Research Methods in Geography

and
Environmental Studies
 I Introduction
What is research?

• Different authors of the field define research differently.

The following are the most common phrases used to define the
concept research:

• an inquiry to obtain dependable and useful information;

• a scientific approach to study a problem;

• a systematic and objective search for reliable knowledge; etc.

Generally,
Research is the process of inquiry and discovery
of knowledge involving scientific methods.
• It is a process of inquiry (the search for truth).
• It is a process of discovery because it is a
movement from unknown to the known.
• It involves scientific methods in search of the
truth on the basis of factual and objective
evidences.
• The scientific method is the means by which
researchers are able to make conclusive statements
about their studies with a minimum of bias.

• It involves several steps such as:

Ø Observation of researchable problem;

Ø Question (translating that research idea into an
answerable question)
Ø Hypothesis (testable guess) to explain some aspect of
your observation;
Ø Measuring and experimentation;
Ø Analysis (looking for explanations or solutions)
Ø Formulation of theories and laws.
Objectives of undertaking research/ why do research?

• All progress is born of inquiry.

• Doubt is often better than overconfidence, for it
leads to inquiry, and inquiry leads to invention.
• Increased amounts of research make progress
possible.
• Research inculcates scientific and inductive thinking
and it promotes the development of logical habits of
thinking and organization.
The purpose of research is to discover answers to questions
through the application of scientific procedures. The main aim of
research is to find out the truth which is hidden and which has
not been discovered as yet.
The reasons for undertaking research usually centre
upon the following five main motivations:

Exploration - to investigate little understood phenomena,

- to identify/ discover important variables,
- to generate questions for further research, etc.
Explanation -to explain why forces created the phenomenon in
question,
- to identify why the phenomenon is shaped as it is
Description -to document and characterize the phenomenon of
interest
Understanding - to comprehend and understand processes,
interaction, phenomenon and people
Prediction - to predict future outcomes for the phenomenon
-to forecast the events and behaviours resulting
from the phenomenon
• To governments, decision-making may not be a part
of research, but research certainly facilitates the
decisions of the policy maker. Government has also
to chalk out programs for dealing with all facets of
the country’s existence and most of these will be
related directly or indirectly to economic conditions.
What makes people to undertake research?
The possible motives for doing research may be either
one or more of the following:
1. Desire to get a research degree along with its
consequential benefits;
2. Desire to face the challenge in solving the unsolved
problems, i.e., concern over practical problems
initiates research;
3. Desire to get intellectual joy of doing some creative
work;
4. Desire to be of service to society;
5. Desire to get respectability.
Good research is:

• Systematic
• Logical
• Empirical:
• Replicable:
Classification of Research
• Classification of research can be based on different
considerations. Thus, we can base our classification
on:
1. the nature of the dominant data (qualitative or
quantitative),
2. the purpose of the research (applied or basic),
3. the type of analysis that will be carried out
(descriptive or analytical) (Conceptual or Empirical
research) .
4. Other types of research
– The attempt to classify research into these categories is
somewhat misleading since most research has elements of
all the categories. It should be said that it is only an aid to
broad understanding of the different types of research
rather than distinct categories.
 Research Process
Research Proposal
• For most types of research you will need to produce
a research proposal.
• Before you start work on your research proposal,
find out whether you are required to produce the
document in a specific format.
For college and university students, you might
be given a general outline and a guide as to
how many pages to produce.
For those of you who are producing a proposal
to send to a funding organisation you might
have to produce something much more specific.
Some provide advice and guidance about what
they would like to see in your proposal.
Proposal Content

• Title
Short and self explanatory.
• Background
This section should contain a rationale for your
research. Why are you undertaking
the project? Why is the research needed?
You need to demonstrate that you know what you’re
talking about and that you have
knowledge of the literature surrounding this topic.
 +
• If you’re unable to find any other research
which deals specifically with your proposed
project, you need to say so, illustrating how
your proposed research will fill this gap.
• If there is other work which has covered this
area, you need to show how your work will
build on and add to the existing knowledge.
• Basically, you have to convince people that
you know what you’re talking about and that
the research is important.
• Theories, theoretical frameworks, and lines of inquiry
may be differently handled in quantitative and
qualitative endeavors.
– “In quantitative studies, one uses theory deductively
and places it toward the beginning of the plan for a
study. The objective is to test or verify theory. One
thus begins the study advancing a theory, collects
data to test it, and reflects on whether the theory
was confirmed or disconfirmed by the results in the
study. The theory becomes a framework for the
entire study, an organizing model for the research
questions or hypotheses for the data collection
procedure” (
• In qualitative inquiry, the use of theory and of a line
of inquiry depends on the nature of the
investigation. In studies aiming at “grounded theory,”
for example, theory and theoretical tenets emerge
from findings. Much qualitative inquiry, however,
also aims to test or verify theory, hence in these
cases the theoretical framework, as in quantitative
efforts, should be identified and discussed early on.
 1. Statement of the Problem

• “The problem statement describes the context for

the study and it also identifies the general analysis
approach”.
• “A problem might be defined as the issue that
exists in the literature, theory, or practice that
leads to a need for the study” .
• It is important in a proposal that the problem stand
out—that the reader can easily recognize it.
• A problem statement should be presented
within a context, and that context should be
provided and briefly explained, including a
discussion of the conceptual or theoretical
framework in which it is embedded.
• Effective problem statements answer the
question “Why does this research need to be
conducted.”
2. Objectives

Many research proposal formats will ask for only one

or two aims and may not require objectives. However,
for some research these will need to be broken down in
more depth to also include the objectives.
• General Objective
• Specific Objectives
Example of objectives
• The research seeks to determine:
1. The nature, extent and effect of psychological
influences on choices, including a desire to achieve
personal goals or meet individual needs.
2. The nature, extent and effect of sociological influences
on choices, including background, personal and social
expectations, previous educational experience and
social role.
3. The nature and influence of individual perceptions of
courses, institutions and subject, and how these relate
to self-perception and concept of self.
3. Questions and/ or Hypothesis
3.1 Question
• Questions are relevant to normative or census type
research (How many of them are there? Is there a
relationship between them?). They are most often
used in qualitative inquiry, although their use in
quantitative inquiry is becoming more prominent.
• A research question poses a relationship between two
or more variables but phrases the relationship as a
question; a hypothesis represents a declarative
statement of the relations between two or more
variables (Kerlinger, 1979; Krathwohl, 1988).
 3.2 Hypotheses
• Hypotheses are relevant to theoretical research and
are typically used only in quantitative inquiry.
• When a writer states hypotheses, the reader is
entitled to have an exposition of the theory that
lead to them (and of the assumptions underlying
the theory).
• Just as conclusions must be grounded in the data,
hypotheses must be grounded in the theoretical
framework.
• Questions and hypotheses are testable propositions
deduced and directly derived from theory (except in
grounded theory studies and similar types of
qualitative inquiry).
 4. The Design--Methods and Procedures

