Data Base Management Systems

(DBMS) – (1)

Code: INF311

Lecture 3
 In this Lecture

Data Models

Relational Model

Relational Data structure

Relational Data manipulation

Relational Data integrity

Model

 A Model is a representation of reality, ’real world’

objects and events and their associations.
 A database model is an organizing principle that
specifies particular mechanism of data storage
and retrieval.
 The model explains, in terms of services available
to an interfacing application, how to access a
data element when other related elements are
known.
 A schema is a description of a particular collection
of data, using the given data model.
Components of Data Models

 Structure Part
– Consisting of set of rules according to which
databases can be constructed.

 Manipulative Part
– Define the types of operation that are
allowed on the data.

 Set of Integrity Rules

– Which ensures that data is accurate.
Purpose of Data Model

 To represent data.

 To make the data understandable.

Types of Data Models I

 Object Based Data Models

– use concepts such as entities, attributes
and relationships.
– Types of Object Based Data Models
 Entity Relationship
 Object Oriented

 Semantic

 Functional
Types of Data Models II

 Physical Data Models

– Describe how data is stored in the
computer, representing information
such as record structures, record
ordering and access paths.
Types of Data Models III

 Record Based Logical Data Models

– It is used to specify the overall logical
structure of the database and to
provide a higher-level description of the
implementation.
– Structured database in fixed formats.
– Types
 Hierarchical Model
 Network Model

 Relational Model
Relational

 The Data is perceived by the user as tables

(and nothing but tables)

 The operators available to the user are

operators that drive new tables from old
ones

 The foundation of modern database

technology is without question the
relational model.
 Relational Database: Definitions

 Relational database: a set of relations.

 Relation: made up of 2 parts:

– Schema : specifies name of relation, plus name and
type of each column.
 E.g. Students
(sid: string, name: string, login: string, age: integer, gpa: real)
– Instance : a table, with rows and columns.
 #rows = cardinality

 #fields = degree
Example of a Relation

attributes
(or columns)

tuples
(or rows)

--------
---------
---------

Domain
Relational model Aspects

 Data structure

 Data manipulation
– Relational Algebra
– Relational Calculus

 Data integrity
Relational Data structure

 Data are organized in two-dimensional tables with

rows and columns.
 Table consists of rows (records) and named
columns (attribute or field)
 Requirements for a table to qualify as a relation:
– It must have a unique name
– Every attribute value must be atomic (not multivalued)
– Every row must be unique (can’t have two rows with
exactly the same values for all their fields)
– Attributes (columns) in tables must have unique names
– The order of the columns must be irrelevant
– The order of the rows must be irrelevant
Structures

 attribute types
 entity types
 relationship types

FLIGHT-SCHEDULE DEPT-AIRPORT

FLIGHT# AIRLINE WEEKDAY PRICE FLIGHT# AIRPORT-CODE

101 delta mo 156 101 atl
545 americE we 110 912 Egy
912 gyair fr 450 545 lax
242 usair mo 231
Keys (special fields)
 Primary key
– an attribute that uniquely identifies each row of the relation
in question.
– Examples include employee numbers, social security
numbers, etc. Can be composite
 Candidate key
– An attribute that could be a primary key
 Alternate key
– A candidate key that is not selected as the primary key
 Foreign key
– an attribute in a relation of a database that serves as the
primary key of another relation in the same database.
– Used to represent relationship between two tables. Can be
composite
Schema for four relations

Primary Key
Foreign Key
(implements 1:N relationship
between customer and order)

Combined, these are a composite

primary key (uniquely identifies the
order line)…individually they are
foreign keys (implement M:N
relationship between order and product)

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Data structure terminology

Formal relational term Informal equivalents

Relation table
Tuple Row or record
Cardinality Number of rows
Attribute Column or field
Degree Number of columns
Primary key Unique identifier
domain Pool of legal values
Relational data manipulation

 Data stored in the tables may be

manipulated through the use of a command
language.
 Formal languages associated with the
relational model:
– Relational algebra
– Relational calculus
Relational data manipulation

 Informally, relational algebra is a (high-level)

procedural language and relational calculus a
non-procedural language.

 However, formally both are equivalent to one

another.

 A language that produces a relation that can

be derived using relational calculus is
relationally complete.
 Relational Algebra
 Relational algebra operations work on one or more
relations to define another relation without changing
the original relations.
 Both operands and results are relations, so output
from one operation can become input to another
operation.
 Allows expressions to be nested, just as in
arithmetic. This property is called closure.
 Relational algebra is the foundation of SQL
 Relational Algebra

 Five basic operations in relational algebra:

Selection, Projection, Cartesian product, Union, and
Set Difference.

 These perform most of the data retrieval operations

needed.

