Biology Notes for my Half Yearly :D

Syllabus covered until now😊 (tick means done and dot means this
chapter needs to be read)

✓ Chapter 1- What is Biology? (This chapter contains the information

about the seven characteristics of life and about the kingdoms of
living organisms)

✓ Chapter 2-Cells( This one contains all the information about the
cells of Plants and Animals, their differences, inside of the cells,
the role played by different types of substances present inside of a
cell; this also contains bacteria cells and other part of cells such as
RBC, Root hair cells, Xylem vessels, and their structures and
purpose. This also contains the Tissues, Organs and Organ
System)

✓ Chapter 3-Diffusion, Osmosis and Surface Area: Volume ratio.

(This chapter discusses the diffusion and how it takes place inside
of the cells. Also tells us about Osmosis and Active transports.
Surface Area of the cells and a lot more)

▪ Chapter 4-Enzymes (I haven’t learned about this one yet but its all
about enzymes and their processes and how they are affected by
the pH)

▪ Chapter 5-Nutrition(This is about Biological Molecules and diet.

This chapter is still being explained in class.)
 Chapter One: What is Biology

➔ In order to identify living organisms, scientists listed 7 characteristics which all

living organisms have:
➔ Nutrition: Taking in nutrients which are organic substances and mineral ions,
containing raw materials and energy for growth and tissue repair, absorbing
and assimilating them.
➔ Excretion: Removal from organisms of toxic materials, the waste products of
metabolism and substances in excess.
➔ Respiration: Chemical reactions that break down nutrient molecules in living
cells to release energy.
➔ Sensitivity: The ability to detect or sense changes in the environment and to
make responses.
➔ Reproduction: Progresses that make more of the same kind of organism.
➔ Growth: The permanent increase in size and dry mass by an increase in
number of cells, cell size, or both.
➔ Movement: An action by an organism or part of an organism that changes
position or place.

➔ The seven characteristics could be memorized by the term “Mrs. Gren”:

➔ Movement
➔ Respiration
➔ Sensitivity
➔ Growth
➔ Reproduction
➔ Excretion
➔ Nutrition

➔ Definitions:
➔ Metabolism: Chemical reactions taking place in cells.
➔ Stimuli: Changes in the environment which organisms response to.
 ➔ Classification means arranging the organisms in groups and sub-groups based on
their similarities and differences
➔ Species are the group of closely related organisms that can reproduce fertile
offspring freely in nature
➔ Dichotomous key is a commonly used tool for classification, which helps in
identifying unknown organisms (Mostly MCQs will be related to this)
Used to:
↳ Identify unfamiliar organisms
↳ Simplify the process of identification
↳ Separating species by contrasting features

System of Classification
➔ All the living organisms are classified into domains; the two domains are Domain
Prokaryotes and Domain Eukaryotes
➔ Living organisms are then divided according to the Kingdom
➔ Examples: Kingdom Animalia, Kingdom Plantae; we have 5 major kingdoms which
are included in our syllabus.
➔ Viruses are at the boundary of living and nonliving organisms and hence, aren't a
part of the 5 kingdoms
➔ Within each kingdom, the organisms are further divided into several phyla (Singular:
Phylum); this is equivalent to division, which we use in the case of plants
➔ Each phylum consists of organisms which differentiate them with other kingdoms.
The organisms of one phyla share similar characteristics, but they might not be
obvious, forming one of the main categories in biological classification that ranks
above the class and below the kingdom
➔ The phylum is made up of classes; organisms of a class further share more common
attributes
➔ Class ranks below the phylum and above the order
➔ Classes are divided into orders; the orders further divide organisms into more
specialised groups which have more qualities in common. Order ranks above family
and below class
➔ Within each order are the families. In the family, the name suggests the species'
resemblance is fairly close
➔ For animals, the family usually ends with idae; meanwhile, in plants it ends with
aceae. Family ranks below order and above genus
➔ Each family consists of a varying number of genera (Singular: Genus). Each genera
divides species into having similar structural characteristics, but the species are not
as closely related
➔ Lastly, genera divides into species; each genus has several species
➔ Binomial nomenclature means ‘two-term naming system’; it comprises of genus and
species and is often written in italics
E.g. Canis (Genus) familiaris (specie)
Modes of nutrition
➔ There are 2 modes of nutrition, and they are:
↳ Autotrophic nutrition: In which organisms make their own food; such organisms
are called autotrophs, which includes Plants and some bacteria
↳ Heterotrophic nutrition: In which the organisms feed on readily available food
materials; such organisms are called heterotrophs

- Animals and their kingdoms

➔ There are further two types in the animal kingdom:
↳ Vertebrates: animals with a backbone
↳ Invertebrates: animals without a backbone

Invertebrate Groups

- Arthropods
➔ Arthropods are invertebrate animals that have an exoskeleton, a segmented body
and jointed appendages as their main features
➔ The "Phylum" arthropoda is subdivided into 4 classes:
↳ Insects
↳ Arachnids
↳ Myriapods
↳ Crustaceans

➔ Characteristics of all arthropods:

↳ Exoskeletons made of chitin
↳ Highly developed sense organs
↳ Jointed limbs
↳ Segmented bodies
↳ Ventral nervous system
↳ Bilateral symmetry, which is the same externally and internally

Key terms:
➔ Appendages : refer to any of the homologous body parts that may extend from a body
segment, including antennae,wings etc.
➔ Ventral : Underside; along the stomach
Insecta ➔ 3 pairs of legs (Total 6) ➔ Have compound eyes which ➔ Examples:
➔ 3 segments of the body (Head, produce several images on Ants, Wasps, Butterflies
thorax and abdomen) the retinula cells
➔ 1 pair of antennae ➔ This forms a complex image,
➔ Usually have 2 pairs of wings due to which the insects are
able to detect even the
slightest of movements

Arachnida ➔ 4 pairs of legs and have 2 ➔ Mostly carnivorous and feed ➔ Examples:
pairs of appendages near the on insects and other small Spiders, Scorpions
mouth: Chelicerae and animals
Pedipalps(Total 10 ➔ Some arachnids are
appendages). venomous, who inject venom
➔ 2 segments of the body, which in their prey to paralyse it
are the cephalothorax (head ➔ Arachnids usually lay eggs,
and thorax fused together) and which hatch into immature
abdomen arachnids that are similar to
➔ No antennae or wings adults. Scorpions, however,
➔ Several pairs of simple eyes give birth to live young
➔ Chelicerae are tipped with
fangs for feeding ,while
pedipalps are sensing or
mating.

Myriapoda ➔ Many joined limbs ➔ Breath through series of ➔ Examples:

➔ They have a head and the small openings known as Centipedes, Millipedes
body is elongated with spiracles
numerous segments, ➔ Most abundant and diverse
in tropical and temperate
therefore, it does not divide
forests
into a thorax or abdomen
➔ There is at least 1 pair of legs
on each segment
➔ Simple eyes
➔ They have a pair of antennae

Crustaceans ➔ 2 pairs of antennae ➔ Exclusively aquatic ➔ Examples:

➔ The head is fused with the ➔ Gills for breathing Crabs, Lobsters,
thorax region to form a ➔ Front limbs are modified into Shrimps
cephalothorax, and an chelipeds, which help in
abdomen is also present holding and biting, as well as
Therefore, it has two segments catching the prey
of the body ➔ Hard covering of the
➔ Compound eyes exoskeleton
➔ 5 or more pairs of limbs
 Phylum Cordata/Vertebrates
➔ The "Phylum" Cordata is sub-divided into 5 classes:
↳ Fishes
↳ Amphibians
↳ Reptiles
↳ Birds
↳ Mammals

➔ Common features of Phylum Cordata animals:

↳ All the animals except tunicates are vertebrates
↳ They have separate openings for the mouth and the anus
↳ Vertebrates do not have an exoskeleton, but they have an internal skeleton
↳ Animals are heterotrophs (Feed on other organisms for nutrition

Features Fishes Amphibians Reptiles Mammals Birds

Skin ➔ Scally, lose ➔ Thin, moist ➔ Dry, hard and ➔ Hair/fur on their ➔ Scales on legs,
wet scales and slimy scaly body and body covered
with feathers

