GENERAL CHEMISTRY

Lecture 5

Module: Chemistry/Biochemistry

Academic Year : 2022-2023

www.um6ss.ma

Prof. Tarik OUCHBANI 1

 Chapter II: Model of the atom

Table of Contents
1. RUTHERFORD Atomic Model
2. Emission spectrum of the hydrogen atom
3. Quantum theory
4. BOHR Model
5. Application to the hydrogen atom
6. Application to hydrogen ions
7. Quantum Mechanics
8. Quantum numbers (n, l, ml and ms)
9. Atomic Orbitals
10. Electronic structure of atoms
11. Periodic classification
12. Evolution of the properties of the elements in the periodic table
 11. Periodic classification

Need for the Periodic Classification of Elements:

All existing matter in our surroundings is made up of basic units known as

elements. Initially, in 1800, only 31 chemical elements were discovered.
After some advancement in technology in 1865, about 63 more elements
were discovered. This created the need for the periodic classification of
elements.
Presently, there are 118 elements known to us. Out of these 118 chemical
elements, some elements are man-made.
 11. Periodic classification
Interest of this classification

Classification of elements in groups provide us with a fixed pattern in

which the elements change their properties periodically. The periodic
table made the study of the physical and chemical properties of
elements simple and organized. We can now just go to the group and
see the properties of the elements of the periodic table or predict the
properties of an element if we know the characteristics of other elements
present in the same group.

Ø This tool is very important for the chemist because it allows him to
predict the behavior of an element during a chemical reaction.

Ø The periodic table also gathers the main information about a

chemical element that a chemist may need..
11. Periodic classification
 10. Electronic structure of atoms
Filling of Atomic Orbitals
 11. Periodic classification

Metal
solids at Normal T° and P. (except Hg)
shiny (metallic shine) easy to shape
malleable and ductile, electron donor good conductors of heat and
electricity
Metals give cations, their oxides are basic, react with acids

ductile = the ability of a metal to malleable = the ability of a metal to be

withstand stretching without breaking crushed (rolling)
 11. Periodic classification

metals metalloids Nonmetals

Non Metals
often gaseous or liquid
dull appearance (without shine),
difficult to shape
Neither malleable nor ductile
Electrical resistance
Insensitive to Temperature
bad conductors of heat
 11. Periodic classification

metals metalloids Nonmetals

Metalloids they are intermediate elements between metals and rare gases.
They are difficult to classify as metal or non-metal,
They are at the border (stepped line) that separates metals from non-metals.
They resemble non-metals in some properties but are poor conductors of
electricity (semiconductors).
Electrical resistance decreases with Temperature,
Brittle (break easily)
11. Periodic classification
 11. Periodic classification
Modern periodic table classification

ü The criterion for classifying elements is no longer the atomic mass, but
the atomic number Z

ü We therefore classify the elements in ascending order of Z while also

respecting Klechkowski's rule

The place of an element in the Since the valence layer fixes chemical
classification is therefore directly properties, elements with a similar
related to its electronic valence layer will have substantially
configuration. identical properties.
 11. Periodic classification
Construction principle of the table
The table has 7 rows and 18 columns
Ø At each row (a value of n) called period, we fill out a
different electronic layer
For a value of n we have : n s (n-2) f (n-1) d n p
Ø Chemical elements that have the same number of
electrons on their outer layer
Ø → are on the same column
→ They have similar chemical properties
→ Same family → or same group
Notion of periodicity:
The table is called the periodic table (which returns regularly) because we
find the elements with the same properties at regular intervals (therefore in
the same column).
 10. Electronic structure of atoms
Filling of Atomic Orbitals
 11. Periodic classification
18 colums