• “The methods or procedures section is really the heart

of the research proposal. The activities should be
described with as much detail as possible, and the
continuity between them should be apparent”
(Wiersma, 1995, p. 409).
• Indicate the methodological steps you will take to
answer every question or to test every hypothesis
illustrated in the Questions/Hypotheses section.
• In the design section, indicate
– the variables you propose to control and how you
propose to control them, experimentally or
statistically, and
– the variables you propose to randomize, and the
nature of the randomizing unit (students, grades,
schools, etc.).
• Be aware of possible sources of error to which your
design exposes you. You will not produce a perfect,
error free design (no one can).
• However, you should anticipate possible sources of
error and attempt to overcome them or take them
into account in your analysis. Moreover, you should
disclose to the reader the sources you have
identified and what efforts you have made to
account for them
4.1 Sampling
• The key reason for being concerned with sampling is
that of validity—the extent to which the
interpretations of the results of the study follow from
the study itself and the extent to which results may
be generalized to other situations with other people
(Shavelson, 1988).
• Perhaps the key word in sampling is representative.
One must ask oneself, “How representative is the
sample of the survey population (the group from
which the sample is selected) and how representative
is the survey population of the target population (the
larger group to which we wish to generalize)?”
4.2 Instrumentation
• Outline the instruments you propose to use
(questionnaire, interview, observation, etc.).
• If instruments have previously been used, identify
previous studies and findings related to reliability
and validity. If instruments have not previously been
used, outline procedures you will follow to develop
and test their reliability and validity. In the latter
case, a pilot study is nearly essential.
• Include an appendix with a copy of the instruments
to be used or the interview to be followed. Also
include sample items in the description of the
instrument.
4.3 Data Analysis

• Specify the procedures you will use, and label them

accurately (e.g., ANOVA, COV, ethnography, case study,
grounded theory). If you triangulated, carefully explain
how you went about it.
• Indicate briefly any analytic tools you will have available
and expect to use (e.g., SAS, SPSS, SYSTAT).
• Provide a well thought-out rationale for your decision to
use the design, methodology, and analyses you have
selected.
 5. Purpose of the Study

• “The purpose statement should provide a specific and

accurate synopsis of the overall purpose of the study”.
• Briefly define and delimit the specific area of the
research.
• The purpose statement can also incorporate the
rationale for the study.
• Key points to keep in mind when preparing a
purpose statement.
– Try to incorporate a sentence that begins with
“The purpose of this study is . . .” This will clarify
your own mind as to the purpose and it will
inform the reader directly and explicitly.
– Clearly identify and define the central concepts or
ideas of the study. When defining terms, make a
judicious choice between using descriptive or
operational definitions.
– Identify the specific method of inquiry to be used.
– Identify the unit of analysis in the study.
 6. Limitations and Delimitations

• A limitations identifies potential weaknesses of the

study. Think about your analysis, the nature of self-
report, your instruments, the sample. Think about
threats to internal validity that may have been
impossible to avoid or minimize—explain.
• A delimitations addresses how a study will be
narrowed in scope, that is, how it is bounded.
This is the place to explain the things that you are
not doing and why you have chosen not to do
them—the literature you will not review (and
why not), the population you are not studying
(and why not), the methodological procedures
you will not use (and why you will not use them).

• Limit your delimitations to the things that a

reader might reasonably expect you to do but
that you, for clearly explained reasons, have
decided not to do.
 7. Significance of the Study
• Indicate how your research will refine, revise, or
extend existing knowledge in the area under
investigation.
• This can be a difficult section to write. Think about
implications—how results of the study may affect
scholarly research, theory, practice, educational
interventions, curricula, counseling, policy.
• When thinking about the significance of your study,
ask yourself the following questions.

– What will results mean to the theoretical

framework that framed the study?
– What suggestions for subsequent research arise
from the findings?
– What will the results mean to the practicing
educator?
– Will results influence programs, methods, and/or
interventions ?
– Will results contribute to the solution of
educational problems?
Will results influence educational policy decisions?
– What will be improved or changed as a result of
the proposed research?
– How will results of the study be implemented, and
what innovations will come about?
 8. Review of the Literature
• “The review of the literature provides the background and context for the
research problem. It should establish the need for the research and
indicate that the writer is knowledgeable about the area” (Wiersma,
1995, p. 406).

• The literature review accomplishes several

important things.
– It shares with the reader the results of other studies
that are closely related to the study being reported
(Fraenkel & Wallen, 1990).
– It relates a study to the larger, ongoing dialogue in
the literature about a topic, filling in gaps and
extending prior studies (Marshall & Rossman, 1989).
– It provides a framework for establishing the
importance of the study, as well as a benchmark for
comparing the results of a study with other findings.
– It “frames” the problem earlier identified.
• In a proposal, the literature review is generally brief
and to the point. Be judicious in your choice of
exemplars—the literature selected should be
pertinent and relevant (APA, 2001). Select and
reference only the more appropriate citations. Make
key points clearly and succinctly.

9. Time Framework
10. Budget breakdown
11.Reference
12 Appendix
 Main Research

The Research Process (Planning Research Project)

The research process consists of a number of closely related
activities necessary to effectively carry out research.
The following are some of the stages in the research process:
1. Topic
2. Identification and formulation of the research problem
3. Developing the objectives, research questions and hypothesis,
4. Literature review
5. Preparing the research design
6. Determining the sample,
7. Data collection,
8. Data analysis and interpretation,
9. Validation of results/ Conclusion
1. Research Topic
• Topic is a short explanatory and mini abstract
• The problem statement describes the context for the study
and it also identifies the general analysis approach.
Some of the important sources of research problem are:
– Professional experiences-the researchers own experiences
in the field;
– Inference from theory;
– Professional literatures-reports, bibliographies of books,
and articles, periodicals, abstracts, etc.;
– Technical and social changes- new developments may
bring forth new problems for research.
2. Research Problem: Identification and Formulation
Ø Identifying a research topic typically involves two
steps:
Ø First, selecting a general topic area,
Ø The general topic area is simply the starting point
that eventually will evolve into a very specific
research question.
Ø You need to find an interest in a broad subject area
(problem area).
Ø reviewing the literature in that general area to find a
specific research questions.
Ø This process will enable you to:
Ø Narrow the idea to a plausible topic.
Ø Question the topic from several points of view, and
Ø Define a rationale for your project.
Ø As you read through the research literature,
Ø you will become familiar with the current state of
knowledge and can determine what questions are still
unanswered
 Research Problem: Identification and Formulation
Ø reviewing the literature in that general area to find a
specific research questions.

Ø This process will enable you to:

Ø Narrow the idea to a plausible topic.
Ø Question the topic from several points of view, and
Ø Define a rationale for your project.

Ø As you read through the research literature,

Ø you will become familiar with the current state of
knowledge and can determine what questions are still
unanswered
• This involves the identification of a general topic and
formulating it into a specific research problem.
• It requires through understanding of the problem
and rephrasing it in a meaningful terms from
analytical point of view.
• Discussions with colleagues or experts in the field
(Brainstorming).
• Examine conceptual and empirical literature on the topic.
• The problem statement describes the context for the study and it
also identifies the general analysis approach
• State the problem briefly
• It is the very aim of the research, it restrict what to do,
• There are questions which has not answered up to the research
you pick it up.
• In stating the problem it is enough half a page to explain the
problem

eg. …Soil is eroded, temp. is increasing, vegetation is disappearing,

etc. then what are the causes for this.
3. Developing objectives, research questions and
hypothesis,

3.1 Objectives
• The objectives of a research project summaries what is to be
achieved by the study. Objectives should be closely related to
the statement of the problem.
• The general objective of a study states what researchers
expect to achieve by the study in general terms.
• It is possible (and advisable) to break down a general
objective into smaller, logically connected parts. These are
normally referred to as specific objectives.
• Specific objectives should systematically address the various
aspects of the problem as defined under ‘Statement of the
Problem’ and the key factors that are assumed to influence or
cause the problem. They should specify what you will do in
your study, where and for what purpose.