Reproduction ➔ External ➔ External ➔ Eggs are ➔ Sexual ➔ Internal

Fertilisation fertilisation takes internally Reproduction fertilisation, when
takes places place, when fertilised, when between male and birds mate
when male male amphibians the reptiles mate. female
shed sperm on shed sperm on Females can lay ➔ Sexual
the eggs laid eggs the eggs, or keep reproduction
by females it until the time for
➔ Sexual hatching
➔ Sexual reproduction
reproduction ➔ Sexual
as two parents reproduction
involves

Eggs ➔ Soft ➔ Do not have a ➔ Thick, leathery ➔ Sperm and ➔ Hard,

jelly-like shell soft skin, not a or rubbery shells, Ovum fertilised calcareous shells
in water hard shell which are together to make
waterproof embryo ➔ Laid on land, in
➔ Laid on land the nests, where
➔ Embryo turns mother will
into foetus and incubate them
then a baby
(Pregnancy)

Sensitivity ➔ Lateral lines ➔ Sensory ➔ Eyes and ears ➔ Sense organs ➔ Eyes and ears
along their organs such as to sense such as eyes, present
body to detect eyes and ears ears and nose are
and respond to are present ➔ Do not have a present ➔ Pinna is absent
vibrations pinna
➔ Do not have a ➔ External flap of
 pinna ear known as
pinna is also
present

Have ears with 3

bones: Malleus,
incus and stapes

Locomotion / ➔ Fins ➔ Some ➔ 4 limbs, which ➔ 4 limbs are ➔ 2 Wings and 2

Mobility ➔ Stream-line amphibians such each having 5 present Feet
body as frogs and toes
toads have 4
➔ Helps to limbs ➔ Snakes don’t
swim have any limbs
underwater, ➔ Their hind feet
while have webbed
maintaining toes, which
balance provides a large
surface area for
efficient
swimming

Breathing ➔ Use gills ➔ They can live ➔ Lungs ➔ Lungs ➔ Lungs

on land and
water both,
hence may have
lungs and gills
both; however,
diaphragm is
absent

➔ Amphibians
perform gas
exchange
through their
skin, which is
thin, most and
has good supply
of blood

Blood Temp. Cold-Blooded Cold-Blooded Cold-Blooded Warm-Blooded Warm-Blooded

Food ➔ Diet consist ➔ Adults ➔ Mostly ➔ Carnivores, ➔ Omnivores

of eggs, algae, amphibians are carnivores Herbivores or
plants, carnivores which Omnivores ➔ Have beak to
crustaceans, feed on insects ➔ Feed on feed on variety of
worms, insects, ➔ Have 4 types of things
mollusks, ➔ Young ones, amphibians and teeth: incisors,
insects, insect such as, can feed on other canines,
larvae, tadpoles, are reptiles premolars and
amphibians, herbivores and molars to chew
and plankton feed on algae the food

Other ➔ Transparent ➔ Nictitating ➔ Have nictitating ➔ Have special ➔ Have

features eyelids to membrane to membrane, to mammary glands lightweight bones,
prevent water protect the eyes protect the eyes to breastfeed their which help in
entering and young ones flying
allowing focus
➔ Wings also help
in flying

Examples Shark, Tuna, Frogs, Toads, Snakes, lizards Humans, cats and Chicken,
Rahu, Trout Newts, and crocodiles bears hummingbird
Salamanders

Plants
➔ Kingdom Plantae plants are the multicellular organisms which belong to the Domain
Eukaryote; therefore, they have a nucleus and membrane bound organelles
↳ Plants are the organisms that use chlorophyll to carry out photosynthesis
↳ There are two main divisions of plants: ferns and flowering plants
↳ Flowering plants have further two types: monocots and dicots

- Ferns:
➔ Ferns, also known as filicinophytes are the plants that do not have flowers; therefore,
they do not reproduce by pollination. Ferns do not produce:
↳ Flowers
↳ Fruits
↳ Seeds
↳ Ovules (female gamete)
↳ Pollen (male gamete) Cambium tissue is also absent in ferns
➔ Flowering plants reproduce sexually by pollination, (which we will study in a later
Unit) while ferns reproduce in a way similar to fungi
➔ This asexual way of reproduction is known as spore formation. The leaves of ferns
are known as fronds. At the underside of fronds, sporangia can be found
➔ When sporangia are mature, they burst and the spores are released; they are carried
by the wind and rain to far away areas. The spores find moist soil, germinate and
then grow.

- Flowering plants:
➔ Also known as angiospermophytes can be classified into:
↳ Dicotyledons
↳ Monocotyledons
➔ In flowering plants, roots, stems, and leaves are present
➔ Cambium tissue is also present
- Reproduction in flowering plants/angiospermophytes:
➔ Flowering plants reproduce by pollination
➔ This process of sexual reproduction involves two gametes: pollen and ovule
➔ The pollen is released from the anthers of flowers, and is carried by the wind or
insects to the stigma of the flower
➔ The pollen grains secrete special hydrolysis enzymes on the stigma and digest its
wall to make its way to the ovary
➔ The male nucleus from the pollen then travels through this pollen tube and enters the
ovary through the microphile. The male nucleus will fuse with the ovule (female
nucleus), and fertilisation will occur
➔ After fertilisation, the ovule develops into a seed and the ovary develops into a fruit
The dispersal of seeds by wind/water/animals will allow the seeds to find a place for
germination and grow into a plant

Dicotyledons and Monocotyledons

Dicots Monocots

Two cotyledons present in their seeds One cotyledon present in their seeds

Broad leaves, with network a of veins Elongated leaves, with parallel veins

Petals in multiples of 4 or 5 Petals in multiples of 3

Tap roots Fibrous roots

Ringed vascular bundle Scattered vascular bundle

Viruses
➔ They are at the boundary of living and non-living things
➔ Viruses have the following characteristics:
↳ Live as parasites in the hosts’ body
↳ Strictly parasitic
↳ Take food and shelter in the hosts’ body, and give diseases in return
↳ Have no organelles, cytoplasm, etc.
↳ Acellular
↳ Reproduce inside the hosts’ body
↳ Cannot survive outside (die outside)
↳ Crystallise outside hosts
↳ Different shapes

➔ Viruses are made up of:

↳ A nucleic acid (Either RNA or DNA)
 ↳ Protein coat, known as capsid
↳ No protoplasm and, therefore, are non-cellular

➔ Viruses are made up of a nucleic acid, which can be RNA or

DNA (genetic material), which is surrounded by a protein
coat known as a capsid
➔ In cellular cells, DNA is always double strand, and
RNA is single strand. Since viruses are not cellular
structures, they can have single strand DNA and
double strand RNA as well; therefore, viruses can
have 4 types of nucleic acids
1. Single strand DNA
2. Double strand DNA
3. Single strand RNA
4. Double strand RNA

➔ Viruses cause various diseases such as:

↳ AIDS (Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome)
↳ Ebola
↳ Influenza
↳ SARS (Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome)
↳ Smallpox
↳ Chicken Pox
↳ Herpes

➔ Antibiotics cannot be used to treat viral infections, and

viruses can only be destroyed by antibodies produced by
white blood cells. However, doctors might prescribe
antibiotics when you have a viral infection as a
precautionary/deterrent measure.
➔ This protects your body from acquiring a possible
bacterial infection which it would normally be able to fight
against, but not currently, as your resistance is very low
during this time.
CHAPTER 2 – CELLS
Animals

• The main features of animals:

o They are multicellular
o Their cells contain a nucleus with a distinct membrane
o Their cells do not have cellulose cell walls
o Their cells do not contain chloroplasts (so they are unable to carry out photosynthesis)
o They feed on organic substances made by other living things
o They often store carbohydrates as glycogen
o They usually have nervous coordination
o They are able to move from place to place

A typical animal cell

Plants

• The main features of plants:

o They are multicellular
o Their cells contain a nucleus with a distinct membrane
o Their cells have cell walls made out of cellulose
o Their cells contain chloroplasts (so they can carry out photosynthesis)
o They feed by photosynthesis
o They store carbohydrates as starch or sucrose
o They do not have nervous coordination
 A typical plant cell

