CIV 102: Equilibrium of Physical Systems

General Principles

Sarven Akcelyan
E-mail: [email protected]

Spring 2023
CIV 102: Equilibrium of Physical Systems, Sarven Akcelyan, PhD
General Principles 1
Hibbeler R.C., Engineering Mechanics STATICS, 14th ed. in SI Units, Pearson.
Objectives of Today’s Lecture

• To provide an introduction to the basic quantities and

idealizations of mechanics.
• To give a statement of Newton’s Laws of Motion and
Gravitation.
• To review the principles for applying the SI system of units.
• To examine the standard procedures for performing
numerical calculations.
• To present a general guide for solving problems.

CIV 102: Equilibrium of Physical Systems, Sarven Akcelyan, PhD

General Principles 2
Hibbeler R.C., Engineering Mechanics STATICS, 14th ed. in SI Units, Pearson.
Fundamental Concepts: Basic Quantities
• Length: Length is used to locate the position of a point in space and
thereby describe the size of a physical system. Once a standard unit
of length is defined, one can then use it to define distances and
geometric properties of a body as multiples of this unit.
• Time: Time is conceived as a succession of events. Although the
principles of statics are time independent, this quantity plays an
important role in the study of dynamics.
• Mass: Mass is a measure of a quantity of matter that is used to
compare the action of one body with that of another. This property
manifests itself as a gravitational attraction between two bodies and
provides a measure of the resistance of matter to a change in velocity.
• Force: In general, force is considered as a “push” or “pull” exerted by
one body on another. This interaction can occur when there is direct
contact between the bodies, such as a person pushing on a wall, or it
can occur through a distance when the bodies are physically
separated. Examples of the latter type include gravitational, electrical,
and magnetic forces. In any case, a force is completely characterized
by its magnitude, direction, and point of application.
CIV 102: Equilibrium of Physical Systems, Sarven Akcelyan, PhD
General Principles 3
Hibbeler R.C., Engineering Mechanics STATICS, 14th ed. in SI Units, Pearson.
Fundamental Concepts: Idealization
• Models or idealizations are used in mechanics in order to simplify
application of the theory. Here we will consider three important
idealizations.
• Particle: A particle has a mass, but a
size that can be neglected. For
example, the size of the earth is
insignificant compared to the size of its
orbit, and therefore the earth can be
modeled as a particle when studying its
orbital motion. When a body is idealized
as a particle, the principles of
mechanics reduce to a rather simplified
form since the geometry of the body will
not be involved in the analysis of the
problem.

CIV 102: Equilibrium of Physical Systems, Sarven Akcelyan, PhD

General Principles 4
Hibbeler R.C., Engineering Mechanics STATICS, 14th ed. in SI Units, Pearson.
Fundamental Concepts: Idealization
• Rigid Body: A rigid body can be considered as a combination of a large
number of particles in which all the particles remain at a fixed distance from
one another, both before and after applying a load. This model is important
because the body’s shape does not change when a load is applied, and so we
do not have to consider the type of material from which the body is made. In
most cases the actual deformations occurring in structures, machines,
mechanisms, and the like are relatively small, and the rigid-body assumption is
suitable for analysis.

• Concentrated Force: A concentrated

force represents the effect of a
loading which is assumed to act at a
point on a body. We can represent a
load by a concentrated force,
provided the area over which the load
is applied is very small compared to
the overall size of the body. An
example would be the contact force
between a wheel and the ground.

CIV 102: Equilibrium of Physical Systems, Sarven Akcelyan, PhD

General Principles 5
Hibbeler R.C., Engineering Mechanics STATICS, 14th ed. in SI Units, Pearson.
Newton’s Three Laws of Motions
• First Law. A particle originally at rest, or moving
in a straight line with constant velocity, tends to
remain in this state provided the particle is not
subjected to an unbalanced force.
• Second Law. A particle acted upon by an
unbalanced force F experiences an acceleration
a that has the same direction as the force and a
magnitude that is directly proportional to the
force. If F is applied to a particle of mass m, this
law may be expressed mathematically as
𝐅 = 𝑚𝐚 (Eq. 1-1)

• Third Law. The mutual forces of action and

reaction between two particles are equal,
opposite, and collinear.