• How should you state your objectives?

• Take care that the objectives of your study: Cover the different
aspects of the problem and its contributing factors in a
coherent way and in a logical sequence;

It should be
– clearly phrased in operational terms, specifying exactly
what you are going to do, where, and for what purpose;
– Realistic considering local conditions; and
– Use action verbs that are specific enough to be evaluated.
Examples of action verbs are: to determine, to compare, to
verify, to calculate, to describe, and to establish. Avoid the
use of vague non-action verbs such as: to appreciate, to
understand, or to study.
 3.2 Research Questions
• It is drawn from the statement of the problem. The purpose of
the research question is to make the research focused.
Thus, it sails a research study in a particular direction. A good
question is:
– Stated as a question:
– Specific,
– Includes key terms and / or variables to be investigated,
– Can be operationalized,
– Is written in simple and precise form.
 3.3 Hypotheses

• Based on your experience with the study

problem, it might be possible to develop
explanations for the problem, which can then be
tested. If so, you can formulate hypotheses in
addition to the study objectives.
• A hypothesis is a prediction of a relationship
between one or more factors and the problem
under study that can be tested.
– e.g. to test the hypothesis that “Working at home
improves quality of life”
4. Literature Review

• The purpose of the literature review is to situate your

research in the context of what is already known about a
topic.
• It need not be exhaustive, it needs to show how your work
will benefit the whole.
• It should provide the theoretical basis for your work, show
what has been done in the area by others, and set the stage
for your work.
• It should probably move from the more general to the more
focused studies, but need not be exhaustive, only relevant.
• Sometimes the literature review is incorporated into the
introduction section. However, most professors prefer a
separate section, which allows a more thorough review of the
literature.
• The literature review serves several important functions:
– Ensures that you are not "reinventing the wheel".
– Gives credits to those who have laid the groundwork for
your research.
– Demonstrates your knowledge of the research problem.
– Demonstrates your understanding of the theoretical and
research issues related to your research question.
– Shows your ability to critically evaluate relevant literature
information.
– Indicates your ability to integrate and synthesize the
existing literature.
– Provides new theoretical insights or develops a new model
as the conceptual framework for your research.
• Convinces your reader that your proposed research will make
a significant and substantial contribution to the literature
(i.e., resolving an important theoretical issue or filling a major
gap in the literature).
• Most literature reviews suffer from the following
problems:
– Lacking organization and structure
– Lacking focus, unity and coherence
– Being repetitive and verbose
– Failing to cite influential papers
– Failing to keep up with recent developments
– Failing to critically evaluate cited papers
– Citing irrelevant or trivial references
– Depending too much on secondary sources
• There are different ways to organize your literature review.
Make use of subheadings to bring order and coherence to
your review. For example, having established the
importance of your research area and its current state of
development, you may devote several subsections on
related issues as: theoretical models, measuring
instruments, cross-cultural and gender differences, etc.
Sources of literature

§ The library is the most likely physical location for the

research literature. Within library there is access to
books, periodicals, technical reports, and academic
thesis.
§ Now a days Internet service has made world wide
access of information. They are comprehensive, fast
and cost effective.
§ Irrespective of the sources of the literature , ethics of
research that the source is acknowledged through a
clear system of reference (avoid plagiarism).
5. Research design and methodology
5.1 Research Design
• A research design is the conceptual framework within which
the research will be conducted. Some scholars call it the blue
print of the research.
• The research design is meant to ensure efficiency of the
research project. It ensures collection of relevant evidence
with minimal expenditure of effort, time and money.
• The design used is dependent upon or objectives of the
research. The research may be done for exploration,
description, diagnosis or experimentation.
• In general, the research design is used to structure the
research: to show how all the major parts of the research
project- the samples, methods, etc. work together to address
the central research question.
• The major types of research designs are the qualitative,
quantitative and mixed methods with the different
approaches under them.
The design decisions happen to be in respect of:
• What is the study about?
• Why is the study being made?
• Where will the study be carried out?
• What type of data is required?
• Where can the required data be found?
• What periods of time will the study include?
• What will be the sample design?
• What techniques of data collection will be used?
• How will the data be analysed?
• In what style will the report be prepared?
These are the basic for a researcher should answer to have a detail
research.
 5.2 Research Methods and Methodology

• Research methods or techniques, thus, refer to the methods the

researchers use in performing research operations. In other
words, all those methods which are used by the researcher
during the course of studying his research problem are termed
as research methods.
Research methods can be put into the following three groups:

• 1. In the first group we include those methods which are

concerned with the collection of data. These methods will be
used where the data already available are not sufficient to
arrive at the required solution;
• 2. The second group consists of those statistical techniques
which are used for establishing relationships between the
data and the unknowns;
• 3. The third group consists of those methods which are used
to evaluate the accuracy of the results obtained.
Research methodology
is a way to systematically solve the research problem. It may be
understood as a science of studying how research is done
scientifically. In it we study the various steps that are generally
adopted by a researcher in studying his research problem
along with the logic behind them. It is necessary for the
researcher to know not only the research
methods/techniques but also the methodology
• The scope of research methodology is wider than that of
research methods.
• Thus, when we talk of research methodology we not only talk
of the research methods but also consider the logic behind
the methods we use in the context of our research study and
explain why we are using a particular method or technique
and why we are not using others so that research results are
capable of being evaluated either by the researcher himself or
by others.
The data type to be collected depends on the objectives
and methodology to follow qualitative, quantitative
or mixed.
• Qualitative
Qualitative methods attempt to gain an understanding
of the underlying reasons and motivations for actions
and establish how people interpret their experiences
and the world around them. Qualitative methods
provide insights into the setting of a problem,
generating ideas and/or hypotheses.
Qualitative research
• It is descriptive type that involves collecting of data
in order to test hypotheses or answer questions
regarding the subjects of the study.
• In contrast with the qualitative approach the data are
numerical. The data are typically collected through a
questionnaire, an interview, or through observation. In
descriptive research, the investigator reports the numerical
results for one or more variables on the subjects of the study.
• Qualitative research deals with designs techniques and
measure that do not produce discrete numerical data.
• It involves extensive narrative data in order to gain insights
into phenomena.
• Data analysis includes the coding of the data and production
of verbal synthesis (inductive process- from specific
observations to broad generalizations)
i. Types of qualitative Research approach:

i. Historical
ii. Ethnographic
iii. Participatory Observation
iv. Case study
v. Grounded Theory
vi. Action research
i. Historical/Narrative research:

• Descriptions of events that draw on multiple sources of

information to understand more fully what happened.
• By using a narrative approach, the research tries to
understand how "people think and act in the situated
contexts in which they live through their stories.
• Narratives are frameworks through which people view,
understand, and make sense of their experience
ii. Ethnographic research:
Coming largely from the field of anthropology,
• ethnographic strategies focus on the study of a
culture, particularly what "socio-cultural knowledge
participants bring to and generate in the social
setting being studied.“
vThe most common ethnographic approach is
participant observation as a part of field research.
An ethnographer becomes immersed in a culture as
an active participant and records extensive notes
to later analyze.
 iii. Case study
• Attempts to shed light on a phenomena by studying in depth a
single case example of the phenomena.
• The case can be an individual person, an event, a group, or an
institution.
iv. Participant observational research