Block p
7 layers

Block d

Block f
‘’Balcons’’
 11. Periodic classification
Bloc s : external structure ns x (x=1,2)
Ex : Na (Z=11) : 1s22s22p6 3s1
Bloc p : external structure ns 2 npx ( 1 ≤ x ≤ 6)
Ex : Boron B (Z=5) : 1s22s22p1
Bloc d : external structure ns2 (n-1)dx (1 ≤ x ≤ 10)
Ex : Scandium Sc (Z=21) : 1s22s22p63s23p64s23d1
Bloc f : filling of the subshelle f
 11. Periodic classification

Columns IA, IIA → belong to the block s (columns ns1 and ns2)

Columns IB, IIB → block d (columns nd9 and nd10)

Columns IIIA, IVA, VA, VIA, VIIA et VIIIA → block p

(columns np1, np2, np3, np4 , np5 et np6)

Columns IIIB, IVB, VB, VIB, VIIB et VIIIB → block d

(columns nd1, nd2, nd3, … nd8)
 11. Periodic classification

Main families of the periodic

table

Block s
Block p
Block d
Block f
11. Periodic classification
 11. Periodic classification
Alkalis: elements of the 1st column IA : n s1
Li, Na, K, Rb, Cs, Fr

n s1 They are monovalent (a valence electron)

easily give up the valence electron
Are electropositive and give monovalent cations :
Li+, Na+, K+, Rb+, Cs+, Fr+
Alkalis have a strong chemical reactivity.
They are oxidizable (Li2O, Na2O, K2O)
and give strong bases with water (LiOH, NaOH, KOH).
 11. Periodic classification

Alkaline earths : elements of the 2nd column IIA : ns2

Be, Mg, Ca, Sr, Ba, Ra

n s2

2 single electrons
n s1 n p1 : excited state
They’re bivalent (two valence electrons)
easily give up its two valence electrons
Are electropositive and give bivalent cations Be2+, Mg2+, Ca2+, Sr2+,
Ba2+, Ra2+
They are also very oxidizable (MgO, CaO, BaO)
and give strong bases with water(Mg(OH)2, Ca(OH)2, Ba(OH)2,..)
 11. Periodic classification

Block p
IIIB IVB VB VIB VIIB VIIIB
 11. Periodic classification

Block p IIIB IVB VB VIB VIIB VIIIB

Families of elements :

corresponding to the filling of

typical Atomic Orbitals (O.A.)
n s2 n px
1≤x≤6

The properties of these

elements depend on the
value x.
 11. Periodic classification
Group VI B: Chalcogenes : ns2 np4
VIB

O, S, Se, Te (Non metals),

Radioactive metals : Po (polonium)

These elements tend to gain 2 electrons

O + 2e- à O2- ; Te + 2e- à Te2-
In general, the degree of oxidation is -2

They may have other oxidation degrees :

+2 , +4 , +6
 11. Periodic classification
VII B
Group VII B: halogens : n s2 n p5

F, Cl, Br, I, At (non metals )

These elements tend to gain an electron.

In general ,the degree of oxidation is -1

ØIn nature, they are found in this ion form or as

diatomic molecules Cl2, Br2, I2 (highly toxic).

These elements generally form ionic bonds and together with

hydrogen give strong acids (HF, HCl, …)
11. Periodic classification
VIII B

Rare or noble
gases:
11. Periodic classification
 11. Periodic classification
IIIB IVB VB

Block p
 11. Periodic classification

Group III B: boron family

IIIB IVB VB
n s2 n p1

Excited state : n s1 n p2

→ We will therefore have 3 single electrons

Group IV B: Carbon family Carbonides:

n s2 n p2
 11. Periodic classification

IIIB IVB VB VIB Group

VIIB VIIIB
IV B: Carbon family

Les carbonides n s2 n p2

Excited state : n s1 n p3

→ We will therefore have 3 single electrons

 11. Periodic classification

IIIB IVB VB VIB Group V B: nitrogen family

VIIB VIIIB
Azotites
The most important (N, P) which
are essential to the life of plants
and animals.
n s2 n p3
 11. Periodic classification
Family of transition metals
These are elements that have an outer layer of type
ns2 (n-1) dx (x = 1, 2, …, 10).