Cell Structures Found in Both Animal and Plant Cells Table

Structure Function

Contains genetic material (DNA) which

Nucleus
controls the activities of the cell
A gel like substance composed of water and
cell solutes. It supports the internal cell
Cytoplasm
structures and is the site for many chemical
reactions
Holds the cell together, separating the inside
Cell membrane of the cell from the outside. Controls which
substances leave and enter the cell
Found in the cytoplasm, these are the site of
Ribosomes
protein synthesis
The site of aerobic respiration where energy
is released to the cell. Large numbers of
Mitochondria
mitochondria are found in cells that are very
metabolically active, such as muscle cells
Cell Structures Found Only in Plant Cells Table

Structure Function
 Made of cellulose, gives extra support to the
Cell wall
cell
Contain green chlorophyll pigments which
Chloroplasts
absorb light energy during photosynthesis
Contains cell sap which is a solution of
Permanent vacuole dissolved sugars and ions. It is used for
storage and support of the cell structure

Animal and Plant Cell Diagrams

An animal and plant cell as seen under a light microscope; only larger structures are visible under a light microscope
so smaller structures such as ribosomes will not be visible

Identifying Cell Structures and Function

• Within the cytoplasm, the following organelles are visible in almost all cells except prokaryotes when looking
at higher magnification (i.e. using an electron microscope):
o Mitochondria (singular: mitochondrion) are organelles found throughout the cytoplasm
o Ribosomes are tiny structures that can be free within the cytoplasm or attached to a system of membranes
within the cell known as Endoplasmic Reticulum
▪ Endoplasmic reticulum studded with ribosomes looks rough under the microscope; this gives rise
to its name of Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum (often shortened to R.E.R.)
o Vesicles can also be seen using a higher magnification - these are small circular structures found moving
throughout the cytoplasm
 Structures in an animal cell visible under a light microscope and an electron microscope

Structures in a plant cell visible under a light microscope and an electron microscope

Drawing Cells
• To record the observations seen under the microscope (or from photomicrographs taken) a labelled biological
drawing is often made
• Biological drawings are line pictures which show specific features that have been observed when the specimen
was viewed
• There are a number of rules/conventions that are followed when making a biological drawing
Guidelines for microscope drawings

• The conventions are:

o The drawing must have a title
o The magnification under which the observations shown by the drawing are made must be recorded
o A sharp HB pencil should be used (and a good eraser!)
o Drawings should be on plain white paper
o Lines should be clear, single lines
o No shading
o The drawing should take up as much of the space on the page as possible
o Well-defined structures should be drawn
o The drawing should be made with proper proportions
o Label lines should not cross or have arrowheads and should connect directly to the part of the drawing
being labelled
o Label lines should be kept to one side of the drawing (in parallel to the top of the page) and drawn with
a ruler
• Drawings of cells are typically made when visualising cells at a higher magnification power, whereas plan
drawings are typically made of tissues viewed under lower magnifications (individual cells are never drawn in a
plan diagram)

Biological Drawing of an Animal Cell

An example of a tissue plan drawn from an electron micrograph of an animal cell

Biological Drawing of a Plant Cell

 An example of a tissue plan drawn from an electron micrograph of a plant cell

Bacteria Cells
• Bacteria, which have a wide variety of shapes and sizes, all share the following biological
characteristics:
o They are microscopic single-celled organisms
o Possess a cell wall (made of peptidoglycan, not cellulose), cell
membrane, cytoplasm and ribosomes
o Lack a nucleus but contain a circular chromosome of DNA that floats in the cytoplasm
o Plasmids are sometimes present - these are small rings of DNA (also floating in the
cytoplasm) that contain extra genes to those found in the chromosomal DNA
o They lack mitochondria, chloroplasts and other membrane-bound organelles found in
animal and plant cells
• Some bacteria also have a flagellum (singular) or several flagella (plural). These are long, thin,
whip-like tails attached to bacteria that allow them to move
• Examples of bacteria include:
o Lactobacillus (a rod-shaped bacterium used in the production of yoghurt from milk)
o Pneumococcus (a spherical bacterium that acts as the pathogen causing pneumonia)
 A typical bacterial cell

- Staining
➔ Cells are soaked in chemicals/dyes before being examined under a microscope, so
that certain organelles take up the dye, making the cells more visible.
➔ Common stains are:
↳ Methylene blue for animal cells
↳ Iodine solution for plant cells

- Functions of different structures cells:

Structure Description Location Function

Cell Surface Partially permeable layer Surrounding the ➔ Prevents cell’s contents from
Membrane enclosing the cell made cytoplasm escaping
of lipids and proteins ➔ Controls the movement of
substances into and and out of the
Not found in Virus cell cell

Cytoplasm Jelly-like substance Surrounded by the cell ➔ Most chemical reactions take place
containing organelles membrane and fills the here
and food granules entire cell ➔ Contains the organelles, which are
embedded in it
➔ Contain enzymes, salts and food
reserves such as lipids
Nucleus Circular or oval, double Present in the cytoplasm ➔ Nucleus controls:
membrane-bounded ↳ Cell activities
structure ↳ Cell division (contains hereditary
material)
↳ Cell development

Mitochondria Small spherical or Present in cytoplasm ➔ Site of cellular/aerobic respiration

rod-shaped structure ➔ Release energy to sustain
metabolic reactions and cellular
activities

Ribosomes Small circular structures; Present in the ➔ Proteins’ synthesis

membraneless cytoplasm, either
attached to membranes
or lying free
Cell wall Fully permeable, rigid, First outer layer, ➔ Lets water, salts and other
non-living layer made of enclosing the cell substances move through it freely
cellulose in plants. membrane ➔ Gives cells rigidity and structure,
while protecting them from bursting
Extra: Made up of
peptidoglycan in
bacteria, chitin in fungi
and cellulose in plant
cells

Vacuole Large, permanent Inside the cytoplasm ➔ Provides turgidity to plant cells
membrane-bound ➔ Contains water, salts and sugar
structure in plant cells, ➔ Used as a disposal site for
while temporary in by-products
animal cells

Chloroplast Round, oval or Inside the cytoplasm ➔ Site of photosynthesis

disk-shaped structure, ➔ Traps light energy for
containing pigment photosynthesis
called chlorophyll

Circular DNA Single, coiled, circular Inside the cytoplasm ➔ Controls:

chromosome ↳ Cell division
↳ Cell growth
↳ Cell activities

Plasmids Circular pieces of DNA Inside the cytoplasm ➔ Contain extra genes than those in
the circular DNA to aid in the
processes of reproduction and
survival
KEY:

Only plant cells

Only animal cells
Only bacterial cells

Both plant and animal cells

Both plant and bacterial cells

All three cells

- Specialised Cells
➔ Specialised cells have specific functions
➔ Their structures are specialised and specific, to help them in their function.
➔ Examples:
↳ ciliated cells – movement of mucus in the trachea and bronchi away from lungs
↳ root hair cells – absorption of ions and water
↳ palisade mesophyll cells – photosynthesis
↳ neurones – conduction of electrical impulses
↳ red blood cells – transport of oxygen
↳ sperm and egg cells (gametes) – fertilisation and hence reproduction
 - Examples of specialised cells according to 2023-2025 syllabus:

- Red Blood Cell

Function:
➔ Contains a red pigment - haemoglobin - which enables the cell to transport oxygen
from the lungs to all parts of the body.

Adaptive Features:
➔ Bi concave → Increases surface area to volume ratio; as a result, O2 can diffuse in
and out of the cell quicker
➔ Flexible and elastic → So they can squeeze into the capillaries

- Root Hair Cells

Function:
➔ Absorb water through osmosis and uptake mineral salts from the soil through active
transport

Adaptive Features:
➔ Long and narrow root hair/cytoplasmic extension → Increases surface area to
volume ratio of the cell for more efficient absorption
➔ Mitochondria: Many mitochondria are present to provide energy for active transport
➔ Concentrated sap vacuole: Creates a water potential gradient for entry of water into
the cell

Definitions:
- Cells:
➔ All organisms are made of cells.
➔ Cells are fundamental units of life which can survive independently and carry out
necessary functions for survival.
➔ All cells originate from pre-existing cells.
➔ Examples: root hair cell, palisade mesophyll cell, ciliated cell, red blood cell, sperm
cell, egg cell, etc.

