Research Article https://doi.org/10.12973/ijem.8.1.

117

International Journal of Educational Methodology

Volume 8, Issue 1, 117 - 127.
ISSN: 2469-9632
https://www.ijem.com/

Investigating Problem-Solving Skills of Students Having Professional

Music Training in Terms of Multiple Variables
Şenol Afacan* Emin Erdem Kaya
Kırşehir Ahi Evran University, TURKEY Nevşehir Hacı Bektaş Veli University, TURKEY

Received: October 19, 2021 ▪ Revised: December 2, 2021 ▪ Accepted: February 4, 2022
Abstract: The present study aims to investigate the problem-solving skills of the students getting professional music training. For
this study, the problem-solving inventory was administered to participants from two different universities in Turkey. Participants’
problem-solving skills were assessed in relation to the overall inventory and subscales, and the differences based on grade level,
gender, and universities were examined using Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS). Results revealed that participants
occasionally used their problem-solving skills, rarely felt confident in their problem-solving skills, and occasionally performed the
behaviors in the subscales of approach-avoidance and personal control. The grade level differentiated music students’ problem-
solving skills in the overall scale and approach-avoidance subscale. It is also found that there are no significant differences in
students’ problem-solving skills based on gender. However, the participants’ universities led to significant differences in the
approach-avoidance subscale. The results were discussed considering the literature, and the recommendations were suggested due
to the results.
Keywords: Music, music education, problem-solving skill.
To cite this article: Afacan, Ş., & Kaya, E. E. (2022). Investigating problem-solving skills of students having professional music
training in terms of multiple variables. International Journal of Educational Methodology, 8(1), 117-127.
https://doi.org/10.12973/ijem.8.1.117

Introduction
Individuals constantly face different problems span of their lives and seek ways to solve these problems. The concept of
problem, of course, includes not only mathematics or science; it consists of all situations encountered in every moment
of the daily world and poses an obstacle to the person. When the literature is examined, different definitions of the
problem are seen. For example, while Bingham (1998) defines the problem as all the obstacles an individual faces while
reaching their goal, Morgan (1999) describes the problem as the conflict that a person encounters to reach their goal.
According to Karasar (2009), each difficulty to be solved represents a problem in itself, and the person feels cognitively
and behaviorally uncomfortable and needs to overcome it. To eliminate this discomfort or cope with this situation, the
individual seeks various ways, makes decisions, or develops strategies. The ability to get results in this process is
directly related to the individual’s problem-solving skills. In other words, Bingham (1998) describes problem-solving
as the process of overcoming the difficulties encountered in reaching a goal and points out that individual look for ways
to get rid of stress and bring the organism to an internal balance by complying with conditions or reducing obstacles.
According to Elliott and Baker (2008) “problem-solving is one approach to teaching and learning which supports
content-based learning along with a variety of other such skills as decision-making, time management and problem-
solving”.
Problem-solving requires searching for a rule, plan, or strategy that will help individuals reach their goals that are
currently unreachable. During this investigation, the individual tests his problem-solving skills by seeking different and
new solutions and benefiting from his previous experiences (Plotnik, 2009). In problem-solving students use their
‘inner-talk’ to solve a problem (Vialle et al., 2000).
According to Heppner and Baker (1997), there are various aspects of individuals’ problem-solving skills that are
important. These are;

* Corresponding author:
Şenol Afacan, Kırşehir Ahi Evran University Neşet Ertaş Faculty of Fine Arts, Turkey.  [email protected]

© 2022 The Author(s). Open Access - This article is under the CC BY license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
 118  AFACAN & KAYA / Problem-Solving Skills of Students Having Professional Music Training