They form 3 series of 10 elements in the 4th, 5th and 6th period
The transition elements are all small metals. These elements have
many degrees of oxidation.

s1 s1
d1 d2 d3 d5 d5 d6 d7 d8 d10
d10

n= 4

n= 5 Manganèse
Oxydation degree : +7, +6, +4, +2, +3
 GENERAL CHEMISTRY
Lecture

Module: Chemistry/Biochemistry

Academic Year : 2022-2023

www.um6ss.ma

Prof. Tarik OUCHBANI 32

 PLAN

Chapter I: Structure of Matter

Chapter II: Model of the atom

Chapter III: Chemical bonds

Chapter IV: Chemistry in solutions

Chapter V: Oxidation-Reduction (redox) reaction

 Chapter III
Chemical Bonds
 Chapter III: Chemical Bonds

ü The attractive force which holds various constituents (atom, ions, etc.)
together and stabilizes them by the overall loss of energy is known as
chemical bonding. Therefore, it can be understood that
chemical compounds are reliant on the strength of the chemical bonds
between its constituents; The stronger the bonding between the constituents,
the more stable the resulting compound would be.
ü The opposite also holds true; if the chemical bonding between the
constituents is weak, the resulting compound would lack stability and would
easily undergo another reaction to give a more stable chemical compound
(containing stronger bonds). To find stability, the atoms try to lose their
energy.
ü Whenever matter interacts with another form of matter, a force is exerted on
one by the other. When the forces are attractive in nature, the energy
decreases. When the forces are repulsive in nature, the energy increases. The
attractive force that binds two atoms together is known as the chemical bond.
 1. Lewis Theory of Chemical Bonding

Ø An atom can be viewed as a positively charged ‘Kernel’ (the nucleus plus the
inner electrons) and the outer shell.
Ø The outer shell can accommodate a maximum of eight electrons only.
Ø The eight electrons present in the outer shell occupy the corners of a cube
which surround the ‘Kernel’.
Ø The atoms having octet configuration, i.e. 8 electrons in the outermost shell,
thus symbolize a stable configuration.

Ø Atoms can achieve this stable configuration by forming chemical bonds with
other atoms. This chemical bond can be formed either by gaining or losing an
electron(s) (NaCl, MgCl2) or in some cases due to the sharing of an electron
(F2).
Ø Only the electrons present in the outer shell, also known as the valence
electrons take part in the formation of chemical bonds. Gilbert Lewis used
specific notations better known as Lewis symbols to represent these valence
electrons.
Ø Generally, the valency of an element is either equal to the number of dots in
the corresponding Lewis symbol or 8 minus the number of dots (or valence
electrons).
 1. Lewis Theory of Chemical Bonding

Lewis symbols for lithium (1 electron), oxygen (6 electrons), neon (8 electrons)

are given below:

Here, the number of dots that surround the respective symbol represents the
number of valence electrons in that atom.
 2. Kossel’s theory of Chemical Bonding

Ø Noble gases separate the highly electronegative halogens and the highly
electropositive alkali metals.
Ø Halogens can form negatively charged ions by gaining an electron. Whereas
alkali metals can form positively charged ions by losing an electron.
Ø These negatively charged ions and positively charged ions have a noble gas
configuration that is 8 electrons in the outermost shell. The general electronic
configuration of noble gases (except helium) is given by ns2np6.
Ø As unlike charges attract each other these unlike charged particles are held
together by a strong force of electrostatic attraction existing between them.
For example, MgCl2, the magnesium ion, and chlorine ions are held together by
force of electrostatic attraction. This kind of chemical bonding existing between
two unlike charged particles is known as an electrovalent bond.
 3. Types of Chemical Bonds

ü When substances participate in chemical bonding and yield compounds, the

stability of the resulting compound can be gauged by the type of chemical bonds
it contains.