- Tissue:
➔ A group of cells with similar structures working together to perform a shared,
specialised function.
➔ Examples: blood - group of blood cells; mesophyll layer - group of spongy and
palisade mesophyll cells, etc.
- Organ:
➔ Structure made up of a group of tissues working
together to perform a specific function.
➔ Examples: Heart - group of muscle tissues; Leaf -
group of mesophyll tissues, vascular tissues, etc.

- Organ systems:
➔ Group of organs with related functions working together to perform a bodily
function.
➔ Examples: Cardiovascular system - group of organs
such as blood vessels and heart, etc; Shoot system -
group of organs such as stem, leaves, etc.

- Organism:
➔ An individual animal or plant, formed by all the organs and
systems working together to produce an independent living
thing.

Size of Specimens:

➔ Magnification = image size/actual size

➔ Conversion of units:
↳ 1000000 micrometres = 1 metre
↳ 10000 micrometres = 1 centimetre
↳ 1000 micrometres = 1 millimetre
 Examining Cells Under the Microscope
Viewing cells under the microscope

• Many biological structures are too small to be seen by the naked eye
• Optical microscopes are an invaluable tool for scientists as they allow
for tissues, cells and larger organelles to be seen and studied
• Light is directed through a thin layer of biological material that is supported on a
glass slide
• This light is focused through several lenses so that an image is visible through
the eyepiece
• Getting a visible image requires a very thin sample of biological tissue because
light has to pass through the sample and into the lenses of the microscope
• The most common specimens to observe under a light microscope are cheek
cells (animal cells) and onion cells (plant cells)
• A stain is often used to ensure cell structures are clearly visible under the
microscope

General method

• Specimens must be prepared on a microscope slide to be observed under a

light microscope
• This must be done carefully to avoid damaging the biological specimen and the
structures within it

• Preparing a slide using a liquid specimen:

o Add a few drops of the sample to the slide using a pipette
o Cover the liquid/smear with a coverslip and gently press down to remove
air bubbles
o Wear gloves to ensure there is no cross-contamination of foreign cells
• Preparing a slide using a solid specimen:
o Use scissors to cut a small sample of the tissue
o Peel away or cut a very thin layer of cells from the tissue sample to be
placed on the slide (using a scalpel or forceps)
o Some tissue samples need to be treated with chemicals to kill/make the
tissue rigid
o Gently place a coverslip on top and press down to remove any air
bubbles
o A stain may be required to make the structures visible depending on the
type of tissue being examined
▪ Commonly used stains include methylene blue to stain cheek
cells and iodine to stain onion cells
o Take care when using sharp objects and wear gloves to prevent the stain
from dying your skin
• When using an optical microscope always start with the lowest power
objective lens:
 o It is easier to find what you are looking for in the field of view
o This helps to prevent damage to the lens or coverslip in case the stage
has been raised too high
• Preventing the dehydration of tissue:
o The thin layers of material placed on slides can dry up rapidly
o Adding a drop of water to the specimen (beneath the coverslip) can
prevent the cells from being damaged by dehydration
• Unclear or blurry images:
o Switch to the lower power objective lens and try using the coarse focus to
get a clearer image
o Consider whether the specimen sample is thin enough for light to pass
through to see the structures clearly
o There could be cross-contamination with foreign cells or bodies

Using a microscope diagram

Light microscopes have a lens in the eyepiece which is fixed and two or three
objective lenses of different powers
Viewing plant tissue

• An ideal tissue is the onion epidermis (found between the layers of onions)
because it forms a layer just one cell thick
o Being a non-photosynthetic tissue, onion epidermis is not green as it
does not contain any chloroplasts

Apparatus

• The key components of an optical microscope you will need to use are:
o The eyepiece lens
o The objective lenses
o The stage
o The light source
o The coarse and fine focus
• Other apparatus used:
o Forceps
o Scissors
o Scalpel
o Coverslip
o Slides
o Pipette
o Iodine solution

Viewing onion cells under the microscope diagram

 Care must be taken to avoid smudging the glass slide or trapping air bubbles
under the coverslip

Viewing animal tissue

 • Human cheek cells are a good choice for examination under the light
microscope because they are:
o Plentiful
o Easy to obtain safely
o Can be obtained without an overly intrusive process
o Relatively undifferentiated and so will display the main cell structures

Safety considerations

• Do not perform the sampling on a person who has a cold, cough, throat
infection etc.
o To avoid spreading the infection to others
• Concentrated methylene blue is toxic if ingested
o Wear gloves and do NOT allow children to handle methylene blue
solution or have access to the bottle of solution

Apparatus

• Glass microscope slides

• Cover slips

• Paper towels or tissue

• Staining solution
o Methylene blue solution
▪ 0.5% to 1%

▪ Dilute according to concentration of the stock solution

• Plastic pipette or dropper

• Sterile, individually packed cotton wool buds or swabs

Method

• Brush teeth thoroughly with normal toothbrush and toothpaste

o This removes bacteria from teeth so they don't obscure the view of the
cheek cell
• Take a clean, sterile cotton swab and gently scrape the inside cheek surface of
the mouth for 5-10 seconds
• Smear the cotton swab on the centre of the microscope slide for 2 to 3 seconds
• Add a drop of methylene blue solution
• Place a coverslip on top
o Lay the coverslip down at one edge and then tilt it down flat
▪ This reduces bubble formation under the coverslip
 • Absorb any excess solution by allowing a paper towel to touch one side of the
coverslip.
• Place the slide on the microscope, with 4 x or 10 objective in position and find a
cell
• Then view at higher magnification to reveal more detail
• Methylene blue stains negatively charged molecules in the cell, including DNA
and RNA
o This causes the nucleus and mitochondria appear darker than their
surroundings
• The cells seen are squamous epithelial cells from the outer epithelial layer of
the mouth

Viewing cheek cells under the microscope diagram

Parts of the cell that can be seen with a light microscope

• Nucleus
• Mitochondria
• Cell membrane
• Cytoplasm

Parts of the cell that cannot be seen with a light microscope

• Ribosomes*
• Endoplasmic reticulum*
• Golgi*
• Details of the nucleus, mitochondria and cell membrane

* these are parts of the cell that you don't need to know the names of, but they are
included here as examples of very small structures within the cell

From SAVE MY EXAMS (SOME WERE LEFT ☹)

Specialised cells in animals

• Specialised cells are those which have developed certain characteristics in order
to perform specific functions
• These differences are controlled by genes in the nucleus
• Cells specialise by undergoing differentiation: this is a process by which cells develop
the structure and characteristics needed to be able to carry out their functions

Specialised Cells in Animals Table

Cell Function Adaptation

• Hair-like structures form on the

surface of the cell called cilia
Movement of mucus in the
• These beat to move mucus and
Ciliated cell trachea and bronchi of the
trapped particles up and out of
chest cavity
the trachea

• Long so that nerves can run to

Nerve cell Conduction of impules
and from different parts of the
 body to the central nervous
system
• The cell has extensions and
branches for communication.
The axon is insulated for speed
of transmission of the nerve
impulse

• Biconcave disc shape increases

surface area for more efficient
diffusion of oxygen
• Contains haemoglobin for to
Red blood cell Transport of oxygen
carry oxygen
• No nucleus to increase space for
carrying oxygen

• The head contains the genetic

material for fertilisation in a
haploid nucleus (containing half
the normal number of
chromosomes)
• The acrosome in the head
Sperm cell Reproduction contains digestive enzymes so
the sperm cell can penetrate the
egg cell
• The mid-piece has many
mitochondria to provide energy
for tail movement

• Contains a lot of cytoplasm

which has nutrients for the
growth of the early embryo
• Haploid nucleus contains
Egg cell Reproduction genetic material for fertilisation
• Cell membrane changes after
fertilisation by a single sperm
cell so no more sperm can enter

Diagrams of specialised cells in animals

Ciliated cell
Nerve cell
Red blood cells
 Sperm cell

Egg cell

Specialised Cells in Plants Table

Cell Function Adaptation

• Root hair increases the surface

area to ensure maximum
absorption of water and minerals
Absorption of water • Walls are thin to ensure water
Root hair cell
and minerals from soil moves through quickly
• No chloroplast present as no light
underground

