: sg

‘ecommended by the Unsversely of Calcutta, Dacca, Paina, Utkal ete.,

i as a text-book for B. A. & B. Sc. Examsnations

INTEGRAL CALCULUS
INCLUDING

DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS

BY

B. C. DAS, M. Sc.
PROFESSOR OF MATHEMATICS, PRESIDENCY COLLEGE (RETD),
CALCUTTA . EX-LECTURER IN APPLIED MATHIMATICS,
CALOUTTA UNIVERSITY
AND

B. N. MUKHERJEE, M. 4.
Premchand Roychand Scholar
PROFESSOR OF MATHEMATICS, SCOTTISH
CHURCH COLLEGE (REID.), CALCUTTA

“ CARCLILAS
MIGHTEENTH EDIT Qt

)DAS AND
PMUMERTEE
U. N. DHUR & SONS, PRIVATE LTD. ;
15, BANKIM CHATTERJEE STREET,
CALCUTTA 12
 Published by
DWIJENDRANATH DHUR, B.UL.
For U. N. DHUR & SONS, PRIVATE LTD.,
15, Bankim Chatterjee St., Calcutta 12

{ All rights reserved by the Authors }.

Printed by
TRIDIBESH BASU
THE K. P. BASU PTG. WORKS,
11, Mohendra Gossain Lane, Calcutta 6-
 PREFACE
THIS book is prepared with a view to be used as a text-book
for the B.A. and B.Sc. students of the Indian Universities.
We have tried to make the exposition of the fundamental
principles clear as well as concise without going into
unnecessary details ; and at the same time an aftempt has
been made to make the treatment as much rigorous and
up-to-date as is possible within the scope of this elementary
work.
We have devoted a separate chapter for the discussion
of infinite (or improper) integrals and the integration of
infinite series in order to emphasise their peculiarity upon
the students. Important formule and results of Differential
Calculus as also of this book are given in the beginning for
ready reference. A good number of typical examples have
been worked out by way of illustration.
Fixamples for exercises have been selected very carefully
and include many which have been set in the Pass and
Honours Examinations of different Universities. University
questions of recent years have been added at the end to give
the students an idea of the standard of the examination.
Our thanks are due to several friends for their helpful
suggestions in the preparation of the work and especially
to our pupil Prof. H. K. Ganguli, M. A. for verifying the
answers of all the examples of the book.
Corrections and suggestions will be thankfully received.
CALCUTTA \ B. C. D.
January, 1938 B. N. M.
 PREFACE TO THE SEVENTEENTH EDITION
WE have thoroughly revised the book in this edition. For
the sake of the convenience of the students, the chapter
on “Integration by Successive Reduction” which was in
the Appendix in the previous edition, has been inserted at
the end of the chapter on “Infinite (or Improper) Integrals”.
Our thanks are due to our pupil Prof. Tapen Maulik M. Se.
of the B. KF. College, Shibpur for his help in the revision
of the text.

B. C. D.
B.N. M.

PREFACE TO THE EIGHTEENTH EDITION

THE book has been thoroughly revised in accordance with
the revised syllabus of Mathematics for the Three-Year
Degree Examinations in Arts and Science. In this edition
a few examples have been inserted here and there and
a chapter on the integration of Irrational Functions has
been added. We take this opportunity of thanking
Mrs. 8. Chatterjee and Prof. Gouri De M. Se. for their help
in the revision of the text.

B. 0. D.
B. N. M.
 FORMULAE xiii

(xiv) 3=2(sin™19) = a (-l<e2#<1)

(xv) 3—@(costa) = 3S = [-l<2#<1]

(xvi)@(tanta) =
(xvii)# (cob)= - | a8" 5
(xviii) &(cosec™*x)= 2 ge ee)
(xix) i(sec™*a)= — er (lal>1)
(xx) 5(sinh x) =cosh 2.

(xxi) 5“(cosh x) =sinh x.

(xxii) @
= (tank £)= sech?a.

(xxiii) 5
5 *(coth x)= — cosech“a.

(xxiv) a(sech «)= — sech & tanh a.

(xxv) go (cosech x) = — cosech x coth 2.