• Participant observation is a qualitative method frequently

used in social science research.
• It is based on a long tradition of ethnographic study in
anthropology. In participant observation, the observer
becomes "part" of the environment, or the cultural context.
• The method usually involves the researcher's spending
considerable time "in the field," as anthropologists do.
 v. Grounded Theory
• Strauss and Corbin (1994), in their overview of grounded theory
note that it is "a general methodology for developing theory that is
grounded in data systematically gathered and analyzed', adding that
it is sometimes called the constant comparative method and that it
is applicable as well to quantitative research.
• The purpose of the methodology is to develop theory, through an
iterative process of data analysis and theoretical analysis, with
verification of hypotheses ongoing throughout the study.
• In grounded theory, the data may come from observations,
interviews, and videotape or document analysis, and, as in other
qualitative research, these data may be considered strictly
qualitative or may be quantitative.
• A grounded theory perspective leads the researcher to begin a
study without completely preconceived notions about what the
research questions should be, assuming that the theory on which
the study is based will be tested and refined as the research is
conducted.
• Example
• In a given industry, the human resource department may
study why employees are frustrated by their work.
Employees can explain what they feel is lacking. The
researcher then gathers this data, examines the results to
discover the root cause of their problems and presents
solutions.
• the theory of evolution by natural selection is used to
understand the diversity of life on Earth,
• the theory of relativity is used to develop new
technologies such as GPS.
• In Psychology: Theories of psychology are used to
understand human behavior and to develop effective
therapies.
 vi. Action Research
• Action research aims to contribute both to the practical concerns
of people in an immediate problematic situation and to the goals
of social science by joint collaboration within a mutually
acceptable ethical framework.
• It also makes clear, emphasizes, that action research is
concerned to enlarge the stock of knowledge of the social
science community. It is this aspect of action research that
distinguishes it from applied social science, where the goal is
simply to apply social scientific knowledge but not to add to the
body of knowledge.
• Action research has been accepted as a valid research method in
applied fields such as organization development and education.
 Descriptive qualitative research

• Descriptive qualitative research is a type of qualitative

research that explores the characteristics of a phenomenon,
rather than explaining the underlying causes or mechanisms.
It involves the collection and data analysis in the form of
words, images, or other non-numerical forms of information.
• For example, a researcher researching the income of the
employees in a company, and the relationship with their
performance.
• A survey will be carried out to gather enough data about the
income of the employees, then their performance will be
evaluated and compared to their income.
•
 Quantitative research
• Quantitative research includes designs, techniques and
measures that produce discrete numerical or
quantifiable data.
• Data analysis is mainly statistical (deductive process).
• Types of quantitative research approach:
- Statistical/Correlational Analysis,
- Experimental,
- Quasi-Experimental,
- Surveys/ Ex post facto,
- Causal-comparative research,
Statistical/Correlational Analysis
A research design to see whether there is a
relationship between two or more variables.

Experimental
A strategy that tests the effect of an independent variable by
applying it to one group of cases but not to a second group.
• Quasi-Experimental
• Quasi means resembling
• A quasi-experiment is an empirical interventional study used
to estimate the causal impact of an intervention on target
population without random assignment.
• At least one variable is manipulated to determine the effect of
the manipulation. Intact, naturally formed groups are used.
• Example: You hypothesize that a new after-school program
will lead to higher grades. You choose two similar groups of
children who attend different schools, one of which
implements the new program while the other does not.
• a hospital introduces a new order-entry system and wishes to
study the impact of this intervention on the number of
medication-related adverse events before and after the
intervention.
Surveys/ Ex post facto:
Ex post facto is Latin for "from a thing done afterward“
A research in which the independent variable or
variables have already occurred and in which
the researcher starts with the observation of a
dependent variable or variables
Approval for a project that's given ex post facto—after the
project already has been begun or completed
An ex post facto law involves creating a new law but having it
apply retroactively.
example: if the government passes a law today adding the
death penalty for any one who kidnaps a child or has
kidnapped a child over the past 10 years. The retroactive
application is an example of an post facto law
• Descriptive research
• Descriptive research can be quantitative as it gathers
quantifiable data to statistically analyze a population sample.
These numbers can show patterns, connections, and trends
over time and can be discovered using surveys, polls, and
experiments.
1.involves collecting data in order to test hypotheses or answer
questions regarding the subjects of the study.
2.In contrast with the qualitative approach the data are
numerical. The data are typically collected through a
questionnaire, an interview, or through observation.
3.In descriptive research, the investigator reports the
numerical results for one or more variables on the subjects
of the study.
 Causal-comparative research

What is an example of causal research?

Causal-comparative research attempts to identify a cause-effect
relationship between two or more groups. instance, a researcher
may wish to compare the body composition of persons who have
only trained with free weights versus persons who have only
trained with exercise machines.
For example, a company implements a new individual marketing
strategy for a small group of customers and sees a measurable
increase in monthly subscriptions. After receiving identical results
from several groups, they concluded that the one-to-one
marketing strategy has the causal relationship they intended.
 Causal-comparative research

1. Attempts to establish cause-effect relationships among the

variables of the study.

1. The attempt is to establish that values of the independent variable

have a significant effect on the dependent variable.

1. This type of research usually involves group comparisons. The

groups in the study make up the values of the independent
variable, for example gender (male versus female),

2. However, in causal-comparative research the independent variable

is not under the experimenters control, that is, the experimenter
can't randomly assign the subjects to a gender classification (male
or female) but has to take the values of the independent variable
as they come. The dependent variable in a study is the outcome
variable.
 Mixed Methods Research
• Mixed methods research is research in which quantitative
and qualitative techniques are mixed in a single study.
• It is the third major research paradigm, adding an
alternative (when it is appropriate) to quantitative and
qualitative research.
• Proponents of mixed methods research typically adhere to
the compatibility thesis as well as to the philosophy of
pragmatism.
o The compatibility thesis is the idea that quantitative and
qualitative methods are compatible, that is, they can
both be used in a single research study.
o The philosophy of pragmatism says that researchers
should use the approach or mixture of approaches that
works the best in a real world situation.
• Today, proponents of mixed methods research attempt
to use what is called the fundamental principle of
mixed research.
• According to this fundamental principle, the researcher
should use a mixture or combination of methods that
has complementary strengths and non-overlapping
weaknesses.
• In applying this fundamental principle, it is necessary to
examine the strengths and weaknesses of quantitative
research and qualitative research.
Purpose or Rationales for Mixed Methods Research

There are five major purposes or rationales for conducting mixed

methods research:
(a) Triangulation - seeking convergence and corroboration of
results from different methods and designs studying the
same phenomenon);
(b) Complementarity - seeking elaboration, enhancement,
illustration, and clarification of the results from one method
with results from the other method);
(c) Initiation - discovering paradoxes and contradictions that
lead to a re-framing of the research question);
(d) Development - using the findings from one method to help
inform the other method); and
(e) Expansion - seeking to expand the breadth and range of
research by using different methods for different inquiry
components).
For example, interpretation and validation of the data should
be done throughout the data collection process.