• No top or bottom cell walls for

continuous flow of water
Conduction of water • Cells are dead so no organelles to
through the plant; ensure a smooth stream of water
Xylem vessel
provides support for the can flow
plant • Thickened cell walls with lignin to
provide structural support
 • Column shaped to maximise
absorption of sunlight
Palisade mesophyll
Photosynthesis • Contains many chloroplasts for
cell
maximum photosynthesis

Diagrams of specialised cells in plants

Root hair cell

Xylem structure
 Palisade mesophyll cell

Levels of Organisation in an Organism

Level Description

Cells Basic functional and structural units in a living organism

GRoups of cells of similar structure working together to perform the
Tissues
same function
Made from different tissues working together to perform a specific
Organs
function
Organ Groups of organs with related functions working together to perform
systems body functions

Levels of organisation diagram

 An example of the different levels of organisation

Levels of Organisation Examples Table

Organ system Organ Tissue

• Epidermis mesophyll
• Xylem
Shoot system Leaf, stem, flower, fruit
• Phloem

• Xylem
• Phloem
Root system Root, tuber
• Ground tissue

• Muscle
• Connective
Oesophagus, stomach, small
Digestive system • Nerve
and large intestines
• Epithelial

• Muscle
• Connective
Circulatory system Heart, arteries, veins • Nerve
• Epithelial

• Bone marrow
Immune system Thymus, spleen
• Muscle
Respiratory system Trachea, bronchi, lungs • Connective
• Nerve
 • Epithelial

• Muscle
• Connective
Excretory system Liver, kidney, skin, lungs • Nerve
• Epithelial

• Nerve
Nervous system Brain , spinal cord
• Muscle
• Connective
Ovary, uterus, vagina,
Reproductive system • Nerve
penis, testes
• Epithelial

Magnification Formula
Calculating magnification and specimen size using millimetres as units

• Magnification is calculated using the following equation:

Magnification = Image size ÷ Actual size

• A better way to remember the equation is using an equation triangle:

Magnification equation

• Rearranging the equation to find things other than the magnification becomes easy when
you remember the triangle - whatever you are trying to find, place your finger over it and
whatever is left is what you do, so:
o Magnification = image size / actual size
 o Actual size = image size / magnification
o Image size = magnification x actual size

Remember magnification does not have any units and is just written as ‘x 10’ or ‘x 5000’

Worked example

An image of an animal cell is 30 mm in size and it has been magnified by a factor of x 3000.
What is the actual size of the cell?

To find the actual size of the cell:

Worked example using the magnification equation

 Chapter 03: Difussion Osmosis and Surface area volume ratio
Q: What do you mean by diffusion?

Answer:

The net movement of molecules and ions from a

region of their higher concentration to a region

of their lower concentration down a concentration

gradient, as a result of their random movement.

Example: Diffusion of CO2 out of the lungs and

O2 in the RBC/cells etc.

Brownian motion: It is the random, uncontrolled movement of particles in a fluid as they

constantly collide with other molecules.

Q: Where does the energy for diffusion and osmosis come from?

Answer:

The molecules in a gas, a liquid or a solid are in constant

motion due to their kinetic energy. Molecules are in

constant movement and collide with each other. These

collisions cause the molecules to move in random directions.

Over time, however, more molecules will be propelled into

the less concentrated area. Thus, the net movement of

molecules is always from more tightly packed areas to less

tightly packed areas.

1
 Many things can diffuse. Odors diffuse through the air; salt diffuses through water and

nutrients diffuse from the blood to the body tissues.

(Note: from the organism’s point of view, no energy needs to be provided).

Q: What are the factors affecting the rate of diffusion.

Answer:

The speed with which a substance diffuses through a

cell wall or cell membrane will depend on-

• Surface area: large surface area increases the

rate of diffusion because there is more area

through which substance can diffuse.

• Temperature: An increase in temperature causes

an increase in the kinetic energy which molecules and ions possess. This enables them to

move faster, so the process of diffusion speeds up.

• Concentration gradient: The bigger the

difference in the concentration of a

substance on either side of a membrane,

the faster it will tend to diffuse. The

difference is called a concentration

gradient or diffusion gradient.

• Distance: The shorter the distance,

the faster it diffuses.

Example: When oxygen diffuses from

the alveoli of the lungs into red blood

cells, it has to travel through the cell

membranes of the alveoli, the blood

capillaries and the membrane of red

2
 blood cells in addition to the cytoplasm of each cell. This increased distance that slows

down the diffusion rate.

Q: What do you mean by osmosis?

Answer:

It is the diffusion of water molecules from a

region of higher water potential (dilute solution)

to a region of lower water potential

(concentrated solution), through a partially

permeable membrane.

Or

It is the movement of water molecules from a

region of low concentrated region of solutes to

a region of high concentrated region of solutes

through a semi-permeable membrane.

• Water Potential- availability of free water

molecules.

• Semi/Partially permeable membrane:

A membrane that allows certain molecules

to pass through but stops the other molecules.

Q: How are plants supported by the pressure of water inside the cells pressing outwards on the cell wall?

Answer:

When water enters a plant cell by osmosis, the vacuole and cytoplasm of the plant swell. The

swelling puts pressure on the cell membrane, and it presses against the cell wall. The cell wall,

however, cannot burst and it presses back on its content. The results are a tight and firm plant

cell. This pressure supports plants that contain no wood and help them to stay upright.

3
Q: What happens when a cell is dissolved in Hypertonic or Isotonic or Hypotonic solutions?

Answer:

Isotonic Solution:

The concentration of solute in the solution can be equal to the concentration of solute in cells.

In this situation, the cell is in an isotonic solution (iso = equal). A cell will retain its normal shape

in the solution.

Hypertonic Solution:

The concentration of solute in the solution can be greater than the concentration of solute in

the cell. The cell is described as being in a hypertonic solution (hyper = greater than normal). A

cell will appear to shrink as the water flows out of the cell and into the surrounding environment.

If an RBC is placed in such solution, it will shrink (crenation).

Hypotonic solution:

The concentration of solute in the solution can be less than the concentration of solute in the

cell. The cell is described as being in a hypotonic solution (hypo = less than normal). A cell will

appear swollen as the water flows in the cell and the cell might rupture. If an RBC is placed in

such solution, it will swell or rupture (hemolysis).

4
 Type of solution Concentration of solute Concentration of water Effect on cell

Hypertonic Higher outside of cell Lower outside of the cell Cell loses water, shrinks.

Isotonic Same inside and outside Same inside and outside Cell loses and gains water,

of cell of the cell retains shape.

Hypotonic Lower outside of cell Higher outside of cell Cell gains water, expands.

Q: Explain the effects on plant tissues of immersing them in solution of different concentration.

Answer:

Let’s immerse plant cells in three different concentrations of solution.

1. Hypertonic. 2. Isotonic solution. 3. Hypotonic solution.

1. When a plant cell is immersed in a solution of lower water potential, water from the

cytoplasm of the cell comes out. Thus, the cell membrane gets ripped away from the cell

wall. This process is called plasmolysis. The cell becomes weak and flaccid as there is not

enough water present in the cytoplasm to support the cell and help it maintain the shape.

2. When a plant cell is immersed in a solution of equal water potential to their cytoplasm,

there is no net movement of water. This means the volume or shape of the plant cell is

unlikely to change.

3. When a plant cell is immersed in a solution of higher water potential than their cell

cytoplasm, water diffuses down its concentration gradient into the cell by osmosis. The

cytoplasm and the vacuole swells after water diffuses into the plant cell by osmosis. The

swelling vacuole and cytoplasm press the membrane against the cell wall (this pressure is

known as turgor pressure). The cell wall is stronger and holds the plant cell intact. This

blow-up state after water has diffused into the plant cell by osmosis is called turgid.

5
Q: What do you mean by Active Transport?

Answer:

Active transport is the movement of

particles through a cell membrane from a

region of lower concentration to a region

of higher concentration using the energy

from respiration.

Active transport is involved in a number

of processes occurring within an organism. Such as:

Plant:

Active transport takes place in plant roots. When ions (magnesium/nitrates) which are needed

for metabolism is in short supply in the soil water, the ions are absorbed by root hair cells by

active transport.

Animal:

Food molecules such as glucose is initially absorbed into the small intestine by diffusion. It will

be at a high concentration at first so there is no need to use up energy through active transport,

as it can move down a concentration gradient.