• General coping patterns,

• Proficiency regarding defining the problem,
• Cognitive processes, and
• Appraisal of oneself as a problem-solver (as cited in Güçlü, 2003).
On the other hand, different theorists assume that the problem-solving process has certain stages. Clark and Starr
organized the problem-solving stages by analyzing the thinking process of J. Dewey, one of the pioneers of cognitive
theory, and summarized the process in six steps. These are;
1. Identifying the problem
2. Analyzing and determining the limits of the problem
3. Collecting data to solve the problem
4. Generating hypotheses
5. Testing hypotheses
6. Reaching the solution (Bilen, 1993).
Pretz et al. (2003) defined the problem-solving process as a cycle and stated seven stages of the problem-solving
process as follows:
1. Identifying or diagnosing the problem,
2. Defining and expressing the problem mentally,
3. Developing a solution strategy,
4. Organizing information about the problem,
5. Allocating the mental and physical resources for solving the problem,
6. Observing one’s progress in reaching his/her goals,
7. Evaluating the solution for certainty (as cited in Topoğlu & Topoğlu, 2020).
Even if the researchers address different problem-solving stages of the problem-solving process, it is worth noting that
there are some common stages, such as defining the problem and developing or testing strategies. Individuals might go
through different phases when solving problems; but this can only give some clues about how the individuals’ problem-
solving skills develop. Additionally, art education might promote individuals’ problem-solving skills and creativity that
can facilitate personal development since art education, with its cognitive, affective, or psychomotor aspects, give
particular importance to problem-solving skills and creativity. Some national research concludes that art education
promoted students’ social skills (Barış, 2008), creative thinking skills (Köse, 2006; Uysal, 2005), psychomotor skills
(Özçelebi, 2008), and positively affected the cognitive, affective and psychomotor skills (Eskioğlu, 2003; İşler, 2003;
Türkyılmaz, 2008) in Turkey.
Individuals must keep their creativity, interpretation skills, and ability to produce original works at a high level in
music, as in other branches of art. The process of composing or performing a concert is a problem that must be
overcome for a composer and performer, respectively, making them feel uncomfortable. However, researchers who
have approached this situation from different perspectives and conducted various studies have concluded that there is
generally a positive relationship between music and problem-solving skills. For example, Norton et al. (2005) stated
that the brain is built on extraordinary and highly specialized sensorimotor skills and that musical performance
requires cognitive complexity and motor operations. Zatorre et al. (2007) state that musical performance is a natural
human activity seen in all societies and is one of the human mind’s most complex and cognitive challenges. They also
mention that musical performance requires the accurate timing of several hierarchically arranged actions, unlike other
sensory-motor activities. According to Hallam (2010), it expands the understanding that recent developments in brain
studies might affect other activities of those who are actively engaged in music. The cerebral cortex self-regulates while
engaged in different musical activities, then abilities in these areas can be transferred to activities in other areas with
similar processes. Some abilities are automatically transferred unconsciously, while others require reflection on how
they might be evaluated in the new situation. Research, which deals with musical performances within the
neurophysiological perspective, mentions that different brain abilities develop in the process and that this has positive
effects on the problem-solving skills of individuals. The present study aims to investigate music students’ problem-
solving skills with regard to multiple variables and sought to answer the following research questions:
 International Journal of Educational Methodology  119

1. What are the problem-solving skills of the students of the music department of the Faculty of Fine Arts (FAF)?
2. Do the problem-solving skills of the students of the music department of the Faculty of Fine Arts differ by grade
level?
3. Do the problem-solving skills of the students of the music department of the Faculty of Fine Arts differ by
gender?
4. Do the problem-solving skills of the students of the music department of the Faculty of Fine Arts differ by their
university?
Methodology
Research Design
The research is in the nature of descriptive research and was carried out in the survey model. In this type of approach,
the event of interest is a substance, individual, group, subject, etc. unit and state variables are tried to be described
separately. Descriptive studies, current events, previous events and it aims to explain the interaction between
situations, taking into account their relationship with the conditions. Survey models, on the other hand, are based on
presenting the existing situation as it exists and with an objective approach (Büyüköztürk et al., 2009; Karasar, 2009).

Participants
Participants were selected based on purposeful sampling. The information about participants’ gender, grade level, and
universities are given in Table 1.

Table 1. The Background Information about Participants’ Gender, Grade Level, and Universities
Gender Grade Level
University N % Male % Female % 1 % 2 % 3 % 4 %
Kırşehir Ahi 72 31.2 40 17.3 32 13.8 19 8.2 21 9.1 17 7.4 15 6.5
Evran
University
Neşet Ertaş
FAF
Nevşehir 159 68.8 79 34.2 80 34.7 48 20.8 38 16.5 33 14.2 40 17.3
Hacı Bektaş
Veli
University
FAF
Total 231 100 119 51.5 112 48.5 67 29.0 59 25.6 50 21.6 55 23.8

The study group included a totally of 231 university students, of whom 67 were first grade (n=67, 29.0%), 59 were
second grade (n=59, 25.6%), 50 were third grade (n=50, 21.6%), and 55 were fourth grade (n=55, 23.8), who were
enrolled in Kırşehir Ahi Evran University Neşet Ertaş FAF Music Department (n=72) and Nevşehir Hacı Bektaş Veli
University FAF Music and Performing Arts Department (n=159).
One hundred twelve participants were female (48.5%), and 119 were male (51.5). 72 university students were
recruited form Kırşehir Ahi Evran University Neşet Ertaş FAF (31.2%) and 159 were enrolled in Nevşehir Hacı Bektaş
Veli University FAF.