CIV 102: Equilibrium of Physical Systems, Sarven Akcelyan, PhD

General Principles 6
Hibbeler R.C., Engineering Mechanics STATICS, 14th ed. in SI Units, Pearson.
Newton’s Law of Gravitational Attraction
Shortly after formulating his three laws of motion, Newton postulated a law
governing the gravitational attraction between any two particles. Stated
mathematically,

𝑚1 𝑚2 (Eq. 1-2)
𝐹=𝐺
𝑟2
F = force of gravitation between the two particles
G = universal constant of gravitation; according to experimental evidence
G = 66.73(10-12) m3/ (kg-s2)
m1, m2 = mass of each of the two particles
r = distance between the two particles
• Any two particles or bodies have a mutual attractive (gravitational) force acting
between them. In the case of a particle located at or near the surface of the
earth, however, the only gravitational force having any sizable magnitude is
that between the earth and the particle.
CIV 102: Equilibrium of Physical Systems, Sarven Akcelyan, PhD
General Principles 7
Hibbeler R.C., Engineering Mechanics STATICS, 14th ed. in SI Units, Pearson.
Weight
• Consequently, this force, termed the weight, will be the only gravitational
force considered in our study of mechanics.
• We can develop an approximate expression for finding the weight W of a
particle having a mass m1 = m. If we assume the earth to be a nonrotating
sphere of constant density and having a mass m2 = Me, then if r is the
distance between the earth’s center and the particle, we have
𝑚𝑀𝑒
𝑊=𝐺 2
𝑟
𝑀𝑒
Letting g = 𝐺 yieds
𝑟2

𝑊 = 𝑚𝑔 (Eq. 1-3)

CIV 102: Equilibrium of Physical Systems, Sarven Akcelyan, PhD

General Principles 8
Hibbeler R.C., Engineering Mechanics STATICS, 14th ed. in SI Units, Pearson.
The International System of Units
The four basic quantities, length, time, mass, and force, are not all independent
from one another; in fact, they are related by Newton’s second law of motion,
F = ma.
Because of this, the units used to measure these quantities cannot all be
selected arbitrarily. The equality F = ma is maintained only if three of the four
units, called base units, are defined and the fourth unit is then derived from the
equation.
International System of units, abbreviated SI after the French Système
International d’Unités, is a modern version of the metric system which has
received worldwide recognition.

CIV 102: Equilibrium of Physical Systems, Sarven Akcelyan, PhD

General Principles 9
Hibbeler R.C., Engineering Mechanics STATICS, 14th ed. in SI Units, Pearson.
The International System of Units
If the weight of a body located at the “standard location” is to be determined in
newtons, then Eq. 1–3 must be applied. Here measurements give g = 9.806 65
m/s2; however, for calculations, the value g = 9.81 m/s2 will be used. Thus,

𝑊 = 𝑚𝑔, (𝑔 = 9.81 m/s2 ) (Eq. 1-4)

m/s2 = meter per second squared

CIV 102: Equilibrium of Physical Systems, Sarven Akcelyan, PhD
General Principles 10
Hibbeler R.C., Engineering Mechanics STATICS, 14th ed. in SI Units, Pearson.
Prefixes
When a numerical quantity is either very large or very small, the SI units used to
define its size may be modified by using a prefix.

4 000 000 N = 4 000 KN = 4 MN

Avoid using deca or centi
0.005 m = 5 mm

CIV 102: Equilibrium of Physical Systems, Sarven Akcelyan, PhD

General Principles 11
Hibbeler R.C., Engineering Mechanics STATICS, 14th ed. in SI Units, Pearson.
Rules for Use
• Quantities defined by several units which are multiples of one another are
separated by a dot to avoid confusion with prefix notation, as indicated by
N = kg∙m/s2 = kg∙m∙s-2. Also, m∙s (meter-second), whereas ms (milli-second).
• No plurals m = 5 kg, not 5 kgs
• The exponential power on a unit having a prefix refers to both the unit and its
prefix. For example,
μN2 = (μN)2 = μN ∙ μN (mm)2 = mm ∙ mm
• With the exception of the base unit the kilogram, in general avoid the use of a
prefix in the denominator of composite units. For example, do not write
N/mm, but rather kN/m; m/mg should be written as Mm/kg.
• When performing calculations, represent the numbers in terms of their base
or derived units by converting all prefixes to powers of 10. The final result
should then be expressed using a single prefix. Also, after calculation, it is best
to keep numerical values between 0.1 and 1000; otherwise, a suitable prefix
should be chosen. For example,

50 kN 60 nm = 50 103 N 60 10−9 m
= 3000(10−6 ) N ∙ m = 3(10−3 ) N ∙ m = 3 mN ∙ m
CIV 102: Equilibrium of Physical Systems, Sarven Akcelyan, PhD
General Principles 12
Hibbeler R.C., Engineering Mechanics STATICS, 14th ed. in SI Units, Pearson.
Numerical Calculations: Dimensional Homogeneity
• The terms of any equation used to describe a physical process must be
dimensionally homogeneous; that is, each term must be expressed in the
same units. Provided this is the case, all the terms of an equation can then be
combined if numerical values are substituted for the variables.
• Consider, for example, the equation
1
𝑠 = 𝑣𝑡 + 𝑎𝑡 2
2
where, s is the position in meters, m,
t is time in seconds, s,
v is velocity in m/s
a is acceleration in m/s2.
Regardless of how this equation is evaluated, it maintains its dimensional
homogeneity.

• Keep in mind that problems in mechanics always involve the solution of

dimensionally homogeneous equations, and so this fact can then be used as a
partial check for algebraic manipulations of an equation.

CIV 102: Equilibrium of Physical Systems, Sarven Akcelyan, PhD

General Principles 13
Hibbeler R.C., Engineering Mechanics STATICS, 14th ed. in SI Units, Pearson.
Numerical Calculations: Significant Figures
• The number of significant figures contained in any number
determines the accuracy of the number.
4981  four significant figures.
23 400 might have three (234), four (2340), or five (23 400)
significant figures.
• To avoid these ambiguities, we will use engineering notation to
report a result. This requires that numbers be rounded off to the
appropriate number of significant digits and then expressed in
multiples of (103), such as (103), (106), or (10–9).
23 400  five significant figures  23.400(103)
23 400  three significant figures  23.4(103).
• If zeros occur at the beginning of a number that is less than one,
then the zeros are not significant.
0.008 21  three significant figures  8.21(10–3).
0.000 582  0.582(10–3) or 582(10–6).
CIV 102: Equilibrium of Physical Systems, Sarven Akcelyan, PhD
General Principles 14
Hibbeler R.C., Engineering Mechanics STATICS, 14th ed. in SI Units, Pearson.
Numerical Calculations: Rounding Off Numbers
• Rounding off a number is necessary so that the accuracy of the result will be
the same as that of the problem data.
• As a general rule, any numerical figure ending in a number greater than five is
rounded up and a number less than five is not rounded up.
• Suppose the numbers are to be rounded off to three significant figures.
3.5587  3.56 0.5896  0.590 9.3866  9.39
1.341  1.34 0.3762  0.376 9.871  9.87

• There is a special case for any number that ends in a 5. As a general rule, if the
digit preceding the 5 is an even number, then this digit is not rounded up. If
the digit preceding the 5 is an odd number, then it is rounded up.
75.25  75.2 0.1275  0.128 0.2555  0.256

• When a sequence of calculations is performed, it is best to store the

intermediate results in the calculator. In other words, do not round off
calculations until expressing the final result.

CIV 102: Equilibrium of Physical Systems, Sarven Akcelyan, PhD

General Principles 15
Hibbeler R.C., Engineering Mechanics STATICS, 14th ed. in SI Units, Pearson.
Numerical Calculations
Give the most appropriate reason for using three significant figures in reporting
results of typical engineering calculations.
A) Historically slide rules could not handle more than three significant figures.
B) Three significant figures gives better than one-percent accuracy.
C) Telephone systems designed by engineers have area codes consisting of three
figures.
D) Most of the original data used in engineering calculations do not have
accuracy better than one percent.

For a static’s problem, your calculations show the final answer as 12345.6 N.
What should you write as your final answer?
A) 12345.6 N B) 12.3456 kN C) 12 kN D) 12.3 kN E) 12.4 kN

CIV 102: Equilibrium of Physical Systems, Sarven Akcelyan, PhD

General Principles 16
Hibbeler R.C., Engineering Mechanics STATICS, 14th ed. in SI Units, Pearson.
Problem Solving Strategy

1. Interpret: Read carefully and determine what is given and

what is to be found/ delivered. Ask, if not clear. If
necessary, make assumptions and indicate them.

2. Plan: Think about major steps (or a road map) that you will
take to solve a given problem. Think of
alternative/creative solutions and choose the best one.

3. Execute: Carry out your steps. Use appropriate diagrams and

equations. Estimate your answers. Avoid simple
calculation mistakes. Reflect on and then revise
your work, if necessary.

CIV 102: Equilibrium of Physical Systems, Sarven Akcelyan, PhD

General Principles 17
Hibbeler R.C., Engineering Mechanics STATICS, 14th ed. in SI Units, Pearson.
Examples
Example 1.1
Convert 100 km/h to m/s and 24 m/s to km/h.
Example 1.2
Convert the density of steel 7.85 g/cm3 to kg/m3.
Example 1.3
Evaluate each of the following and express with SI units having an
appropriate prefix:
(a)(50 mN)(6 GN),
(b)(400 mm)(0.6 MN)2,
(c) 45 MN3/900 Gg

CIV 102: Equilibrium of Physical Systems, Sarven Akcelyan, PhD

General Principles 18
Hibbeler R.C., Engineering Mechanics STATICS, 14th ed. in SI Units, Pearson.