However, it is important to absorb as much glucose as possible and so it is worth the body

expending energy (active transport) to absorb all glucose molecules from the small intestine

once passive transport can do no more.

6
Q: Explain how protein molecules move particles across a membrane by active transport.

Answer:

• Particles are moved across the membrane during active transport by proteins called

carrier proteins.

• They are embedded in the cell membrane. They are the same size as the membrane and

thus are in contact with the surroundings of the cell and the cytoplasm.

• The proteins use energy to open up to the outside of the cell. The molecules or ions

enter the carrier and attaches to it.

• Using energy, the carrier proteins changes shape and open up into the cell. The

molecule or ion is released into the cell.

Q: What is surface area to volume ratio?

Answer:

It refers to the amount of surface a structure has relative to its size/volume. To calculate

the SA/V, simply divide the surface area by the volume.

It is one of the factors that determines how quickly substances can diffuse into and out of

the cell. Small cells have high SA/V, and are therefore efficient in diffusion.

7
Calculation:

Can you guess the answers of the following questions?

• Why are we made up of trillions of tiny cells, why not one giant cell?

• How do Elephants lose their body heat?

• How do Whales maintain their body temperature. Why do we wrap around

our hands during winter?
 Chapter 4 ENZYMES

What Are Enzymes?

• Enzymes are biological catalysts
• This is because they are:
o Catalysts that speed up the rate of a chemical reaction without being
changed or used up in the reaction
o Made from the biological molecule protein
• They are necessary to all living organisms as they maintain reaction speeds of all
metabolic reactions (all the reactions that keep an organism alive) at a rate that
can sustain life
o For example, if we did not produce digestive enzymes, it would take around 2 - 3
weeks to digest one meal; with enzymes, it takes around 4 hours

How Do Enzymes Work?

• The enzyme is made from protein that is folded into a very specific 3D shape
• Part of this 3D shape is a section of the enzyme called the active site
• The active site is the section of the enzyme that binds to the substrate (the reactant)
• When the enzyme binds to the substrate it is called the enzyme-substrate complex

The formation of the enzyme-substrate complex diagram

The enzyme-substrate complex forms when the substrate binds to the active site of the enzyme

• The product is made from the substrate(s) and is released

• After the product is released the enzyme is free to bind to a new substrate and repeat the
reaction again

Diagram showing how enzymes work

Enzymes act as biological catalysts

Enzyme Action & Specificity

• Enzymes are specific to one particular substrate(s) as the active site of the
enzyme, where the substrate attaches, is a complementary shape to the
substrate
• This is because the enzyme is a protein and has a specific 3D shape
o Different types of enzymes have a different combination of amino
acids in the protein, which results in a different shape
• This is known as the lock and key hypothesis
o The active site is the lock and the substrate is the key
 o Only specific shaped keys can fit into each lock

The lock and key model of enzyme action diagram

The lock and key model of enzyme action results in enzyme specificity

Measuring Reactants & Products

• The progress of enzyme-catalysed reactions can be investigated by:
o Measuring the rate of formation of a product
o Measuring the rate of disappearance of a substrate
• For example, the enzyme catalase releases oxygen gas as a product as it breaks down the
substrate hydrogen peroxide
o The oxygen gas can be collected and the volume is measured using a measuring
cylinder or a gas syringe
Measuring the rate of product formation of an enzyme-catalysed reaction diagram

The rate of oxygen production is measured in order to determine the rate of the catalase
enzyme activity

Investigating the Effect of Temperature on Amylase

• Starch solution is heated to a set temperature
• Iodine is added to wells of a spotting tile
• Amylase is added to the starch solution and mixed well
• Every minute, droplets of solution are added to a new well of iodine solution
• This is continued until the iodine stops turning blue-black (this means there is no more
starch left in the solution as the amylase has broken it all down)
• Time taken for the reaction to be completed is recorded
• Experiment is repeated at different temperatures
• The quicker the reaction is completed, the faster the enzyme is working

Investigating the effect of temperature on amylase diagram

The rate of amylase activity can be determined by how quickly the wells of iodine stop turning
blue-black when the reaction solution is added

Investigating the Effect of pH on Amylase

• Place single drops of iodine solution in rows on the tile
• Label a test tube with the pH to be tested
• Use the syringe to place 2cm3 of amylase in the test tube
• Add 1cm3 of buffer solution to the test tube using a syringe
• Use another test tube to add 2cm3 of starch solution to the amylase and buffer solution,
start the stopwatch whilst mixing using a pipette
• After 10 seconds, use a pipette to place one drop of mixture on the first drop of iodine,
which should turn blue-black
• Wait another 10 seconds and place another drop of mixture on the second drop of iodine
• Repeat every 10 seconds until iodine solution remains orange-brown
• Repeat experiment at different pH values - the less time the iodine solution takes to
remain orange-brown, the quicker all the starch has been digested and so the better the
enzyme works at that pH

Investigating the effect of pH on amylase diagram

The rate of amylase activity can be determined by how quickly the wells of iodine stop turning
blue-black when the reaction solution is added

Enzymes: Temperature & pH

The effect of temperature

• The specific shape of an enzyme is determined by the amino acids that make the
enzyme
• The three-dimensional shape of an enzyme is especially important around the active
site area; this ensures that the enzyme’s substrate will fit into the active site enabling the
reaction to proceed
• Enzymes work fastest at their ‘optimum temperature’ – in the human body, the
optimum temperature is around 37°C
• Heating to high temperatures (beyond the optimum) will start to break the bonds that
hold the enzyme together – the enzyme will start to distort and lose its shape – this
reduces the effectiveness of substrate binding to the active site reducing the activity of
the enzyme
• Eventually, the shape of the active site is lost completely and the enzyme is described
as being ‘denatured’
• Substrates cannot fit into denatured enzymes as the specific shape of their active site
has been lost

Enzyme denaturation diagram

Denaturation is largely irreversible – once enzymes are denatured they cannot
regain their proper shape and activity will stop

• Increasing temperature from 0°C to the optimum increases the activity of enzymes as
the more energy the molecules have the faster they move and the number
of collisions with the substrate molecules increases, leading to a faster rate of
reaction
• This means that low temperatures do not denature enzymes, but at lower temperatures
with less kinetic energy both enzymes and their substrates collide at a lower rate

The effect of temperature on enzyme activity diagram

This graph shows the effect of temperature on the rate of activity of an enzyme
The effect of pH

• The optimum pH for most enzymes is 7 but some that are produced in acidic
conditions, such as the stomach, have a lower optimum pH (pH 2) and some that are
produced in alkaline conditions, such as the duodenum, have a higher optimum pH (pH
8 or 9)
• If the pH is too high or too low, the bonds that hold the amino acid chain together to
make up the protein can be destroyed
• This will change the shape of the active site, so the substrate can no longer fit into it,
reducing the rate of activity
• Moving too far away from the optimum pH will cause the enzyme to denature and
activity will stop

Enzyme denaturing due to pH changes diagram

If pH is increased or decreased away from the optimum, then the shape of the
enzyme is altered

The effect of pH on enzyme activity diagram

This graph shows the effect of pH on the rate of activity of an enzyme from the
duodenum
 hemical Elements
• Most of the molecules in living organisms fall into four categories: carbohydrates,
proteins, lipids and DNA
• These all contain carbon and so are described as organic molecules

Chemical Elements Table

Molecule Chemical Elements

Carbohydrate Carbon, oxygen, and hydrogen
All contain carbon, oxygen, hydrogen, and nitrogen
Protein (and some contain small amounts of other elements
such as sulfur)
Lipid Carbon, oxygen, and hydrogen
DNA Carbon, oxygen, hydrogen, nitrogen, and phosphorous
Large Molecules are Made from Smaller Molecules
Carbohydrates

• Long chains of simple sugars

• Glucose is a simple sugar (a monosaccharide)
• When two glucose molecules join together maltose is formed (a disaccharide)
• When lots of glucose molecules join together starch, glycogen or cellulose can form (a
polysaccharide)

Carbohydrates in animals and plants diagram

 Glycogen, cellulose and starch are all made from glucose molecules

Lipids

• Most lipids (fats and oils) in the body are made up of triglycerides
• Their basic unit is one glycerol molecule chemically bonded to three fatty acid chains
• The fatty acids vary in size and structure
• Lipids are divided into fats (solids at room temperature) and oils (liquids at room
temperature)

Triglyceride diagram
 Structure of a triglyceride with a glycerol and three fatty acids

Proteins

• Long chains of amino acids

• There are about 20 different amino acids
• They all contain the same basic structure but the ‘R’ group is different for each one
• When amino acids are joined together a protein is formed
• The amino acids can be arranged in any order, resulting in hundreds of thousands of
different proteins
• Even a small difference in the order of the amino acids results in a different protein being
formed

Amino acid chemical structure diagram

General amino acid structure. The part that is different for each amino acid is represented by
the letter R.