ü The type of chemical bonds formed vary in strength and properties. There
are 4 primary types of chemical bonds which are formed byatoms or
molecules to yield compounds. These types of chemical bonds include:
•Covalent Bonds
•Polar Bonds
•Hydrogen Bonds
•Ionic Bonds

ü These types of bonds in chemical bonding are formed from the loss, gain,
or sharing of electrons between two atoms/molecules.
 3. Types of Chemical Bonds
ØCovalent Bonding
A covalent bond indicates the sharing of electrons between atoms.
Compounds that contain carbon (also called organic compounds) commonly
exhibit this type of chemical bonding. The pair of electrons which are shared
by the two atoms now extend around the nuclei of atoms, leading to the
creation of a molecule.
 3. Types of Chemical Bonds
ØPolar Covalent Bonding

ü Covalent bonds can be either be Polar or Non-Polar in nature. In Polar

Covalent chemical bonding, electrons are shared unequally since the more
electronegative atom pulls the electron pair closer to itself and away from
the less electronegative atom. Water is an example of such a polar molecule.

ü A difference in charge arises in different areas of the atom due to the

uneven spacing of the electrons between the atoms. One end of the
molecule tends to be partially positively charged and the other end tends
to be partially negatively charged.
 3. Types of Chemical Bonds

ØHydrogen Bonding

Compared to ionic and covalent bonding, Hydrogen bonding is a weaker form of

chemical bonding. It is a type of polar covalent bonding between oxygen and
hydrogen wherein the hydrogen develops a partial positive charge. This implies
that the electrons are pulled closer to the more electronegative oxygen atom.

This creates a tendency for the hydrogen to be attracted towards the negative
charges of any neighbouring atom. This type of chemical bonding is called a
Hydrogen bond and is responsible for many of the properties exhibited by water.
3. Types of Chemical Bonds

ØHydrogen Bonding
 4. Ionic Bonds

The bond formed as a result of strong electrostatic forces of attraction between

a positively and negatively charged species is called an electrovalent or ionic
bond. The positively and negatively charged ions are aggregated in an ordered
arrangement called the crystal lattice which is stabilized by the energy called
the Lattice enthalpy.

ü Conditions for the formation of an Ionic Bond

• The low ionization energy of the atom forming the cation.

• High electron gain enthalpy of the atom forming the anion.
• High negative lattice enthalpy of the crystal formed.

Generally, the ionic bond is formed between a metal cation and non-metal
anion.

For example, MgCl2, the magnesium ion, and chlorine ions are held together by force
of electrostatic attraction. This kind of chemical bonding existing between two unlike
charged particles is known as an electrovalent bond.
4. Ionic Bonds
 5. Lewis Structures

The following steps are adopted for writing the Lewis dots structures or
Lewis structures:

Step 1: Calculate the number of electrons required for drawing the

structure by adding the valence electrons of the combining atoms.
i.e. in methane, CH4 molecule, there are 8 valence electrons (in which 4
belongs to carbon while other 4 to H atoms).
Step 2: Each negative charge i.e. for anions, we add an electron to the
valence electrons and for each positive charge i.e. for cations we
subtract one electron from the valence electrons.
Step 3: Using the chemical symbols of the combining atoms and
constructing a skeletal structure of the compound, divide the total
number of electrons as bonding shared pairs between the atoms in
proportion to the total bonds.
 5. Lewis Structures

Step 4: The central position in the molecule is occupied by the least

electronegative atom. Hydrogen and fluorine generally occupy the terminal
positions.
Step 5: After distributing the shared pairs of electrons for single bonds, the
remaining electron pairs are used for multiple bonds or they constitute lone
pairs.
The basic requirement is that each bonded atom gets an octet of electrons.
 5. Lewis Structures
Example 1: Lewis formula for carbon monoxide, CO

Step 1: Counting the total number of valence electrons of carbon and oxygen
atoms: C (2s22p2) + O (2s22p4) means 4 + 6 = 10 that is, 4(C) + 6(O) = 10
Step 2: The skeletal structure of carbon monoxide is written as CO
Step 3: Drawing a single bond between C and O and completing octet on O, the
remaining two electrons are lone pair on C.

