GROUP THEORY-LECTURE NOTES

with
definition A
group
& is a
non-empty
sat
together
:

-ab
a
binary operation GxG - G ,
written la,b)

satisfying the following conditions :

i) The operation is associative :

(ab)c =
a(b) .

ii) There is an element gEo such that for any

atG
,

one has ag
=
a =

ga . (We rename this element e)

iii) For a 6 there is element be G such
any
an
,

that ab=e =
ba .. We rename b as a) .

marhile is called the

raity element of G It.
is
unique :

Indeed let e'E6

,
be another element such that ae=aze'a ,
 then
put
are eelze
11
= ele .
But is
identity ,
so

2) For
any
at 6
,
at* also unique .
Indeed , if CEG such that

than both "to

ac = e we
multiply sides
by a
get
(ac)
ce identity
a = in

(a) c = ec = c .

We call at the nese of a

3)
If a
,
b -
G
,
we call ab the frct of a and b . There

are other common notations for the product :

a b
,
axb
,

atb , a ob ,
a xb To .
indicate the notation ,
we write (C ,)

or (6 x) ,
etc .
 4) We
mostly write I for e
, except
when the
operation
In this write P
is t .
case
,
we
for e .

If G has
only one element ,
it must be the identity .

this have called the I igroup

In case
,
we
6=91] , .

or
G 90]
/5) Cancellatio
=
.

laws hold in G : ab =

ac - b =
c .

ba =
ca - b =
c .

Therefore if at6 is a find element the function ,

la : G -

G
,
la(b) =
ab

Indeed b CEG
is bijective .

, antive :
Let ,
such that
 talb) la(c)
=

,
that is ab=ac . Then b=c
by cancellation lan .

elective :
Let b-G .
Then la(ab) =

a(a b) = b .

all Given a set X

,
a
bijection f. x -X is called a

mutation of X .

6) Generalized associativity law holds in

any group
.
That is
,

if an an, ...,
anE6 ,
then
any protect of these elements ,

in this order
,
are equal .

9 (an(a, . . .
(a) ...
1) =

(a 92)(a , an)
,
...
(an19) -

ecise :
Prove this
by induction .

In particular ,
we have power rules :
 · anal =

q"t(aw =
qwr , for all n
,
m +
N .

putting (a-1)m also the rule R

"
have for
-

q we
· = .

a
=
1

We these in additive notation

may express
:

·
49 +
19
=

(n 1)a +

,
n(1a) =
(m)a .

Another consequence is
:

(ab)(b + at) =

q(bb /a t =
a(1)a =

qa = 1 .

Thus Cabl =

bat .

By induction ,
(a , ...an ) =
a , a ...a al

Afintion 1The Ander of

: G is the cardinality of the set G
,
denated

by 161 . If 161 is
finite ,
we call G a
finite group .
Otherwise ,

6 is called an it
group
.
 2) A group G is called bia if ab-ba for all a
,
bec .

3) Let G be a
finite group of order n
,
list the elements

an ,
92 , ...,
92 .
The Anlition
table
of G is the matrix

(a ,
9) (ii)
Notice that the table depends on our choice of the
listing of the

elements in G . In general ,
we choose 9 =1 .

Let (6 %)

I
Arh :
,
be a
group
and G
,
be a sat in
bijection
with G
y G-+G, is a
bijection We can use the
say
:
.

group
structure on 6 to
give a
group
structure on G, as

follows .

ship to the
!
rent
page
 les 1) S is nonabelian In
good Sa biject (i)-(3
:

,, group
o
a
.

, ,

is a
grop
.
We call it the
migroup on a
symbols .

2) We consider X and Syu(x) bijections X+X

may
:

a set .

3) Rotations and
reflections of a square :

1
12

1
Consider two operations: rotations caw
by es demotely r

I 2 about the center

iT
- "T
I
-
4 3 M

->

4 -3 1

Notice
thsame pas ,just u rehy che e
:

square
occupies
I

ID
-

->
I -2
2
I -> 4
4 ,
 I
is reflectio n.

# , 89 s :
is effect en

# , sat

- I!!
4 3

T
L
t
-

3 I 2

⑭ Any relation between these reflections ? A

I 2 2 14 4 3
e -
S
-> - ->

3 3 4 2 3 1 2

So roros = t
other eflcus
I F
At the end me see that there one 8 such opeations :

Y
Pekinfestebe
Dg E I
=

,
r, r ,
s r r s .
I called
, , ,

-> sque

refere to the number

of abmats .

al
Together with Do becomes (closed under
operato id
group
o a
&
.
.

, , inverse ,

associative)
· It is t abelian .

Systems with 2
operations :

Caside the abelian [x +) (4 , +)

grups , ,
·

We know that there are other operates on them , eg .

x .

why ?
# e :
(2 x) 14 x) From naw a ! He or festo to
, , ,
an at greps .

yup
O has no inverse.
Similarly ,
we have <R +) , ,
(4, +) , (kn , tr) ;
Kn =
9103 ,
917 , . . ., (n-13] .

But (4 *, x) , (R*, x) ,
(4 *, x) are
graps .
- [i] =
[i 1) so (u)
+

,
=
[n] .

(i) + (j)
"I
- = [i j] +

R 90]
-

#= p
*, piprine
with
xp is a
grap (a2xSb] Fo if (aL + - [b] .

pab .

Na ↑* b

(8 x) (R+ x) abelian
graps
:

+, , ,
.

positive rationals .

imaginay wit ; 191 -13 x)

it D : -1 i is
, , , ,
a
grap.

Int not underx a f0th abE0

nicomposite is
group
:

a > .

e
q
1 =
6:
(2170/3] but (23] =
[J] =
fr) .

In :
invebble elects in with x is a
group
.

, ,
 GLR) : set of invertible exematrices with real entries

) replace
CGGIR) ,
·
is a
group
.
More
generally,
we
may
R with R K
, , Mp ·

from old
-groups
be
Let G A ,
groups .
We construct the cartesian
product of the sets

6 H
,
:
GxH= 9 (9 h) /
,
seG, heHY .

(6, x) (H 4) he Then GxH becomes under the product

#

en
, , groups .
a
group

(9, h) (g! h) (gxg' hah) Is ; h) =SxH

is
for all (s,h)
=

, ,

conditions
orof : Check the .

En 4x , DgxR etc .

*notation : use -

for the group operation ;

meas something else in difect graps .
 of
-o element an :

G :
group ,
gEG .
We
say
that georder if g=1 for some

the smallest
kEN In .
this case
, positive integer k oth .
gR=1 is called theorder

of g in G

Otherwise , if no such a exists

,
we
say
that
g
has fie order.

- ZER :
has infinite order : n -
20 of 130 .

2 ER +
-
:
2 *40 fr myk .

(2) =Y y
has order 2 :

(2)) =
(c =
(0] .
+ 2 .
(2) =
0 .

ie 11 IiY
,
has orde 4 :

c =

( !? ) = Ss has order 2 .
n G :

group , qEG .

If I
has infinite order
,
then gl's are all distract for kEK .

of :
Suppose for ,
contradiction that ,
g gl for
=
k + -K .
Then

! gk =

geg ->

gk - =
1 -

g
has
fit order .

ark Themen equivalent to futerde

& is If gg for its, the g has
:

:
some a

en G :
grap , gEG :

of fant order .
n .

i)
q = 1
if alk -
ii) g"=g iff kEl mode iii) netd then
has order d.
gt

↑ :
i) Gim : g=I .

Suppose also that gl=1 , By defer kayn Write k=nogtr

.

with The gk %g gr
grat (g) g b)
owr<n .
1 =
=
=
= -
=
1 .
-
=o the

choice n so k n
q
=

,
.
.
 *
-
k=ng the gretgY =1
easy suppose
:

ii) gk=g gk-_ 1 nlk- - kElm .

iii) write r=td .

The (gt=g=1 - - olgt/d .

If olgt => <d ,

then (94 gt = = 1 ->

olg)=ts <n .

Cotary : G : abelian sith .

every g56 has finte order .

Let at6 be an elemet of

largest order Then.

order
of any
elent geodivites ola) .

Roof Suppose for

oo
contradiction that 79e6 : Let be
prime othe
:

, ,
-

p a

paln paye 1 Indeed P

site
sat 4 Icon
.

;
e
pippr -
,
m = ... .
pi ,

If cipi Fi ,
the alm .
So
nXm ->7i :
ci>Pi .

so
pile but
pix m .
I