Amino acids join together to form proteins

Amino acids are the monomers that join to form a peptide chain that folds into a functional
protein

DNA

• DNA, or deoxyribonucleic acid, is the molecule that contains the instructions for the
growth and development of all organisms
• It consists of two strands of DNA wound around each other in what is called a double
helix

Structure of DNA in the cell diagram

 DNA, chromosomes and the nucleus

• The individual units of DNA are called nucleotides

Nucleotide structure diagram

 The structure of a nucleotide

Food Tests
Test for starch using iodine

• We can use iodine to test for the presence or absence of starch in a food
sample

Iodine test for starch diagram

 Use this image

Iodine turns blue-black in the presence of starch

• Add drops of iodine solution to the food sample

• A positive test will show a colour change from orange-brown to blue-black

Placing iodine on a potato diagram

Use this image

Testing a potato to prove the presence of starch

Test for glucose (a reducing sugar)

• Add Benedict's solution into sample solution in test tube

• Heat at 60-70 °C in water bath for 5 minutes
• Take test tube out of water bath and observe the colour
• A positive test will show a colour change from blue to orange or brick red

The Benedict's test for glucose diagram

Use this image

The Benedict's solution turns brick red when heated in the presence of glucose

Test for protein

• Add drops of Biuret solution to the food sample

• A positive test will show a colour change from blue to violet / purple
 The Biuret test for protein diagram

Use this image

Biuret solution turns purple in the presence of protein

Test for lipids

• Food sample is mixed with 2cm3 of ethanol and shaken

• The ethanol is added to an equal volume of cold water
• A positive test will show a cloudy emulsion forming

The ethanol emulsion test for lipids

 Use this image

The ethanol emulsion test shows a cloudy white positive result

 HANDOUT – 2 1st Term (2024-2025)

Name: Class: VIII Roll: Section:

Subject: Biology Teachers: Ummamah Amin /Sharmin Akhtar Shova Date:

Chapter 05: Nutrition

Biomolecules are substances that are produced by living cells or by organisms. They are used for energy,
has structural properties, used for growth and repair. There are 4 major types of Biomolecules, They
are:

• Carbohydrates
• Proteins
• Lipids
• Nucleic Acids

Carbohydrates:
- Are made up of the elements carbon, hydrogen and oxygen.
- They are used as the primary source of energy for the body.
- Carbohydrates are also termed as ‘sugars.

Carbohydrates are found in four forms-

• Monosaccharide: Made up of one form of sugar, or one unit of sugar. For example: Glucose,
Fructose, and galactose.

• Disaccharide: (Di means two), Made up of two units of monosaccharaides bonded with each
other. For Examples- Sucrose (1 glucose molecule bonded with one fructose molecule), Lactose
(Galactose with one molecule of glucose)

Page 1 of 85
• Polysaccharide: Polysaccharides are complex carbohydrates formed by the polymerization of a
large number of monomers. Examples of polysaccharides include starch, glycogen, cellulose, etc.
which exhibit extensive branching and are made up of only glucose units. Large numbers of
monosaccharides form a chain of carbohydrates. This is known to be a polymer of
carbohydrates. The monosaccharaides are bonded to each other via glycosidic linkage via a
process known as condensation polymerization.

• For Example- Starch, Glycogen, Cellulose (structural).

1. Starch is composed of two components- one has linear chain and the other is a much-branched
chain.
2. Glycogen is called animal starch. It has a structure similar to starch, but has more extensive
branching.
Page 2 of 85
 3. Cellulose is a structural carbohydrate and is the main structural component of the plant cell
wall. It is a fibrous polysaccharide with high tensile strength. In contrast to starch and
glycogen, cellulose forms a linear polymer.

Functions of Carbohydrates

➢ The main function of carbohydrates is to provide energy and food to the body and to
the nervous system.

➢ Carbohydrates are known as one of the basic components of food, including sugars, starch, and
fibre which are abundantly found in grains, fruits and milk products.

➢ It is also involved in fat metabolism.

➢ Inhibits the breakdown of proteins for energy as they are the primary source of energy.

An enzyme by name amylase assists in the

breakdown of starch into glucose via a
series of reactions known as Hydrolysis,
finally to produce energy for metabolism.

Test for Starch: This test is known as the Iodine Test.

1. Mix your sample with water to create a solution. Add a few drops of iodine to your solution, if the
solution turns blue-black, it will be a positive indicator for the presence of starch.
Page 3 of 85
2. If testing for the presence of starch in plants, take a piece of the plant, boil it first to remove the
waxy layer on top. Then add a few drops of iodine to the given sample. The regions where the blue-
black color shows up will indicate the presence of starch.

Test For Reducing Sugar:

Some Carbohydrates have reducing properties when added to a Benedict’s Solution (copper (II)
Sulphate solution) and are known as reducing sugars.

Benedicts Test:
- To 2 cm3 of glucose solution add 2cm3 of Benedict’s solution.
- Shake the Mixture and heat it by immersing the test tube in a beaker of boiling water for 5
minutes.
- A red precipitate would form if there is a reducing sugar present.

Control:
Add 2 cm3 of Benedict’s solution to 2 cm3 of distilled water and carry out the same steps as above.

Why are Glycogen and Starch suitable storage Materials:

• They are insoluble in water so they do not change the osmotic pressure in cells.
• They are large molecules unable to diffuse through the cell membrane
• They can easily be converted to glucose when needed
• Compact in shape so they take up very less space in cells

Fats:
Fats are another form of energy providing food as well as a very good storage units in case of animal
cells. They consist of the elements carbon, hydrogen and oxygen but they contain very less oxygen in
proportion to hydrogen.
Fats can be broken down into smaller compounds with the help of reaction known as hydrolysis.
Hydrolysis is the breakdown of a compound using water molecules.
Fats are broken down to smaller compounds known as glycerol and fatty acids.

Page 4 of 85
 • The difference between fats and oils is the state. We call it fats when they are solid and we
call it oil when they are in a liquid state.

Functions of Fats:

- Efficient storage of energy.

- Insulating material especially under the skin to prevent excessive heat loss.
- Acts as a solvent for fat-soluble vitamins and essential substances such as sex hormones
- Acts as a means to restrict water loss from the surface of the skin. The sebaceous glands in
the skin forms a thin layer over the surface, thus reducing the rate of evaporation of water.
This also reduces the rate of heat loss form the skin as heat cannot escape through sweat- due
to sweat being water based it cant pass through the layer of oil.
- Shock Absorbent

Sources of Fats:
Fats are usually found in butter, cheese, fatty meats and liver of fishes. Humans and other mammal
can manufacture their own fat requirements; thus, fat is not essential to their diet.

Two types of Fats:

1. Saturated fats: They are fat that’s found mostly in animal bodies. Saturated fats do not contain
any double bonds and associated with this type of fat is another substance known as cholesterol. It’s
a substance that can lead to cardio vascular diseases.

2. Unsaturated Fats: Unsaturated fats have double bonds present in them. This kind of fat is usually
found from vegetable fat and are much better as a nutrient. It is recommended that animal fats
should be replaced with vegetable fats in diet.

Test for Fats: This is called the Ethanol emulsion test.

- If liquid sample, add 2cm3 of ethanol to the sample in a test tube

- Shake the mixture thoroughly and if fats are present a milky white emulsion will form.
- If sample is solid, break down/ grind the sample and add 2cm3 of ethanol and shake
thoroughly
- After the solid particles have settled, decant the ethanol into another test tube containing
water, a cloudy white solution will be formed.