Step 4: This does not complete the octet of carbon, and hence we have a
triple bond.
 5. Duet and byte rules

Atoms tend to adopt an electronic structure similar to that of noble gases

that of (saturated outer shell). We say that they satisfy the duet rule (atoms
with Z ≤ 4) or the octet rule (Z > 4).
- The hydrogen atom is saturated by doublet of electrons (structure of
He); duet rule.
- The atoms of periods n=2 and n=3, are saturated with four doublets (8
electrons) to have a structure similar to the rare gases of the period n=2 and
n=3 (ns2np6).

To satisfy the duet or octet rule, atoms can :

- form ions by giving up electrons (limit of this model 1H forms the ion H+
some ions such as Fe 2+, Fe 3+, Cu 2+, ...).
- associate with each other and form a molecule.
- The electron doublet thus formed is called binding doublet (bond of
covalent bond). The binding doublet is represented by a dash between the
two atoms

Example: the molecule of dihydrogen H2

 6. Lewis Model

Lewis generalized, by simplified representation, this pooling of electrons (two or

more), by using in the diagram only the valence electrons of the atoms involved,
each electron being represented by a dot (.) and each electronic doublet being
represented by a line (-).
- The diatomic molecules are represented by the formulas :

The di- or poly-atomic molecules where the electronic clouds are no longer
symmetrically distributed between the different atoms are represented by :
 7. Valence

Valence is the number of covalent bonds that an atom can make.

Depending on the elements, atoms have a single valence or several
valences.
 8. Molecular orbital Theory

ü LCAO" method: linear combination of atomic orbitals

The combination of atomic orbitals obeys the following criteria:

- Only atomic orbitals of comparable symmetries and whose energies
are close can combine.
- The number of molecular orbitals formed is the same as the number of
atomic orbitals combined.
- Each molecular orbital is characterized by a well defined energy.

Combination of orbitals (s):

Molecule of dihydrogen (H2)
We designate by A and B the atoms of hydrogen. According to the LCAO
method, the molecular orbital is a linear combination of these two
atomic orbitals:
 8. Molecular orbital Theory

+ +
 8. Molecular orbital Theory

ü Combination of orbitals Px, Py, Pz:

Axial overlap of two pz orbitals belonging to 2 atoms A and B:

- Axial overlapping bonding orbitals:

Axial overlapping bonding

Antiaxial overlapping bonding orbitals:

Antiaxial overlapping bonding

 8. Molecular orbital Theory

Side overlapping of two orbitals px or py belonging to 2 atoms A and B:

- Side overlapping bonding orbitals

Side overlapping bonding (π)

- side overlapping Anti-bonding orbitals

Side overlapping anti-bonding (π)

 8. Molecular orbital Theory

ü Energy diagram of M.O. with s-p interaction

This energy diagram is valid for molecules of type A2 whose ZA ≤ 7.

In this case the difference between the energy levels 2s and 2p, is small, we witness a
mixing of these orbitals known as s-p interaction. The energy level of the two O.M πx
and πy are lower (more stable) than the one of the σz M.O.
- Only the valence O.A. are involved in the formation of the chemical bond
chemical bond: 2s and 2p (2px,2py and 2pz)
From 8 O.A, we build 8 O.M :
- 4 binding O.M.
- 4 anti-binding M.O.
The energetic order of the M.O. is the following
 8. Molecular orbital Theory

Energy diagram of M.O. with s-p interaction

 8. Molecular orbital Theory

Application: H2 molecule
The LCAO-MO theory combines the O.A 1s of 2H to obtain 2 O.M σ1s and σ*1s

Electronic structure of 1H: 1s1

Electronic configuration of H2: σs2

 8. Molecular orbital Theory

molecule of O2:

Electronic configuration of O2: