ephims

Hinties G H
,
:
groups .
A
function f :
G-H is called a
morphism if
f(ab) -
=

f(a)f(b)
1
146 H
dr

for all a be s

: somaphors are
hanoraphons ,
bijectre homourplism= ionaphim .

Talk about homomorphisms in general .

fiR -R*, area"

*
E :

is a
how : fing) =

(y) xy f()f(z)
=

=
.

ot 1=742 not ce"ful

j suj.
:
-

:
.

f +s ntn
f(n+m)
:

: =
m = +
= .

..:
= GxH - 6
,
19 4)
,
-

g .
In G
,
H :

groups , f :
G-H
homomaphim Then .

i)
f(1x) 1 =

; ii)f(st f(g) t; =
iii) Inf =
(f(s)eH(s +63 = H

i) If f is
injectre ,
then GElmt .
/Indeed :

1 :
G- luf is
sijects)
Prove in class .

wa have seen
permutatis and said that they are
fundamental .
Next theorem shows

that
say
abstract
group
can be seen as a
group of pendalous .

#Cayley) Every group : G is

isomorphic to a
group of permutations .

# Permis grory
: .
:

of all permutations of the set G .

Il

bijections G +G .

-
(Perm(6) ,
o) is a
grap .
 there Low G-Permle) This
We show that is an
injective .
.
is
sufficient by the
previous therem .

We define fi G -> perml6) as follows :

let atG
, define Ra :
G-6 , left
91xag

multiplication by a .

Aim la is a
bijection
:

Indeed :

fat is inverse to las

Hence latPernlas .
We defre flal=la.
·
f is a hou :

f(ab) =

las =

29 l !-

(1qoly(g) (a(y(s)) (a(bg) =

=

abg =
lab(g) .

f is
injecte (a by (als) ly(s) for all
gf6
:
· =
> = .

prt g
=
1 : a =

la(1) =

ly(1) =
b .

ay : G :

grap of ordern ,
then G is a
subgrap of Sn

Indeed :

Sufficient to shaw Pemlal ESn :

Put G =

[1 =

9,, 92 , ...,
94 and defie c
:
G -
(1) and
defre
9 ti

Perm (6) - -
Se
(ii6 6)+
+- ( : i -
#(i) .

979(i)

Rh The :
hom .

fiG-Permla) let us
regard the abstract grup elements as concrete

permutations ,
and have the abstract grop G as a concrete
gray flo) of permutates .

call 16
We this how the
repressable .

Tall about representate in

gennal ,
how useful they are etc .

·
In
geneal ,
there are way
difact injecte has 6-Perm(a), since

the Pem(6) (Pen(as)

grap
is
large : 161=K
,
the =

419 ,
001
,
600 .

So at this point it ;
is better to work with the abstract definition .
Late :
will see

representators right be ver useful .

and
# Alternating Groups
the
grops So are
important in may ways .
-

Cayly
of the most natural
one
grups
·

· has
many applicates
·
allows us
to
count things ede .

section fundamental
In this ,
we
prove some
properties .

eles :

let
9a , 92, .., 943 = (n) ,
and is be the permutation
give ly
is(ai) =

ai+ fi =i = b 1
-

=(a) =
a

↑(a) = x of n = ai -

We call is a
ze and date it by la , an ..

and

en 1 ! ' ?? ! I =

1253)
 &hi we have la ,
a
92)....
=

<a = as ...

ap
a
, ) etc .

Certation is
ambiguous
dat
·
(3) = S
,
des He
identity .

Sinitely , (25 4) ,
.

In
gened I-cycles identity
,
= ·

-
·
Product
of ycles is doe sintly :

(152)(253) =
=

(25) (31) -

y
*

Sy can be written as
follows :

(2) 1 ,
(12) , (15) (23)
, ,
(123), (132)7
·
Two cycles 19 , 9
.... apl ,
(b,ba ... bes are called sint of the sets

by bet disjaht

Flee
Sa , ..., am and , ...,
are .

S
let disjoint cycles Then prof
#
re and o be ea=c2 ro
pro
.

W
↓
the
what
& fines a moves

and rice vesa

 Not all
permutates cycles but them products of cycles
·

:
may
are as
express
we
,

I 9↑
1234567
=>

(1487) -

12356)
4358621 7 W
I

The repeat with one of the revoy

idea Stat with
:

1
and follow until back
yougo
Repeat cycles !
#
ven
Any permutation is a
prodat If disjunt cycles .

: Adapt the above

agment .
Use induction on the wate of remay makes .

There let he probat &f

=
<. . .
disjout cycles Then
=

a .
-

· (d =

lan(0(a ) o() , , , ,
- -

(w)7-
rating Groups
#
A 2-cycles is called a
mosition (since . ... )

· let ve be a
trasposition .
The ote)=2 .

# Any permutation is a product al transpositions .

Pf Sufficient
: :

for yales .

(a a
, ... qk) = (a , ar)(away) ...
(an-19n) .*

* This is at mique ,
in gard

Dfetionof permutation
:

is called even if it can be write as a product of even nurobe

of transpositions
-

·
A permutation -
de
-
e
d e n

-
 If writte product of f truspositions then
#

reSy can be as a even number ,

any
other such
expression for a contains even number of ters .

na I disprint cycle
use is "transportat
: a .

Th ci,la is a
product of KI1
disjoint cycles .

#f : The are two cases : is

belong to the sam yale in a

Lij (i a b i d) (i a b) (j, d) 1
sy .
...
c - +

, ..., , -,
-

,
.

, , -, -,
. .

,
.

disjoint
·
is
belong to
differt yales :

Liit .

-(i ,
a ,
---

,
b)(j ,
e
, ...,
d) . =
(a ,
a
,
---

,
b j,
,
---

,
d) - 1 .

it1) (j-1 i
rench
·
:

(i
j j) =
(j-1 j) ,
...
(it2 its (in it 2) (i
, , ,
....