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Proteins:

Proteins are very complex organic substances containing carbon, hydrogen, oxygen and nitrogen. Some
protein molecules also contain phosphorus and sulfur. They are the most complicated out of all the food
substances. Every protein molecule is built up from simpler compounds known as amino acids.

Amino acids:
An amino acid posse an amino group (-NH2), an acidic group (-COOH) and a hydrocarbon denoted by a
hydrocarbon side chain denoted by R. The general formula for an amino acid can be outlined as:

• There are 22 naturally occurring amino acids in animal and plant proteins. When two amino acids
or proteins link up, they form chains known as peptides. The reaction by which two amino acids
bond together is via condensation reaction. The strong bond that forms between these animals
is known as a peptide bond.

• We can thus see that the peptide bond (-CO-NH) is formed between the amine group of one
molecule and the carboxyl group of the adjacent molecule followed by the elimination of a water
molecule. This bond is otherwise an amide linkage. When peptide bonds are established among
more than ten amino acids, they together form a polypeptide chain

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Structure of Proteins:
- A protein molecule has a very complex structure. Protein molecules vary from one another due
to:
1. Type of amino acids
2. Number of amino acids
3. Arrangement of amino acids
- The final protein molecule has a 3d shape to it and there are levels of structures that lead to
the final protein.

❖ The primary structure is the initial chain of amino acids.

❖ The chain can then get coiled due to weak cross-links (hydrogen bonds) which can be easily
broken down by heat acids and alkali. This coiling creates a three-dimensional shape for the
molecules known as the secondary structure.
❖ The chain can form further bond with other chains to create a structure known as a tertiary
structure.
❖ Tertiary structures form bonds with other tertiary structures to produce the final shape for
most proteins known as the quaternary structure.
.
Classification of Proteins: Based on the molecular shape, proteins can be classified into two types.

1. Fibrous Proteins:

When the polypeptide chains run parallel and are held together by hydrogen and disulfide bonds, then
the fiber-like structure is formed. Such proteins are generally insoluble in water. These are water-
insoluble proteins.

Example – keratin (present in hair, wool, and silk) and myosin (present in muscles), etc.

2. Globular Proteins:

This structure results when the chains of polypeptides coil around to give a spherical shape. These
are usually soluble in water.

Example – Insulin and albumins are common examples of globular proteins.

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The functions of proteins:

The body uses proteins for a variety of purposes, and their structure determines how they work.
Several notable functions include:

1. Digestion – The digestive enzymes, which are primarily proteinaceous in origin, carry out
digestion.
2. Movement – Muscles include a protein called myosin, which helps muscles contract, allowing for
movement.
3. Structure and Support – The structural protein known as keratin is what gives humans and
other animals hair, nails, and horns.
4. Cellular communication – Through receptors on their surface, cells can communicate with
other cells and the outside world. These receptors are made of proteins.
5. Act as a messenger – These proteins serve as chemical messengers that facilitate
communication among cells, tissues, and organs

Test for Proteins:

Biuret test
1. Add 2cm³ of egg whiten solution in a test tube and add 1 cm³ of sodium hydroxide solution. Shake
thoroughly.

2. Add 1% copper (ΙΙ) sulphate solution drop by drop, shaking after every drop. After a few minutes
a violet color can be observed.

* Biuret solution (essentially a mixture of the solutions discussed in the steps above) added in equal
volumes to the same sample of egg white will yield the same outcome.

Order of nutrient utilization for humans:

In humans, the primary source of energy is carbohydrates that we obtain form our diet. This is used
to provide us with the energy for our everyday needs.

If the carbohydrate that is available in our body runs out, the stored fat is broken down and converted
to glucose to provide us with energy.
During severe starvation when the fat in our body gets depleted, the body starts breaking down
proteins that make up our muscles. The protein through multiple reactions can be converted to glucose.

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 • Burning 1g of carbohydrate releases 16kJ of energy
• Burning 1g of fat releases 38kJ of energy
• Burning 1g of protein releases 17kJ of energy

Facts:
The average person can go about three days without water.
The general consensus is that an individual can go for 8-21 days without food, however this will
heavily vary from individual to individual.

Vitamins:

Vitamins are organic compounds that are not built in a specific pattern like the other biomolecules.
They do not provide us with energy nor are they used for synthesis of protoplasm. But they are
required in small quantities for maintain normal health and development. We obtain different vitamins
from different sources of food.

Vitamins that are soluble in fats, can be stored I the body in the fat of the body however water-
soluble fats cannot be stored in our body and have to be supplied in our daily diet.

Vitamins and their uses:

Vitamins Sources Functions

D (fat soluble) • Fish liver oils(cod, - Promotes absorption of calcium and phosphorus
halibut), egg yolk, compounds from the intestines
milk and margarine - Enables the body to use these compounds for the
• UV rays can formation of teeth and bones
convert ergo sterol - Deficiency- Increases tooth decay, severe
in the skin to deficiency causes rickets which is poor teeth and
vitamin D bone formation
C (ascorbic acid) • Fresh citrous fruits - Needed for the formation of intercellular
• Fresh green substances
vegetables - Necessary for maintaining healthy epithelial
• Fruit juices tissues.
- Deficiency- Leads to scurvy- swollen bleeding
gums, loosening of teeth, poor healing of wounds
and swollen joints.

Water:

Water is an essential constituent of protoplasm. Many of its functions arise from the fact that water
is the best known solvent for both inorganic salts as well as organic compounds.

Functions of Water:
• The medium in which various chemical reactions occur.
• Transporting agent for-
- Digested food substances from intestines to other parts of the body
- Waste products from tissue cells to excretory organs
- Hormones from their places of origin to regions of the body that requires them
• Essential Major component of:
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 - Blood
- Lubricants in joints
- Digestive juices
• Needed for digestion
• Essential reactant in the process of photosynthesis
• Helps to regulate body temperature

Water requirements:
Amount of water needed in the body depends on the activity of the individual and environmental
conditions.

Minerals:

Minerals are inorganic salts which do not provide energy but are indispensable to bodily functions. We
obtain minerals from our diet. Some minerals are required in large quantities while some are required
in small quantities.

Minerals required in large quantities include- calcium, phosphorus, sodium, chlorine, potassium and
iron.
Minerals needed in small quantities are known as trace elements such as iodine, zinc manganese.

Trace Elements, their sources and functions:

Inorganic Sources Requirements Functions

element
Calcium • Milk, cheese and eggs - About 1g a day in - Needed for building bones
• Small fish eaten with their growing children and teeth
bones - Adults need - Needed for normal
• Cereals, soya, spinach slightly less functioning of the muscles
- Necessary for blood clots
- Deficiency- Rickets

Iron • Liver, red meat and egg - About 0.02g for - Needed for hemoglobin,
yolk the average myoglobin and certain
• Bread, Flour and dark adult enzymes
green vegetables - Pregnant women - Deficiency- Lower levels of
require more hemoglobin level in the
blood causing anaemia

Dietary fiber/ Roughage

These are indigestible fibrous materials e.g., cellulose. These are important because it provides bulk
to the intestinal contents and helps with peristalsis.

Peristalsis is a series of wavelike muscular movements caused by an antagonistic pair of muscles in

the digestive tract. If proper peristalsis does not take place, it becomes difficult to move along the
indigested food along the digestive system and excrete the faeces. This condition is known as
constipation. This condition can be prevented by taking enough fiber and water.

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A Balanced Diet and Food Values:

A diet is everything we consume on the regular.

A balanced diet is a diet that has the right nutrients in the right amounts to meet the daily
needs of our body. A balanced diet will vary from individual to individual.

Diet varies from individual to individual due to:

1. Climate- People living in different temperatures will have different metabolism and adaptations
causing their diet to be different.

2. Body Size- People with bigger body sizes and weights require more energy for their metabolism
than those with smaller build.

3. Age- growing individuals tend to have a higher metabolism than older people as they require more
energy for their growth.

4. Gender- Men normally have a higher heat production than women of the same body size and age as
men usually have a smaller amount of fatty tissue in their bodies.

5. Genetics- Genetic traits and defects also play an important role.

6. Lifestyle- The life we lead, how active we are and the level of day-to-day stress also plays a part
in determining the type of diet that would be ideal for us.

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