 Also have Join, Intersection, and Division operations,

which can be expressed in terms of 5 basic
operations.
Selection (or Restriction)

 Extracts rows from a single relation

T
W X Y Z
Example - Selection (or Restriction)

 List all staff with a salary greater than £10,000.

salary > 10000 (Staff)

Projection

 Extracts columns from a single relation

T
W X Y Z
Example - Projection
 Produce a list of salaries for all staff, showing only
staffNo, fName, lName, and salary details.

staffNo, fName, lName, salary(Staff)

 Union

 Creates a new relation containing rows

appearing in one or both relations
 Duplicate rows are automatically eliminated
 Relations must be union compatible

A B A UNION B

X Y X Y X Y

x1 y1 x2 y2 x1 y1

x2 y2 x4 y4 x2 y2

x3 y3 x3 y3

x4 y4
Example - Union
 List all cities where there is either a branch office
or a property for rent.

city(Branch)  city(PropertyForRent)
 Set Difference

 Creates a relation containing rows in the first

relation but not in the second
 Relations must be union compatible

A B A MINUS B

X Y X Y X Y

x1 y1 x1 y1
x2 y2

x2 y2 x3 y3
x4 y4
x3 y3
 Example - Set Difference

 List all cities where there is a branch office but no

properties for rent.

city(Branch) – city(PropertyForRent)
 Intersection

 Creates a new relation containing rows

appearing in both relations
 Relations must be union compatible

A INTERSECT B
A B

X Y X Y
X Y

x2 y2 x2 y2
x1 y1
x4 y4
x2 y2

x3 y3
 Example - Intersection

 List all cities where there is both a branch office and at

least one property for rent.

city(Branch)  city(PropertyForRent)
Cartesian product

 Creates a new relation from all possible combinations

of rows in two other relations
A B

V W X Y Z

v1 w1 x1 y1 z1
v2 w2 x2 y2 z2
v3 w3

A TIMES B

V W X Y Z
v1 w1 x1 y1 z1
v1 w1 x2 y2 z2
v2 w2 x1 y1 z1
v2 w2 x2 y2 z2

v3 w3 x1 y1 z1

v3 w3 x2 y2 z2
Example - Cartesian product
 List the names and comments of all clients who have
viewed a property for rent.
(clientNo, fName, lName(Client)) X (clientNo, propertyNo, comment (Viewing))
 Join Operations
 Creates a new relation from all combinations of
rows satisfying the join condition
 A join B where W = Z
A B
V W X Y Z

v1 wz1 x1 y1 wz1
v2 wz2 x2 y2 wz3
v3 wz3

A EQUIJOIN B
V W X Y Z
v1 wz1 x1 y1 wz1
v3 wz3 x2 y2 wz3
 Join Operations
 Join is a derivative of Cartesian product.

 Equivalent to performing a Selection, using join predicate

as selection formula, over Cartesian product of the two
operand relations.

 One of the most difficult operations to implement

efficiently in an RDBMS and one reason why RDBMSs
have intrinsic performance problems.
 Join Operations

 Various forms of join operation

– Theta join
– Equijoin (a particular type of Theta join)
– Natural join
– Outer join
– Semijoin
Division
 Is there a value in the X column of A (e.g., x1) that has a value
in the Y column of A for every value of y in the Y column of B?

A B
X Y Y

x1 y1 y1

x1 y2 y2

x1 y3

x2 y1

x2 y3

A DIVIDE B

x1
Example - Division

 Identify all clients who have viewed all properties with

three rooms.
(clientNo, propertyNo(Viewing)) 
(propertyNo(rooms = 3 (PropertyForRent)))
 Relational Calculus

 Relational calculus query specifies what is to be retrieved

rather than how to retrieve it.
– No description of how to evaluate a query.

 In first-order logic (or predicate calculus), predicate is a

truth-valued function with arguments.

 When we substitute values for the arguments, function

yields an expression, called a proposition, which can be
either true or false.
 Relational Calculus

 If predicate contains a variable (e.g. ‘x is a member of

staff’), there must be a range for x.

 When we substitute some values of this range for x,

proposition may be true; for other values, it may be
false.

 When applied to databases, relational calculus has

forms: tuple and domain.
Relational Integrity

 Databases are used to store data

 The data is used to create information which is

needed for making decisions

 Therefore, we need to make sure that the data

which is stored in the database is correct and
consistent

 This is known as data integrity

 Business rules may be defined that maintain the

integrity of data when they are manipulated.
Relational Integrity
 Domain constraints: the set of values that can be
assigned: data type, size, allowable values

 Entity integrity: no key attribute may be null

 Referential integrity: the value of a non-null foreign

key must be an actual key value in some relation

 Operational constraints: business rules for which

logic must be embedded in the system
 Entity Integrity
 The entity integrity rule applies to Primary Keys

 The entity integrity rule says that the value of a

Primary Key in a table must be unique and it can
never have no value (null)

 Operations on the database which insert new data,

update existing data, or delete data must follow this
rule

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 Referential Integrity
 The referential integrity key applies to Foreign Keys

 The referential integrity key says that the value of a

Foreign key must either be null (i.e have no value) or
be equal to the value in the linked table where the
Foreign Key is the Primary Key

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Next Lecture

 ER diagram
 SQL
– DDL
– DML
– DCL