Data Collection Tools

The data collection tool consists of two sections. Firs section was the Personal Information Form, including background
information such as gender, grade level, and university. The second section was the “Problem-Solving Inventory (PSI)”
developed by Heppner and Petersen (1982) and was adapted into Turkish by Şahin et al. (1993). The scale used to
assess FAF students’ problem-solving skills consists of 35 items. The items were measured on a 6-point-Likert whose
levels of agreements were “I always act like this (6)”, “I very frequently act like this (5)” “I frequently act like this (4)” “I
occasionally act like this (3)” “I rarely act like this (2),” and “I never act like this (1).” The positively and negatively-
worded items lied randomly on the scale. The negatively-worded items (1, 2, 3, 4, 11, 13, 14, 15, 17, 21, 25, 26, 30, and
34) were reverse-coded. Three items (9, 22, 29) were control items; therefore, 32 were included in data analysis. The
minimum score is 32, and the maximum is 192 for PSI. The scale has three factors; problem-solving confidence,
approach-avoidance style, and personal control. Problem-solving confidence is related to individuals’ self-confidence
and self-belief when they perform actions to solve the problems they face and includes items 23, 24, 27, 33, 34, and 35.
Approach-avoidance style refers to the individuals’ reviews of their previous values and their tendency to either
approach or avoid solving problems, and includes items 1, 2, 4, 6, 7, 8, 13, 15, 16, 17, 18, 20, 21, 28, 30, and 31. The last
 120  AFACAN & KAYA / Problem-Solving Skills of Students Having Professional Music Training
subscale, personal control, refers to individuals controlling the situation, own feelings and behaviors and includes items
3, 14, 25, 26, and 32. Higher scores mean that respondents feel incompetent in problem-solving and lower scores mean
that respondents feel more competent in problem-solving (Şahin et al., 1993).

Table 2. Scoring the Items in the Problem-Solving Inventory

Levels of agreement Score range Item values
Never 1.00-1.83 1
Rarely 1.84-2.67 2
Occasionally 2.68-3.51 3
Frequently 3.52-4.35 4
Very frequently 4.36-5.19 5
Always 5.20-6.00 6

CFA results revealed that the scale has three subscales. The first factor is “Problem-solving confidence” and has a
Cronbach’s α of .85; the second factor is “Approach-avoidance style” and has a Cronbach’s α of .84; the third factor is
“Personal control” and has a Cronbach’s α of .72. Researchers re-calculated the reliability coefficients of the subscales
and the overall scale; the results are given in Table 3.

Table 3. Internal Consistency Coefficients of Subscales

Subscales Cronbach’s Alpha Number of items
Problem-solving confidence .810 11
Approach-avoidance style .726 16
Personal control .615 5
The overall scale .836 32

Table 3 indicates that the internal consistency coefficients of the subscales range between .615 and .810. The first factor
“Problem-solving confidence” has a Cronbach’s α of .810; the second factor “Approach-avoidance style” has a
Cronbach’s α of .726; the third factor “Personal control” has a Cronbach’s α of .615. And the reliability coefficient of the
overall scale is .836, indicating that the scale is a highly reliable scale for the sampled students (Kayış, 2008).

Data Collection
Data was collected face-to-face by researchers from 231 university students enrolled in Kırşehir Ahi Evran University
Neşet Ertaş FAF Music Department and Nevşehir Hacı Bektaş Veli University FAF Music and Performing Arts
Department in Turkey. The instrument was administered to students in a paper-pencil environment, and participants
were asked to fill out the complete instrument. The collected data was analyzed by researchers using the SPSS 15
package program.

Data Analysis
The normality of data was investigated before analyzing data. Therefore, the results of the Kolmogorov-Smirnov Test
were examined (Table 4).

Table 4. Kolmogorov-Smirnov Test Results of the Problem-Solving Inventory

Subscales M SD Kolmogorov-Smirnov p
Problem-solving confidence 2.50 .83 1.117 .165
Approach-avoidance style 2.77 .66 1.083 .191
Personal control 3.22 .78 1.641 .190
The overall scale 2.74 .60 .942 .337

According to Table 4, the overall scale and its sub scales’ p-values are higher than .05, indicating that the data has a
normal distribution. Therefore, parametric tests were used to analyze data. The significance level was determined as
.05 for all analyses. Effect sizes were calculated using Cohen’s d for the significant differences in t-tests and eta-square
(η2) for the significant differences in One Way ANOVA tests. The benchmarks for interpreting the Cohen’s d were 0.2 as
“small,” 0.5 as “medium,” and 0.8 as “large” (Green and Salkind as cited in Can, 2013). Additionally, the benchmarks for
interpreting eta-square (η2) were 0.01 as “small,” 0.06 as “medium,” and 0.14 as “large” (Büyüköztürk, 2003).
 International Journal of Educational Methodology  121

Results

Descriptive Statistics Results on the Problem-Solving Inventory and Sub-Factors of the Students of the Faculty of Fine Arts
(GSF)
The descriptive statistics related to FAF students’ scores on the problem-solving inventory and its subscales are given
in Table 5. Table 5 shows the mean scores, standard deviation, and minimum and maximum scores for the problem-
solving inventory and its sub-Factors.

Table 5. The Descriptive Statistics Related the Problem-Solving Inventory and Its Subscales
The Problem-solving Inventory and its subscales M SD Minimum Maximum
Problem-solving confidence 2.50 .834 1.00 5.36
Approach-avoidance style 2.77 .663 1.06 4.25
Personal control 3.22 .782 1.20 6.00
The overall scale 2.74 .602 1.22 4.22

Table 5 reveals that FAF students rarely perform the behaviors in the “problem-solving confidence” subscale (M=2.50)
and occasionally perform the behaviors in the “approach-avoidance style” subscale (M=2.77) and “personal control”
subscale (M=3.22). Students’ mean score from the overall scale was 2.74; thus, students occasionally executed the
behaviors on the overall scale.

Results Regarding the Mean Scores of FAF Students on the Problem-Solving Inventory and Its Subscales Based on “Grade
Level”
The differences between the scores of the FAF students on the problem-solving inventory and its subscales based on
grade level were investigated, performing single factor variance analysis for independent samples (One Way ANOVA).
The single factor variance analysis for independent samples (One Way ANOVA) that was used to reveal whether
significant differences occur in students’ scores of the problem-solving inventory and its subscales based on grade level
are given in Table 6.

Table 6. One Way ANOVA Test Results Regarding the Scores on the Problem-Solving Inventory and Its Subscales Based on
Grade Level
Grade level N M SD F p Significant difference Eta-square (η2)
1 67 2.48 .79
Problem-solving 2 59 2.42 .92 1.144 .332
confidence 3 50 2.42 .88
4 55 2.67 .72
1 67 2.67 .72
Approach- 2 59 2.73 .67 3.462 .017* 4-1 0.043
avoidance style 3 50 2.66 .58 4-3
4 55 3.01 .59
1 67 3.17 .74
2 59 3.24 .85 .910 .437
Personal control
3 50 3.13 .67
4 55 3.36 .83
1 67 2.68 .63
2 59 2.70 .60 2.869 .037* 4-3 0.036
The overall scale
3 50 2.65 .59
4 55 2.95 .53
*p<.05

The results in Table 6 demonstrate that grade level differentiated the scores on the overall scale (F= 3.462, p<.05) and
“approach-avoidance style” subscale (F= 2.869, p<.05). The homogeneity of variances was investigated to determine
the appropriate test that helps to find the source of the significant differences. Levene’s test results are in Table 7.
 122  AFACAN & KAYA / Problem-Solving Skills of Students Having Professional Music Training
Table 7. Variance Homogeneity Test Results
Levene’s Statistics df1 df2 Sig (p)
Problem-solving confidence 1.046 3 227 .373
Approach-avoidance style 3.012 3 227 .331
Personal control 1.472 3 227 .223
The overall scale 1.501 3 227 .215

As seen in Table 7, the variances of the subscales and the overall scale are homogenous (p>.05). Tukey test was utilized
to find the source of the significant differences since the group variances are equal.
According to Tukey test results, there are significant differences between third and fourth-grade students in favor of
fourth grades (M= 3.01) and between first and fourth-grade students in favor of fourth grades (M=3.01) in the
“approach-avoidance style” subscale. It is possible to say that the grade level has a small effect on “approach-avoidance
style,” considering the calculated eta-square (η2=0.043).
When it comes to the overall scale, there is a significant difference between third and fourth-grade students in favor of
fourth-grades (M =3.01). The grade level has a small effect on the overall scale with an eta-square of 0.036.
Results Regarding the Mean Scores of FAF Students on the Problem-Solving Inventory and Its Subscales Based on “Gender”
Independent samples t-test was used to analyze the differences in the problem-solving inventory and its subscales
based on gender. Table 8 indicates the results of the independent t-test performed to reveal whether there is or not a
significant difference in the problem-solving inventory and its subscales based on gender.

Table 8. t-Test Results Regarding the Scores on the Problem-Solving Inventory and Its Subscales Based on Gender
Gender N M SD df t p
Problem-solving confidence Female 112 2.50 .81 229 .140 .888
Male 119 2.49 .85
Approach-avoidance style Female 112 2.73 .67 229 .897 .371
Male 119 2.80 .65
Personal control Female 112 3.17 .71 229 .925 .356
Male 119 3.27 .84
The overall scale Female 112 2.72 .59 229 .614 .070
Male 119 2.77 .61

Gender did not lead to significant differences in the problem-solving inventory and its subscales [t(229) =.140, p>.05;
t(229) =.897, p>.05; t(229) =.925, p>.05; t(229) =.614, p>.05].

Results Regarding the Mean Scores of FAF Students on the Problem-Solving Inventory and Its Subscales Based on
“University”
Independent samples t-test was used to analyze the differences in the problem-solving inventory and its subscales
based on participants’ universities. Table 8 indicates the results of the independent t-test performed to reveal whether
there is or not a significant difference in the problem-solving inventory and its subscales based on university.

Table 9. t-Test Results Regarding the Scores on the Problem-Solving Inventory and Its Subscales Based on University
University N M SD df t p Cohen’s
d
Problem- Kırşehir Ahi Evran University Neşet Ertaş 72 2.47 .93 229 .269 .788
solving FAF
confidence Nevşehir Hacı Bektaş Veli University FAF 159 2.51 .78
Approach- Kırşehir Ahi Evran University Neşet Ertaş 72 2.61 .61 229 2.407 .017* 0.330
avoidance FAF
style Nevşehir Hacı Bektaş Veli University FAF 159 2.84 .73
Personal Kırşehir Ahi Evran University Neşet Ertaş 72 2.22 .85 229 .000 .999
control FAF
Nevşehir Hacı Bektaş Veli University FAF 159 2.22 .75
The overall Kırşehir Ahi Evran University Neşet Ertaş 72 2.66 .69 229 1.443 .150
scale FAF
Nevşehir Hacı Bektaş Veli University FAF 159 2.78 .55
*p<.05
 International Journal of Educational Methodology  123

There is a significant difference between the scores of the Kırşehir Ahi Evran University Neşet Ertaş FAF students and
Nevşehir Hacı Bektaş Veli University FAF students in favor of the Nevşehir Hacı Bektaş Veli University FAF students
(M=2.84) in the “approach-avoidance style” subscale. The calculated Cohen’s d (d =0.330) indicates that the effect of the
university on students’ approach-avoidance style has a small effect.
There were no significant differences between scores of the students from two different universities in the overall
scale, “problem-solving confidence” subscale, and “personal control” subscale [t (229) =1.443, p>.05; t(229) =.269, p>.05;
t(229) =.000, p>.05].
Discussion
The present study primarily aims to investigate the problem-solving skills of university students who are getting
professional music training. The results obtained from the data collection tool revealed that students occasionally used
their problem-solving skills. Besides, it is seen that students rarely behaved like stated in the “problem-solving
confidence” subscale and occasionally behaved like stated in “approach-avoidance style” and “personal control”
subscales. Based on this result, it can be said that the problem-solving skills of the students of the faculty of fine arts are
not sufficiently developed or that their problem-solving skills are not sufficiently developed. Sample problems that will
improve their problem solving skills may not have been given to the students. At this point, it is of great importance to
gain and develop problem-solving skills, which have an important effect on the development of academic success and
self-efficacy perception in music education. Killen (2003) stated that one can learn problem solving. DeLorenzo (1989)
found that high level problem solvers explore sounds for musical expression as aiding higher levels of musical thinking.
In contrast, people with weak problem solvers relied on their musical anxieties to make decisions. In addition, students'
ability to see their problems can affect the problem solving process.
Ertekin (2017) found that preservice music teachers’ problem-solving skills are below the intermediate level and also
concluded that there were no significant differences in the “problem-solving confidence,” “approach-avoidance style,”
and “personal control” subscales based on various variables. Güven (2017) also used the same instrument and reported
that the preservice music teachers in the study had negative perceptions about problem-solving skills. Yazıcı (2017)
conducted a study with 90 preservice music teachers and stated that preservice teachers are successful in problem-
solving. Altun (2015) found that the participant preservice music teachers had a high level of problem-solving skills.
The differences in the results of these studies might stem from the differences in the sample sizes. Berkley (2004)
considers composing as problem solving. In his study, Hitz (1987) stated that children's creative problem-solving skills
can be improved with musical activities such as various musical games, songs, writing lyrics for songs, and composing
melodies. According to Burnard and Younker (2004), students should develop problem-solving strategies and ways
that can help them examine their own way of composing, which is characterized by the nature and extent of interaction
between different musical ways of thinking.
The mean scores of the students getting professional music training differed in the overall scale and “approach-
avoidance style” subscale based on grade level. There were significant differences between the third and fourth-grade
students and between the first and fourth-grade students in favor of fourth grades in the “approach-avoidance style”
subscale. The effect size of the grade level on the approach-avoidance subscale was small. Besides, there was also a
significant difference between the third and fourth-grade students in favor of the fourth grades on the overall scale,
with a small effect size. Based on this information, it can be said that the increase in the class level also brings about an
increase in the problem solving skills of the students. It can be said that students gain a more conscious, more
questioning and critical perspective depending on their grade level. Although there is a significant difference in
problem solving skills in favor of the 4th grade between grade levels, it is a result that should be considered that this
difference has a low level of effect. Çeşit (2017) conducted a study with 162 preservice music teachers and investigated
problem-solving styles based on grade level. It is seen that the scores of third-grade preservice teachers are lower than
the second grades’ scores, and second-grade preservice teachers had a less avoid-style in problem-solving than the
third-grades. It is not expected that lower grade students had higher scores than the higher-grade students, considering
the increase in music training time with grade. Çevik (2011) found that students’ problem-solving skills differed based
on grade level and the significant differences were in favor of the fourth grades. Kuzmich (1987) stated that creative
problem solving in music education is included in students' decision-making activities and provides feedback resources
for students and teachers; allows multiple results; Thus, he stated that it reflects students' needs, related fields and
skills and increases learning.
In another study, Çevik and Özmaden (2013) did not find any significant differences in the students’ problem-solving
skills based on grade level but reported that fourth grades had higher scores than other grades. Yıldız and Kurtuldu
(2014) said that preservice music teachers’ problem-solving skills are above the intermediate level. Third-grade
preservice teachers had higher levels of problem-solving than other grades, and the first, second, and fourth grades
followed third grades, respectively. Topoğlu and Topoğlu (2020) did not find significant differences based on grade
level. They perceived the reason for this result as the course structures and contents that the preservice music teachers
take during their education are not processed to improve their problem-solving skills. According to Owens et al. (2001),
Hair and Graziano (2003) people who have problem-solving skills; have a sense of self-confidence and the ability to
 124  AFACAN & KAYA / Problem-Solving Skills of Students Having Professional Music Training
think creatively with an objective point of view and a musician who can think creatively can benefit from problem-
solving skills in interpreting his instrument (as cited in Otacıoğlu, 2008).
The present study did not find any significant differences on the overall scale and in its sub-scales based on gender. The
study of Güven (2017) with ten students revealed no significant differences on the overall scale, approach-avoidance
style subscale, and personal control subscale. However, there was a significant difference in the problem-solving
confidence subscale in favor of the male students. Similarly, Çevik and Özmaden (2013) reported no significant
differences in participants’ problem-solving skills based on gender. Topoğlu and Topoğlu (2020) found that there were
no significant differences on the overall scale and sub-scales based on gender, and Yıldız and Kurtuldu (2014)
concluded that students’ problem-solving skills did not differ based on their genders. These results support the present
study’s findings regarding gender. That is, there is no connection between gender and problem solving. Abdellatif and
Zaki (2021) concluded that no significance relationship between problem solving skills and gender. Dauda et al. (2019)
in their study with a total of 3549 students, they did not find a significant difference between the problem solving skills
of the students and their gender.
The results regarding the differences based on the universities of participants showed that there is a significant
difference between Kırşehir Ahi Evran University Neşet Ertaş FAF students and Nevşehir Hacı Bektaş Veli University
FAF students in “approach-avoidance style” subscale scores in favor of the Nevşehir Hacı Bektaş Veli University FAF
students. The participants’ universities had a small effect on their approach-avoidance style. Topoğlu and Topoğlu
(2020) did not find any significant differences in preservice music teachers’ problem-solving skills based on the
participants’ universities. Ertekin (2017) concluded that participants’ universities did not impact their problem-solving
skills. The results of these studies differ from the results of the research conducted. In terms of approach-avoidance
subscale of the inventory, the university variable had a small effect on students' problem solving skills. According to De
Almeida and Benevides (2018) the university recognizes situations in which the expression of positive opinions can
facilitate students’ interpersonal relationship, better their perception of reality and investment in the attempt to use
practical rules/creative solutions for the problems, and their adaptation to university life. In this respect, Gomes and
Benevides (2013) emphasize that undergraduate students face many academic and personal difficulties, and need to
learn how to solve conflicting situations related to the university environment. It is worth noting that the significant
difference in the approach-avoidance style subscale in the present study might be due to the application methods and
contents of the courses taught in the universities or the students’ academic achievements. Coulson and Burke (2013)
stated that allowing students to produce solutions to musical problems improves their critical and creative thinking
skills. Musical problems may be to write new music, add nuance to a piece, or analyze and evaluate their own
performances. Creative thinking in music is motivated by a problem and a need for its solution. It is suggested to make
further measurements based on different variables to investigate the differences in the participants’ universities.

Conclusion
The present study examined the problem-solving skills of the students having professional music training on the
overall problem-solving scale and its subscales based on gender, grade level, and participants’ universities. The results
indicated that students occasionally used their problem-solving skills, rarely felt confident about their problem-solving
skills, and occasionally executed the actions stated in the approach-avoidance style and personal control subscales.
The significant differences based on grade level only occurred on the overall problem-solving scale and approach-
avoidance subscale. There were no significant differences in problem-solving skills of the students having music
education based on gender. Additionally, there was a significant difference in the approach-avoidance subscales in
favor of the Nevşehir Hacı Bektaş Veli University FAF students. When the results in the literature were examined, it is
seen that some of them support the results of the present study. Although these results are not generalizable, they need
to be supported with qualitative studies.
Recommendations
The following recommendations are suggested based on the results of the study.
a. Considering that the problem-solving skills of the music students having an applied education are lower than the
expected level, it is necessary to add courses with authentic content that will promote students’ problem-solving
skills to the training programs.
b. The present study consists of two universities and a limited number of students from these universities. Different
results might be obtained from further research with a larger sample and various variables.
c. Further qualitative, experimental, and mixed design research should be conducted to promote music students’
problem-solving skills.
d. Additional practices and studies that might advance music students’ creative problem-solving and analytical
thinking skills should be added to the curriculum.
 International Journal of Educational Methodology  125

Limitations
It is worth noting that this study has some limitations. Results are limited to data obtained from students enrolled in
Kırşehir Ahi Evran University Neşet Ertaş Fine Arts Faculty Music Department and Nevşehir Hacı Bektaş University
Fine Arts Faculty Music and Performing Arts Department. Increasing the sample size and differentiating the variables of
interest might provide detailed findings. This study concludes the quantitative results using a relational survey design.
It is possible to get impressive results by conducting a mixed-method design in which quantitative and qualitative
methods are used together.

Authorship Contribution Statement

Afacan: Conceptualization, design, statistical analysis, writing, data acquisition, data analysis/ interpretation, critical
revision of manuscript, supervision. Kaya: Conceptualization, design, writing, data acquisition, critical revision of
manuscript, supervision.
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