg } 0; 02 : 1 0; 02

Table 3. Input values for winding rovings on a frame with torus geometry.

Input parameter Designation Value of parameter

The angular speed of torus ωtorus 0.5(rad/s)

1st radius of the torus R 0.2(m)
2nd radius of torus r 0.02(m)
Winding angle α π/4(rad) (45°)
Number of used rovings to winding n 8
20 Journal of Industrial Textiles

Therefore, fiber rovings will be wound on the torus at angle α = π/4(rad) = 45° with
respect to the axis o of the torus at ωcr ¼ 5 ðrad=sÞ and ωtorus ¼ 0; 5ðrad=sÞ.
Rovings on the outer circumference of the torus (circle p1, see Figure 11(b)) will be
wound at an angle given by relation (16)
   
ðR þ rÞωtorus ð0; 2 þ 0; 02Þ: 0; 5
αouter ¼ arctg ¼ arctg ¼ arctgð1;1Þ ¼ 0; 8329ðradÞ
rωcr 0;02: 5
¼ 47;7260°:

At the same time, the rovings on the internal circumference of the torus (circle p2) will
be wound at an angle given by the relation (17)
   
ðR
rÞωtorus ð0;2
0;02Þ: 0;5
αinternal ¼ arctg ¼ arctg arctgð0;9Þ ¼ 0; 7328ðradÞ
rωcr 0; 02: 5
¼ 41;9870°:

It could be seen that the rovings are wound at a greater angle on the outer circum-
ference than on the inner circumference of the torus. As a result, there occurs often
insufficient fiber rovings coverage of the surface on the outer circumference of the torus
and overlapping of the fiber rovings on the inner circumference of the torus.
As already mentioned in the previous Section Material and winding optimization, the
covering of the entire surface of the torus by rovings is an important condition for ensuring
a sufficiently high-quality layer of reinforcing fibers rovings. The following, very im-
portant condition, is to minimize overlaps of the wound rovings.
Since eight rovings are used for winding (and thus also eight spools located on the
circumference of the specified coil ring), two adjacent rovings on the frame are rotated
by angle λ ¼ π=4 (rad) = 45° (see relation (10) and Figures 7 and 8). The distance d of
the central axes of two adjacent wound strands of fibers (see Figure 5) is equal to (see
relation (4))
π π 
d ¼ λ rsin α ¼ :0, 02:sin ¼ 0; 0111072ðmÞ ¼ 1; 11072ðcmÞ:
4 4
This distance d corresponds to winding angle α with respect to the o-axis of the torus.
Distance douter of the central axes of two adjacent rovings on the outer circumference of
the torus (see Figure 11(b), circle p1) is equal to
π
douter ¼ λ rsin αouter ¼ : 0; 02 :sinð0; 8329Þ ¼ 0; 011622949 ðmÞ ¼ 1; 162249 ðcmÞ:
4

Analogously, distance dinternal of the central axes of two adjacent rovings for αinternal
winding angle (on the internal circumference of a torus, circle p2) is equal to
π
dinternal ¼ λ rsin αinternal ¼ : 0; 02 :sinð0; 7328Þ ¼ 0; 010508 ðmÞ ¼ 1; 0508 ðcmÞ:
4
Mlýnek et al. 21

At width m of the roving equal to m ¼ douter ¼ 1; 16222949ðcmÞ, adjacent rovings

of fibers will follow each other on the outer circumference of the torus, then overlap
δ ¼ m
dinternal ¼ 0; 1114949ðcmÞ ≈ 1; 11ðmmÞ (see relation (1)) will be on the internal
circumference.
The selection of roving in which the width m ~ is the smallest value greater than
or equal to m ¼ douter ðm ~ ≥ m ¼ douter Þ from the rovings offered widths by the
suppliers, seems to be a suitable approach for the winding process. In this case,
the wound rovings on the outer circumference of the frame are free of gaps and
overlaps and the overlaps on the inner circumference of the frame are
minimized.
The following Figure 14 shows the winding of a torus-shaped frame successively with
one, two, four, and six rovings at an angle of – 45°. In this case, the width of the roving
m ¼ douter ¼ 9 ðmmÞ. When six rovings are used, the frame surface is fully covered,
the outer circumference is free of gaps and overlaps, and the inner circumference contains
minimized overlaps.

Winding angles on the outer and inner circumference of the torus

Table 4 presented the same input parameters as in the previous Example 3.4, only α
angle will be changed. The quantities ωcr, d, αouter, douter, αinternal , and dinternal are
calculated in Table 4 by successively using relations (15), (16), (4) and (17) for each
entered α.
Table 4 clearly shows that as the α winding angle increases (relative to axis o of the
torus, see Figure 11(b)), values of αouter, αinternal, d, douter and dinternal increase. At the
same time, it is true αinternal < α < αouter and dinternal < d < douter for specific α. Thus, in
general, the roving is wound at a greater angle on the outer circumference than on the
inner circumference. For this reason, uncovered portions (gaps) of the outer pe-
riphery of the frame and overlaps of the rovings on the inner periphery of the frame
often occur during the winding of the roving layer. The value of ωcr ((angular speed
of rotating coil ring) decreases for increasing values of α (relation (15)). As
mentioned before angular speed ωtorus of the torus is constant. As can be seen from
the table, the difference αouter - αinternal (see relations (16) and (17)) between the
winding angle of roving on the outer circumference and on the inner circumference
increases with the approximate raise in α to angle π4 (45°). Then, the value of
difference αouter - αinternal decreases for increasing angle α and α > π4 (45°) due to a
more gradual increase in the values of arctan function.

Winding angles on the circumference of the torus depending on the

frame radius
The same input values are considered as in Example 3.4 and the constant specified
winding angle α ¼ π4 ð45° Þ. Only the radius r of the torus (see Figure 11(b)) will be
changed. Table 5 contains calculated values αouter , αinternal , d, douter and dinternal for
22 Journal of Industrial Textiles

Figure 14. Presentation of the winding of a torus-shaped frame successively with one (a), two (b),
four (4), and six (d) with 9 mm wide rovings.

Table 4. Values of winding angles on the outer and inner circumference of the torus and the
distance between the central axes of two adjacent wound rovings depend on the entered winding
angle α.

α ωcr d αouter douter αinternal dinternal

(°) (rad) (rad/s) (mm) (°) (rad) (mm) (°) (rad) (mm)

10 0.17453 28.3607 2.725 10.9767 0.1915 2.991 9.0173 0.1573 2.462

30 0.52395 8.6602 7.854 32.4091 0.5656 8.418 27.4481 0.4790 7.240
45 0.78539 5.0000 11.101 47.7260 0.8329 11.622 41.9870 0.7328 10.508
60 1.04719 2.8868 13.596 62.3067 1.0874 13.908 57.3197 1.0004 13.221
80 1.39626 0.8816 15.461 80.8932 1.4118 15.509 78.9151 1.3773 15.414

specified radii r. Table 5 demonstrates that with increasing value of radius r, dif-
ferences αouter
αinternal and douter
dinternal are also increasing.
Mlýnek et al. 23

Table 5. Values of winding angles on the outer and inner circumference of the torus and the
distance between the central axes of two adjacent wound rovings depend on the specified radius r of
the torus.

r d αouter douter αinternal dinternal

(mm) (mm) (°) (mm) (°) (mm)

20 11.107 47.7263 11.622 41.9872 10.508

50 27.768 51.3402 30.664 36.8699 23.561
100 55.536 56.3099 65.349 26.5551 35.111
150 83.304 60.2554 102.287 14.0362 29.452

Conclusion
This study focuses on the issue of achieving high-quality production of FRP composite
frames. The winding process covers several layers of fiber rovings that are wound onto an
open or closed non-load bearing frame. Ensuring the homogeneity and desired winding
angle of each layer is a prerequisite for producing a quality composite frame. It is aimed to
introduce the procedure to determine the optimal number of spools placed on a coil ring
(i.e. the number of wound fiber rovings), and the width of the roving, which depend on the
winding angle and radius of the frame. The number of rovings increases with the growth
of the winding angle. It is shown that through the optimal determination of the number of
rovings used along with rovings width, the possibility of material savings of up to 20%
could be achieved. On the other hand, fiber winding optimization of curved frames, which
often forms part of the torus, was developed and discussed. The optimized winding of
rovings of such a curved frame is determined based on the geometric parameters of the
torus. It is shown that, for a larger radius of the torus central-axis compared to the radius of
the frame, a better-homogenized winding could be achieved. The winding parameters are
chosen such that no gaps are created during winding on the outer circumference of the
torus and at the same time roving overlaps are minimized on the inner circumference of
the torus. A few experimental tests are also demonstrated in which the results of the test
calculations are close to the experiment data.
In this study, the quality of winding is solved mainly from a geometric point of view.
Ensuring the correct winding geometry is a necessary prerequisite for producing a quality
fiber reinforcement for the composite frame. The procedures outlined in the article make it
possible to determine the necessary parameters for the specific task of rovings winding
onto the frame and thus avoid unsuitable set of parameters of the winding process.
Future research activities will focus on detailed testing of the physical performance of
the composite frame under various static and fatigue loads. At the same time, the research
will be extended to the generalization of the findings presented in this article to composite
frames with a cross-section in the shape of an ellipse, triangle, rectangle, trapezoid, etc.

Declaration of Conflicting Interests

The author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/
or publication of this article.
24 Journal of Industrial Textiles

Funding
The author(s) disclosed receipt of the following financial support for the research, authorship, and/or
publication of this article: This work was supported by the Ministry of Education, Youth, and Sports
of the Czech Republic and the European Union (European Structural and Investment Funds
Operational Program Research, Development, and Education) in the framework of the project
“Modular platform for autonomous chassis of specialized electric vehicles for freight and equipment
transportation”, Reg. No. CZ.02.1.01/0.0/0.0/16_025/0007293, as well as the financial support from
internal grants in the Institute for Nanomaterials, Advanced Technologies and Innovations (CXI),
Technical University of Liberec (TUL).

ORCID iDs
Jaroslav Mlýnek  https://orcid.org/0000-0002-3386-6738
Michal Petrů  https://orcid.org/0000-0002-7643-8450
Martina Ryvolová  https://orcid.org/0000-0003-2080-1473
Seyed Saeid Rahimian Koloor  https://orcid.org/0000-0002-1820-6379

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