(1) Determine whether a mixed design is appropriate

• Do you believe that you can best answer your research
question(s) through the use of mixed research?
• Do you believe that mixed research will offer you the best
design for the amount and kind of evidence that you hope
to obtain as you conduct your research study?
(2) Determine the rationale for using a mixed design
• The five most important rationales or purposes for mixed
research are shown in above (a – e).
• Mixed research can help researchers to a lot of important
things as they attempt to understand the world.
(3) Select the mixed method or mixed model research design
• Select the most appropriate design for your study depending
on the purpose of your study.
(4) Collect the data
• Keep in mind the six major methods of data collection: tests,
questionnaires, interviews, focus groups, observation, and
secondary or already existing data (such as personal and
official documents, physical data, and archived research data).
(5) Analyze the data
• You can use the quantitative data analysis techniques and
qualitative data analysis techniques.
• You might want to use the technique of quantitizing (i.e.,
converting qualitative data into quantitative data).
• You might want to use the technique of qualitizing (i.e.,
converting quantitative data into qualitative data).
(6) Validate the data
• Data validation is something that should be done throughout
your research study because if your data are not trustworthy
then you study is not trustworthy.
• You should consider using quantitative and qualitative
validity strategies in your study, and you should mix these in
a way that best works for your mixed research study.
(7) Interpret the data
• Data interpretation begins as soon as you enter the field or
collect the first datum (datum is the singular of data), and
data interpretation continues throughout your research
study.
• Remember that data interpretation and data validation go
hand-in-hand; that is, you want to make sure that you
continually use strategies that will provide valid data and
help you to make defensible interpretations of your data.
• A couple of strategies to use during data interpretation are
reflexivity (i.e., which involves self-awareness and critical
self-reflection by the researcher on his or her potential
biases and predispositions as these may affect the research
process and conclusions), and negative-case sampling (i.e.,
attempting to locate and examine cases that disconfirm your
expectations and tentative explanations).
(8) Write the research report.
• Writing the report also can be started during data
collection rather than waiting until the end.
• Remember that mixing MUST take place somewhere in
mixed research if it is to truly be mixed research, and
your report should also reflect mixing; that is, as you
discuss your results you must relate the quantitative
and qualitative parts of your research study to make
sense of the overall study and to capitalize on the
strengths of mixed research.
 Determining Sample

• Sampling is a technique of selecting individual

members or a subset of the population to make
statistical inferences from them and estimate
characteristics of the whole population.
Sample design is determined before data are
collected.
Researcher must select/prepare a sample design
which should be reliable and appropriate for
his/her research.
The advantage of sampling is that: the research can be
done more quickly, less expensively, and often more
accurately than a large census (survey of the entire
population).
Sampling
• The entire population in which the research is to be undertaken
is called population.
• Sometimes , the entire population will be sufficiently small, and
the researcher can include the entire population in the study.
This type of research is called a census study.
• Usually, the population is too large for the researchers to
attempt to survey all of its members. A small, but carefully
chosen sample can be used to represent the population.
• The sample reflect the characteristics of the population from
which it is drawn.
• Sampling methods are classified as either probability or
nonprobability.
 Probability Sampling
• In probability sampling each member of the population
has a known probability of being selected.
• Probability methods include
• Simple Random sampling,
• Systematic sampling,
• Stratified sampling and
• Clustered sampling.
• Simple Random Sampling:
– is the purest form of probability sampling. Each
member of the population has an equal chance to
be selected.

– The advantage of probability sampling is that

sampling error can be calculated. Sampling error is
the degree to which a sample might differ from
the population.
• Types of simple random method:
– Lottery method
– Random number table
Advantage of simple random sampling
• Easy to conduct. Unlike more complicated
sampling methods, researchers do not need to
divide the population into subpopulations or
take any other additional steps before
selecting members. ...
• Good representation. ...
• Inexpensive. ...
• Unbiased results. ...
• Convenient.
• Disadvantage
• If the sampling frame is large random
sampling may be impractical.
• A complete list of the population may not be
available.
• Minority subgroups within the population may
not be present in sample.
• Stratified Random sampling:
– Where there is heterogeneity in the population this can be
reflected in the strata, i.e., each stratum can be weighed to
reflect the heterogeneity. In this way a proportional
representation of the whole population can be gained.
– is commonly used probability method that is superior to
random sampling because it reduces sampling error.
• Systematic Sampling:
– It is called an Nth name selection technique.
– this is quicker but not everyone has a chance to be included,
the first number could be chosen at random.
– After the required sample size has been calculated, every Nth
record is selected from a list of population members.
– Its only advantage over the random sampling technique is
simplicity.
 – A stratum is a subset of the population that share at least one
common characteristics.
– The researcher first identifies the relevance stratums and their actual
representation in the population.
– Random sampling is then used to select subjects for each stratum
until the number of subjects in that stratum is proportional to its
frequency in the population.

• Clustered Sampling
– Best used where there is a wide geographical spread. Clusters
may be chosen subjectively to be representative of the whole.

Non probability sampling:

– Here members are selected from the population in some non
probability manner.
– These include Convenience sampling, judgment sampling, quota
sampling and snow ball sampling.
Non probability sampling:

– Here members are selected from the population in

some non probability manner.
– These include
– Convenience sampling,
– judgment sampling,
– quota sampling and
– snow ball sampling.
 Convenience sampling
• is a non-probability sampling method where units are
selected for inclusion in the sample because they are the
easiest for the researcher to access.
• This can be due to geographical proximity, availability at a
given time, or willingness to participate in the research.
Sometimes called accidental sampling, convenience sampling
is a type of non-random sampling.
• Suppose you are researching public perception towards the
city of Seattle. You have determined that a sample of 100
people is sufficient to answer your research question.
• To collect your data, you stand at a subway station and
approach passersby, asking them whether they want to
participate in your research. You continue to ask until the
sample size is reached.
• Note: Make sure not to confuse random selection with
stopping passersby at random.
• In probability (or random) sampling, random
selection means that each unit has an equal chance of
being selected.
• In convenience sampling, stopping people at
random means that not everyone has an equal chance of
forming part of your sample. For instance, here you have
excluded people who did not pass through that subway
station on the day and time you were collecting your data.
• Convenience sampling:

– is used in exploratory research where the researcher is

interested in getting an inexpensive approximation of the
truth.
– As the name implies, the sample is selected because they
are convenient.
– This non probability method is often used during
preliminary research effort to get a gross estimate of the
result, without incurring the cost or time required to
select a random sample.
• Judgment sampling:
– is a common nonprobability method.
– Purposive sampling
– The researcher selects the sample based on judgment.
– This is usually and extension of convenience sampling.
– For example, a researcher may decide to draw the
entire sample from one representative city, even
though the population includes all cities. When using
this method the researcher must be confident that
the chosen sample is truly representative of the entire
population
• Quota sampling:
– Is the non probability equivalent of stratified sampling
– Like stratifies sampling the researcher first identifies the strata and their
proportions as they are represented in the population
– Then convenience or judgment sampling is used to select the required
number of subjects from each strata.
– This differs from stratified sampling where the stratums are filled by
random sampling.
• Snowball sampling:
– Is a special non probability method used when the desired sample
characteristics is rare.
– It may be extremely difficult or cost prohibitive to locate respondents in
these situation.
– Snowball sampling relies on referrals from initial subjects to generate
additional subjects
– While this technique can dramatically lower search costs, it comes at the
expense of introducing bias because the technique itself reduces the
likelihood that the sample will represent a good cross section from the
population.
Sample size
• The sample size: the more possibility there is of representing all
the different characteristics of the population.
• If the population is very homogeneous, and the study is not
very detailed, then a small sample will give a fairly
representative view of the whole.
• No sample will be exactly representative of a population. If
different samples, using identical methods, are taken from the
same population, there are bound to be differences in the
mean (average) values of each sample owing to the chance
selection of different individuals.
Sampling do’s and don’t
• Take time and effort to work out your sample correctly if
you’re conducting a large scale survey.
• Read the relevant literature,
• Time taken at the beginning will save much wasted time later.
• Discuss your proposed sampling procedure and size with your
tutor, advisor or other researchers.
• Be realistic about the size of sample possible on your budget
and within your time scale.
• Use a combination of sampling procedures if it is appropriate
for your work.
 Don’t
• Rush into your work without thinking very carefully about
sampling issues.
• If you get it wrong it could invalidate your whole research.
• Ignore advice from those who know what they’re talking about.
• Take on more than you can cope with. A badly worked out, large
sample may not produce as much useful data as a well-worked
out, small sample.
• Make claims which cannot be justified nor generalized to the
whole population.
• Stick rigorously to a sampling technique that is not working.
Admit your mistakes, learn by them and change to something
more appropriate.
7. DATA
– Data are the foundations of research.

q The quality of any investigation heavily depends on the

quality of information or data used.
q So, proper data collection, retention, and sharing are
vital to the research enterprise.

q What is Data?
qData refers to any group of facts, measurements, or
observations used to make inference about the problem
of investigation.
q It can range from material created in a laboratory, to
information obtained in economic research, such as a filled-
out questionnaire, video and audio recordings, or
photographs, etc.

q We need to design strategies that would enable us to create

meaningful and unbiased data,
qthat will not waste resources, and
qthat will appropriately protect human and animal
subjects.
q When selecting data we need to be clear on:
qThe data type (e.g., nominal, ordinal, interval or ratio
measures).
qSamples ("frames") and sample size, instruments.
qMethodologies for collecting data, etc.

• And, to ensure high quality output, data gathering should

be well planned.
• Hence, we need to plan and define properly:
– The objective of the data collection exercise
– The kind of data (information) to be collected
– The source of the data
– The methods to be used to collect data

• This helps us to determine the statistical techniques to be

employed.
– It also helps us to avoid gathering of irrelevant
information.
 Data Collection Methods

• Data collection is the process of gathering and measuring

information on the variables of interest.

• The data source could be:

– an area from where we can collect the data (i.e.
geographic location),
– persons to be interviewed,
– an entity or organization,
– discussions to be observed, etc.).
 Data Collection Methods

• Although data collection methods may vary by discipline

and data types, the emphasis on ensuring accurate
collection remains the same.

• Some of the consequences from improperly collected data

may include:
qInability to repeat and validate the study.
qDistorted and inaccurate findings.
qWasted resources.
qMisleading other researchers.
qHarm to human participants and animal subjects.
 Data Collection Methods

• More importantly, poor data collection may cause harm to

society when the results of the flawed research are used to
support public policy recommendations.
 Data management issues

• Storage and Protection

qData must be stored securely both during a research
project and after it ends.

qRisks like fire, water or other environmental damage, or

common technical failures like hard disk crashes, must
be considered.

q So, make backup copies of the data periodically and

store the copies in a secure location.
 Data management issues…

• Confidentiality
qrefers to limiting information access and disclosure to
authorized users- preventing access by or disclosures to
unauthorized persons.

qSo you need to decide

qwho can handle which portion of data,
qat what point during the project,
qfor what purpose, and so on
 Data management issues…

• Integrity
qIntegrity refers to the trustworthiness of the information.

• Researchers need to have sufficient skills to ensure the

integrity of their data collection efforts.
– For instance, data collection requires a rigorous and
detailed recruitment and training plan for data collectors.

qSo, data should not be modified inappropriately, whether

accidentally or deliberately.
Sources and Techniques of
Data collection
 Sources and Techniques of Data collection

q Sources of data can be grouped into

qprimary and
qsecondary sources of data

Secondary Sources of data

• Secondary sources are those, which have been collected by
other individuals or agencies.

– i.e. refers to already existing information which have

previously been collected and reported by some
individual or organization for their own purposes.
 Sources and Techniques of Data collection…

• As much as possible secondary data should always be

considered first, if available.

– WHY ?
– IS THIS NECESSARY TO COLLECT THE DATA IF ALREADY
EXISTS!
 Sources and Techniques of Data Collection…

• But, when dealing with secondary data you should ask:

• Is the owner of the data making them available to you?

• Is it free of charge? If not, how will you pay?
• Are the data in a format that you can work with? etc.

– A description of the sampling technique, i.e., how the

sample was collected is also necessary, etc.
 Sources and Techniques of Data Collection…

Sources of Secondary Data

• Secondary data may be acquired from various sources:

• Documents (reports of various kinds, books, periodicals,

reference books (encyclopedia), university publications
(thesis, dissertations, etc.), policy documents, statistical
compilations, proceedings, personal documents
(historical documents, Data archives, etc.
• The Internet
 Sources and Techniques of Data Collection…

Advantages of Secondary data

– Can be found more quickly and cheaply.
– Most researches on past events or distant places have to
rely on secondary data sources.

Limitations
– Authenticity:
• genuine?
• credible?
• representative?
 Sources and techniques of Data Collection…

• Completeness???
– The information often does not meet one’s specific
needs.
• Definitions might differ, units of measurements
may be different and different time periods may be
involved.

– Data could also be out of date.

 Sources and Techniques of Data Collection…

Primary Sources of Data

• These are data collected by the investigator (immediate
user) for the 1st time.

• Two approaches to primary data collection:

– the qualitative approach and

– the quantitative approach
Primary Data Collection
Collection of primary data

We collect primary data during the course of doing

experiments in an experimental research but in case we
do research of the descriptive type and perform
surveys, whether sample surveys or census surveys,
we can obtain primary data:
Either through observation or through direct
communication with respondents in one form or
another or through personal interviews
There are several methods of collecting primary data,
particularly in surveys and descriptive researches.

Important ones are:

(i) observation method,

(ii) interview method: Personal and Group
(iii) questionnaires,
Observation method

Under the observation method, the information is

sought by way of investigator’s own direct
observation without asking from the respondent. For
instance, in a study relating to consumer behavior,
the investigator instead of asking the brand of known
watch used by the respondent, may himself look at
the watch.
The main advantage of this method is that subjective
bias is eliminated, if observation is done accurately.
Secondly, the information obtained under this
method relates to what is currently
happening; it is not complicated by either the
past behaviour or future intentions or
attitudes.
• Thirdly, this method is independent of
respondents’ willingness to respond and as
such is relatively less demanding of active
cooperation on the part of respondents as
happens to be the case in the interview or the
questionnaire method.
Observation method has various limitations:
• Firstly, it is an expensive method.
• Secondly, the information provided by this
method is very limited.
• Thirdly, sometimes unforeseen factors may
interfere with the observational task.
Interview Method

The interview method of collecting data involves

presentation of oral-verbal stimuli and reply in terms
of oral-verbal responses.
Personal interviews:
Personal interview method requires a person known as
the interviewer asking questions generally in a face-
to-face contact to the other person or persons.
The use of interviews to question samples of people is a
very flexible tool with a wide range of applications. There
are three major types of interviews are:

• Structured interview – standardized questions read

out by the inter viewer according to an inter view
schedule. Answers may be closed-format.
• Unstructured interview – a flexible format, usually
based on a question guide but where the format
remains the choice of the interviewer, who can allow
the interview to ‘ramble’ in order to get insights into
the attitudes of the interviewee. No closed-format
questions are used.
• Semi-structured interview – one that contains
structured and unstructured sections with
standardized and open-format questions.
• Telephone interviews: This method of collecting
information consists in contacting respondents on
telephone itself. It is not a very widely used method,
but plays important part in industrial surveys,
particularly in developed regions.
FOCUS GROUPS /Group Interview

• Focus groups may be called discussion groups or

group interviews. A number of people are asked
to come together in a group to discuss a certain
issue. For example, in market research this could
be a discussion centred on new packaging for a
breakfast cereal, or in social research this could
be to discuss adults’ experiences of school.
The discussion is led by a moderator or
facilitator who introduces the topic, asks
specific questions, controls digressions and
stops break-away conversations. She makes
sure that no one person dominates the
discussion whilst trying to ensure that each of
the participants makes a contribution. Focus
groups may be recorded using visual or audio
recording equipment.
Focus group discussions
q A FGD is a group discussion guided by a facilitator, during
which group members talk freely.

• The researcher creates a relaxed atmosphere and records in

some way what is being said (e.g. by use of a tape-recorder,
video, note-taker, etc.).
• Mostly used to gather opinions, from a selected group of people
on a particular and pre-determined topic, e.g. consumer topic;
political topic etc.

q About 10 people would be engaged in a discussion on the topic

in an informal setting.

• The researcher encourages free discussion, but is ready to

intervene if necessary to resolve group problems.
qThe group of individuals are expected to have experience or
opinion on the topic.
q Its purpose is to obtain in-depth information on concepts,
perceptions and ideas of a group.

– Focus groups can be a useful way of finding out what the

main issues and concerns of any group are.

q It is more than a question-answer interaction.

– group members discuss the topic and interact among
themselves with guidance from the facilitator.
Why use focus groups?
• The main purpose of a focus group research is to draw
upon group’s attitudes, feelings, beliefs, experiences and
reactions.

– attitudes, feelings and beliefs may likely be revealed

via interaction in social gatherings.
• Compared to individual interviews, which aim to obtain
individual attitudes, beliefs and feelings, focus groups
elicit a multiplicity of views.
Strengths and weakness of FGDs

• It provides valuable information in a short period of time

and at relatively low cost if the groups have been well
chosen, in terms of composition and number.

– But, their use as a research tool is limited when it comes

to measuring the results objectively.
o FGD should not be used for quantitative purposes, such as
the testing of hypotheses or the generalization of findings
for larger areas

• Which require more elaborate surveys.

• In addition, the logistical complexity of focus group research

is frequently cited as a deterrent.
• In addition, it may be risky to use FGDs as a single tool
because in:

– group discussions, people tend to center their opinions on

the most common ones.
– In case of very sensitive topics group members may
hesitate to express their feelings and experiences freely.

• Therefore, it is advisable to combine FGDs with other methods

(in-depth interviews).
Key Informant Interview
• An interviewing process with opinion leaders such as
elected officials, government officials, and business leaders,
etc.

• This technique is particularly useful for:

– Raising community awareness about socio-economic
issues
– Learning minority viewpoints
– Gaining a deeper understanding of opinions and
perceptions, etc.
Triangulation

• is a method used to increase the credibility and validity

of research findings.
ü Credibility refers to trustworthiness and how
believable a study is; validity is concerned with the
extent to which a study accurately reflects or
evaluates the concept or ideas being investigated.
ü Triangulation, by combining theories, methods or
observers in a research study, can help ensure that
fundamental biases arising from the use of a single
method or a single observer are over-come.
Triangulation
– refers to the use of more than one approach to the
investigation of a research question in order to enhance
confidence in the findings.

– Why use triangulation

• The purpose of triangulation is to obtain confirmation
of findings through convergence of different
perspectives.

• By combining multiple methods, and empirical

materials, researchers can overcome the weakness or
biases and problems that are associated with a single
method.
Categorization of triangulation
1. Data triangulation: Involves gathering data at different times
and situations, from different subjects using different
sampling techniques.
qExample: Using time series data.

2. Investigator triangulation: involves using more than one

researcher to collect and analyze the data.
qExample: organizing scientific experiments to replicate
each other’s work.
3. Theoretical triangulation: making explicit references to more than
one theoretical tradition to analyze data.
4. Methodological triangulation: combination of different research
methods or different varieties of the same method.

– It involves making use of different varieties of the same

method.
– Involves making use of different methods.
SURVEY
• WHY DO A SURVEY?
1. Uniqueness: gather information not available
from other sources
2. Probability Sampling: unbiased representation of
population of interest
3. Standardization of measurement: same
information collected from every respondent
4. Analysis needs: use survey data to compliment
existing data from secondary sources
MODES OF SURVEY ADMINISTRATION
• Personal (Face-to-Face)
•Telephone
• Mail
• Web
• Combination of Methods
PERSONAL INTERVIEWING
• ADVANTAGES:
ü Generally yields highest cooperation and lowest
refusal rates
ü Allows for longer, more complex interviews
ü High response quality
ü Takes advantage of interviewer presence
ü Multi-method data collection
• DISADVANTAGES:
üMost costly mode of administration
üLonger data collection period
üInterviewer concerns
Dependent and independent variables:

• One variable depends upon or is a consequence of the

other variable, it is termed as a dependent variable,
and the variable that is antecedent to the dependent
variable is termed as an independent variable.
Extraneous variable:
Independent variables that are not related to the
purpose of the study, but may affect the dependent
variable are termed as extraneous variables. Suppose the
researcher wants to test the hypothesis that there is a
relationship between children’s gains in social studies
achievement and their self-concepts.
Intelligence may as well affect the social studies
achievement, but the researcher couldn’t count as
variable (extraneous variable)
Questioner Design for Surveying
Research

158
Preliminaries
- First decide on the method of data analyses before you
design the questioner
- Decide what type of questioner you have going to use; by
tel., email, postal, paper questioner.
-If you decide on a paper questioner:
- decide whether the respondent or interviewer
complete the questioner (like who is going to answer ….)
- Don’t ask too many questions .

159
Types of Questions
1. Open format/open ended
It could be numeric or text
Advantages:
- Respondents are free to answer
- The range of the response is not defined (if you know most of
the probable answers list them to give choice for the
respondent).
- You get true reflection of the respondent.
- To get unexpected questions.
Disadvantages:
- Tabulation become difficult for statistical analyses
- Time consuming for the respondent.
- Different respondent read it differently
160
2. Closed format/closed ended
It is a multiple choice questions; sufficient number of choices are
given to cover all possible range of answers.
Eg what is your occupation? Answer –pastoralist, farming,…
You should provide answers with restriction (range b/n 5-10)
• Take care of the odd choices (like I don’t know), if the
respondent is tired he may select so you should decide wisely
for such type answers.
Advantages:
• Easy to answer
• Easy to calculate
• Easy to replicate /can repeat several time in every place and
the result could be comparable/
• Can supply answers covering the whole ranges.
161
Categorizing of questioner
- Single or multiple answers
- Ranking/rating/scoring
Single : the answer should be one from the choices.
Common mistakes: eg. In a transport survey in A.A.
“which mode of transport you continuously use?
Bus, tax.i,…” in this case you need to rank.
Multiple: you can have multiple answers
Eg what mode of transport you use? Here there is no limit for frequency but
possible to say bus, taxi…
Ranking: the respondent could rank the answers.
Eg. Rank in effectiveness to the farmers:
Rank
1. Contour 4
2. Terracing 2
3. Strip cropping 3
4. Bunds 1
5. Mulching 5

162
Do you obliged to write the name of the respondent?
• There are two conflicting issues:
1. Providing name is useful for researcher when the
respondent is volunteer; in the case of
clarification when you do analyses and can
possible to have the remaining questions…
2. When the questions are very sensitive question,
writing name give discomfort to the respondent
even you may not get volunteer respondent. ( like
political issues, personally sensitive …
So the type of questioner and the respondent
willingness determine you to write name

163
Ordering of Questions and Answers
Questions
• Begin with questions that will raise interest.
• Try stating an attractive questions to the
respondent.
• Leave difficult and sensitive questions until the
end.
• Group similar topic questions in one.
• Avoid complex branching; eg. Questions to farming
should be different from pastoralists;
so make common question for both and
differentiate for each group based on their role.
164
Answers
‘’Natural’’ order of choices
Don’t start with disagree;
- Agree to Disagree
- Easy to Difficult
- Like to Dislike
- Positive to Negative
- Excellent to poor
• Be aware that a series of questions with similar
answers respondent will be carried away in the same
manner without reading the question (habituation).
Q. When respondent read the question/others read the
question, how do they answer in regarding to priority
of choices?

165
Layout of the Questioner /Format/
• Don’t overfill the page /don’t make it dense/
• Font size – normal size =12 (using in computer)
-small font size may save space but cant be readable
• Instructions should be distinguished by italic, bold
and sometimes underline.
• Tabulation is preferred for repetitive answers;
Questions Agree Not sure Disagree

1. ü

2. ü

3. ü
166
Administering Questioner
• Indicate the aim of the survey and assuring the
respondent (you have to explain your purpose
like for consumption of research), not writing their names,
giving thanks to their cooperation,…
• Piloting: you may imagine good questions but when you
go to the field may be different, so piloting help to
finalize the best questions.
If not possible, you can use your friends to comment it.
• Sampling: the return rate of the questioner affect the
sample size, adequate number of copies should
distribute.

167
9. Data analysis and interpretation

Ø The methods used to analyse data will depend on the type of

research, qualitative or quantitative research, which is again
influenced by personal and methodological preference and
educational background.
Ø For quantitative data analysis, issues of validity and reliability
are important . Thus, the researcher must make sure that their
measurements are stable and consistent and that there are no
errors or bias present.
• For quantitative data, the analysis can be left until the end of the
data collection process,
QUALITATIVE DATA ANALYSIS

• For qualitative data, the researcher might analyse as the research

progresses, continually refining and reorganizing in light of the
emerging results.
• it is useful to produce an interview summary form or a focus
group summary form which you complete as soon as possible
after each interview or focus group has taken place. This includes
practical details about the time and place, the participants, the
duration of the interview or focus group, and details about the
content and emerging themes.
• The method you use will depend on:
• your research topic,
• your personal preferences, and
• the availability of time, equipment and finances.
• The format for analysis could be a transcript from an:
• interview or focus group,
• a series of written answers on an open-ended
questionnaire, or
• field notes or
• memos written by the researcher.
• It is useful to write memos and notes as soon as you begin to
collect data as these help to focus your mind and alert you
to significant points which may be coming from the data.
These memos and notes can be analysed along with your
transcripts or questionnaires.
 Quantitative Data Analysis
• For quantitative data, the analysis can be left until the end of the
data collection process, and if it is a large survey, statistical
software is the easiest and most efficient method to use.
• Computing software:
– The most common package used by social scientists at this
present time is SPSS for windows, which has become
increasingly user-friendly over the last few years.
– Also, many software packages at the push of a key produce
professional graphs, tables and pie charts which can be used in
your final report, again saving a lot of time and effort.
• Statistical techniques
– For those who do not have access to data analysis software, a
basic knowledge of statistical techniques is needed to analyse
your data.
– If your goal is to describe what you have found, all you need to
do is count your responses and reproduce them. This is called a
frequency count or univariate analysis.
• In bivariate analysis often you will need to find out if
there is a connection between one variable and a number
of other variables. For example, a researcher might want
to find out whether there is a connection between
watching violent films and aggressive behaviour.

• In multivariate analysis the researcher is interested in

exploring the connections among more than two
variables. For example, a researcher might be interested
in finding out whether women aged 40-50, in professional
occupations, are more likely to try complementary
therapies than younger, non-professional women and
men from all categories.
 10. Validation of results/ Conclusion

• validity—the extent to which the interpretations of

the results of the study follow from the study itself
and the extent to which results may be generalized to
other situations with other people.
– external validity—the extent to which findings of a study
can be generalized to people or situations other than those
observed in the study.
– internal validity—the extent to which the outcomes of a
study result from the variables that were manipulated,
measured, or selected rather than from other variables not
systematically treated.
References
• cite all ideas, concepts, text, data that are not your own if
you make a statement, back it up with your own data or a
reference
• all references cited in the text must be listed
• cite single-author references by the surname of the author
(followed by date of the publication in parenthesis)
... according to Abebe (1994)
... population growth is one of the greatest environmental
concerns facing future generations (Abebe, 1994).
• cite double-author references by the surnames of both
authors (followed by date of the publication in parenthesis)
e.g. Abebe and Belay (1994)
• cite more than double-author references by the surname of
the first author followed by et al. and then the date of the
publication
e.g. Alemu, Asfaw and Tamiru would be:
Alemu et al. (1994)
Regionalization and association with global climate drivers of
rainfall in the Rift Valley Lakes Basin of Ethiopia
M Belihu, B Abate, S Tekleab, W Bewket - Theoretical and
Applied …, 2022 - Springer
Reference
Example 1 when only one author
• Author Arnell, N.W.,
• Date 2004
• Topic: Climate change and global water resources: SRES
emissions and socio-economic scenarios.
• Journal: Global Environmental Change
• Volume 14,
• Page 31–52
• Writing reference :
• Arnell, N.W., 2004.Climate change and global water
resources: SRES emissions and socio-economic scenarios.
Global Environmental Change.14,31–52.
• Example 2: more than one authors
• Authors 1. Arnell,N.W., 2. Hudson,D.A 3. Jones,
R.G.,2003
• Date 2003
• Topic: Climate change scenarios from a regional climate
model: Estimating change in run off in southern Africa.
• Journal: Journal of Geophysical Research
• Volume: 108,
• Page: 4515–4519.
• Writing reference:
• Arnell,N.W., Hudson,D.A., Jones, R.G.,2003.
• Climate change scenarios from a regional climate model:
Estimating change in run off in southern Africa. Journal of
Geophysical Research 108, 4515-4519.