(xxvi) dee (sinh™ 'a)= He* +1)

a a * —1 Bait, «ten 1 ——

(xxvii) ? (cosh Ty) = Teter (21 >1)

(xxviii) 7=2 (tanh*z) =

gal (2%? <1)
xiv INTHGRAL CALCULUS

(xxix) 5@.(coth™?x)= oo (2? >1)

(xxx)Z
= (cosech™ ty) =.
x oe +1)

(xxxi) =.
= (cech™ 1p) = — sce 33)’ (0<2<1)
Ill. Important results associated with curves.

(i) Cartesian subtangent= ;fH.

(ii) - subnormal = yy 1.
(iii) a normal = y /1+y,2.

(iv) tangent aHe ity? :

(v) Polar subtangent wt

=7 dr 28s
du |\*™ _4|

(vi) ,, subnormal = 9”= - 4; a ; (u- ,

: tan y=7,)
(vii) a. cosy=de.
i .
sinv=dy,
7
3 _ a.
(viii) tan o=r7 t cosg=7
|dr.
i
db.
sing=r 5.
(ix) ds* = dx? + dy? = dr? +7740".

ya y= +
(j
) =i +(¢yy (a)
= Hae

= ili ar\" 43 4 (%&

onrene gee Titot(3) = + (%)-

:
(xi)@:
fet! FL Gn ut* r* + Or. — rr, ~
ides dtp
dp Dt ay?
 CONTENTS
INTEGRAL CALCULUS
CHAP. PAGE

I. Definition and Fundamental Properties ose 1

11. Method of Substitution nee ve 14
II. Integration by Parts ae “+ 38
Iv. Special Trigonometric Functions st, 5F
v. Rational Fractions oe re 78
vI. Definite Integrals ae vee QT
vil. Infinite (or Improper) Integrals and
Integration of Infinite Series see 132
vi1(A). Irrational Functions ea “> 146
vil. Integration by Successive Reduction
and Beta & Gamma Functions > 163
1x. Areas of Plane Curves (Quadrature) “905
x. Lengths of Plane Curves (Rectification) ++ 940
XI. Volumes and Surface-Areas of Solids
of Revolution vee vs 259
XII, Centroids and Moments of Inertia s+ 973
XIII. On Some Well-known Curves -* “286
DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS
XIV. Introduction and Definitions -- s- 302
Xv. Equations of the first order and the
first degree nee - = 310
XVI. Equations of the first order but not
of the first degree eee e+ = 338
vi INTEGRAL CALCULUS

OHAP. PAGE

XVII. Linear Equations with constant coefficients 340

xvi. Applications eee eee es Y
X1x. The Method of Isoclines oa s+ 385
Appendix tie a «- 387
Sec. A. A note on Definite Integrals --- 387
Sec, B. A note on Logarithmic and Exponential
Functions ate vee ss 897
Sec. C. Alternative Proofs of some Theorems <-* 401
Sec. D. A note on Integrating Factors --- =407
Index wets ees ace All

ABBREVIATIONS USED IN THE BOOK

1. J.’ stands for “the Integral’’.

2. O.P. stands for “set in the B. A. and B.Sc. Pass
Examinations of the Calcutta University’’.
3. C.H. stands for “set in the B. A. and B. Se. Honours
: Examinations of the Calcutta University”.

4, P.P. stands for “set in the B.A. and B.Sc. Pass

Examinations of the Patna University”.
 IMPORTANT FORMULZ: AND RESULTS
of
(A) TRIGONOMETRY
i. Fundamental relations.

(i) sin*6 + cos?@=1 (iv) sin (- 6)= — sin @

(ii) sec?6 = 1+ tan7@ v) cos (—6@)=cos @
(iii) cosec?6 = 1 + cot?6 (vi) tan (— 6)= —tan 6.
II, Multiple angles.

(i) sin 24=2 sin A cos A.

(ii) cos 24 = cos?.A — sin?.4 =1—- 2 sin?A =2 cos?A-1.
ide us _ Stand .
(iii) sin 24= 1—tan® A:
_l-tan?A
(vi) cos 2A = 1+ tan®4

(iv) 1-cos 24 =2 sin?A } ey s ,_1-cos 24

(v) 1+cos 24 =2 cos?A (vii) tan® 4 = 1+cos 2A
(viii) 1+sin 24=(sin A+cos A)?.
(ix) 1-—sin 24 =(sin A-cos A)?.
(x) sin 3A4=3 sin A- 4 sin? A.
(xi) cos 34 =4 cos?A — 3 cos A.

(xii) tan 34 = 3 tan A—tan*/.

1-3 tan?A

a cot 34
(xiii) cot”
9} A — 3 cot A,
cob®@A—1

{If. Special Angles.

sin 0°=0 cosec 0° = «
cos 0°=1 sec 0°=1
tan 0°=0 cot 0°= oo
 INTEGRAL CALCULUS

sin 90°=1 | cosec 90° = 1

cos 90°=0 sec 90° = co
tan 90° = oo cot 90°=0
sin 30°=4 sin 60°= 4 ,/3
cos 830°=4.,/3 eos 60°=4
tan 30°=1/ /3 tan 60°= ,/3
sin 45°=1/ ,/2 sin 180° =0
cos 44° =1/ ,/2 cos 180°= —1
tan 45°=1 tan 180°=0.
sin 120°=3 ./3 cos 120°= - 4
Bs titigya® TA
elds o_ J8+1
sin 15 = 2/2 ° cos 15° = 2/2

sin 75°= J3+1, cos 75°= J3—]

2/2 ’ 2/2
tan 75°=9+ ./3.,
sin 18°=3(,/5-1); cos 86°= 2(./5 +1).
gin 224°=4 J(Q2— /2); cos 294° =4 /(2+ ./2).

1V. Inverse Trigonometric functions.

(i) cosec”*a2 - =sin™*

1 2
: cot *¢=tan
5 il,
x x

sec” +7 = cos* ve
x
(ii) sin~*a2 +cos”*a2 = $x.
(iii) tan™*2 + cot” 72 = $n.
(iv) cosec” +a + sec™*a” = $2.
+y :
(v) tan722+ tan™*y = tan™ 1 ery
l— ay
 FORMULZ ix

(vi). tan~*a2
—1,, tenn —tan” ty) *y = tan7t 2.
=tan Tey

(vii) 3 sin-4a =sin™*(8z — 42°).

(viii) 3 cos *2= cos” 7(4x%% — 3x).

oe
(ix) 3 tan7~*a2 =tan7*1 8a
1— —32?
a

Ee —1 on ae glo. ~1,_ 22 .
(x) 2 tan~*a2 = sin Lae? MOOS by a2 tan 7;

. Complex Arguments.

(i) (cos
6 +2 sin 6)"=cos 20 +7 sin nO.

(ii) cos f= 1-5, a we +(- csI+++ to @,

73 nmeL
(iii) sin poe 3 -+(- 1)”«9,
(Sn ne - fo ©,

(iv) tan7?a =a — $02 tie5— + 4+(-1)"22 ce

. (Qn —1)
+-- to oe -Lleaeegl.

(v) e&”=cos ati sina; e& ”=cos x-i sin 2.

(vi) cos a= 4(ef +e7%) ; sin a= $(e% — ~**),

(vii) 2” + = 2 cos nO 3 2"— “ =97 sin 70.

(viii) 2"-* cos"@ = cos 28 +2 cos (nm — 2) 6

n(n —1)
+ cos (n-4)@+°
21
(x being a positive integer)
 INTEGRAL CALCULUS

(ix) (— 1)"/? 2"-* sin"6

ala“
= cos n0—7 cos (n— 2)0+ cos (n— 4)@—

(x being an even positive integer)

(x) (- eve gn-1 sin"@

=gsin n0—n sin (n—2)6+ — A) sin (n—4)6—*

(x being an odd positive integer)
VI. Hyperbolic Functions.
(i) cosh = de” + e~”) ; sinh 2 = 4(e? — ce”).
(ii) e7=cosh a+sinh # ; e~”=cosh x— sinh a.
(iii) cosh?” — sinh?a = 1.
(iv) sech?x + tanh? = 1.
(v) coth?2— cosech*z =1.
(vi) sinh 2¢=2 sinh # cosh 2.
(vii) cosh 2a = cosh? + sinh?
=2 cosh®z—-1=1+2 sinh?z.
ian 2 tanh x
(viii) tanh 22= 1 +tanh22
” = e

(ix) sinh (-—2)= —sinh 2: cosh (—#)=cosh 2.

(x) sinh O= 0; cosh O=1; tanh 0=0.
pints
(xi) sinhz coe ees = o.eait to ©
o* 2?”
(xii) cosh 2==1+5\+ aa: * Gait - fo
 FORMULA

(xiii) sinh *2=log (a+ /z*+1) for all 2.

{xiv) cosh™*# =log («+ J/z2?~-1); (2 >1)

(xv) tanh -*2=4 log Fo (2? <1)

_ Lt. J(1 +2?) (2 ¥ 0)

(xvi) cosech
7a”= log
x
_ 2
(xvii) sech”
*a#=log on se ao) (O<a2<1),

rt
(xviii) coth7*2= 4 log ed (2? > ht)

VII. Special series.

1
(i) it 1 1
gatgat Beabuk toe = a

(ii) + 1 ra fe sean to 2 7"

Le ge a= 8

(iii) 14 +
Dg A aua vasa
Q* +r 34 + to su 90

(iv)
7
14
1
+ 34
1
+ 54
a
+ easeee
to co
96
7%,

VII. Logarithm.

loga m = log, m/logp a.

 (B) DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS
I. Fundamental Properties.

(i) 7 tu ty twee to 2 terms}

(ii) da y,
iets; ava (iii) a (0 ve 2 Mb,
va “da
y ee ye
(iv) a (%)- da da.
da vo
(vy) ay dy dz
ie ae ae {where y=fle) and z= (z)}.

. Standard differential coefficients.

(i) Z (c) =0. (ii) oa”) =no" oa

(iii) a (2,]--s (iv) i(a*) =a" log, a.

(v) é (c*) =e”. (vi) 3.
@ (og, «)= *loge é.

Wii) gf= (loge x)= * (vili) 5f(sin m) = COB a.

(ix) = (cos #)=-sin x. (x) . (tan 7) =sec*2.

(xi) g(oot 2)= — cosec*x.

(xii) 7£ (cosee 2)= —cosec x cot @.

(xiii) £ (sec 2)=sec # tan a.

 (C) INTEGRAL CALCULUS
1. Fundamental Properties.

terms} da
(i) |ff, (x)tfe )tfe (x) ++ ton

tom terms.
-|Fa (x) dg | fa (a) dex | fs (a) dx ++

Ga) {afte de =0| fle)de. ¢

1. Fundamental Integrals.
nth
(i) |a” da= 4 (n#-1).

a) | = “(a= Dgist (0 #1).

(isi) |daa. (iv) | =2li

(wi) |om “
em

(v) |2 = 10gIn|.
(vii) |e& dx=e”. (viii) |a” dat= 4... (a>0)

(ix) |<j s
coTe

(x) \sin x da= — cos &.

sin ma,
(xi) \cos ma da =- Ba

(xii) cos £ da = sin &.

xvi INTEGRAL CALCULUS

(xiii) {seo’2# dxz=tan z.

(xiv) jcosec?z dx = — cot 2.

(xv) Jsec r tan x dx =sec «x.

(xvi) |cosec x cot « dxz= —cosec &.

(xvii) Jsinh x dx =cosh x.

(xviii) cosh 2 dz=sinh «x.

(xix) tanh x dx = log (cosh 2).

(xx) |coth « dx=log |(sinh x)|.°

{xxi) Seaeets 2 dx=log |tanh $a}.

(xxii) {sech & da =2 tan™* (e).

(xxiii) \sech*a dx = tanh rr.

&

(xxiv) {cosech*z dx = — coth x.

. Tih ‘Stiinddra Integrgls.

ae, a
(i) \aa dx =log |f(x)|.
 METHOD OF SUBSTITUTION 33

a ar 2 2
«| iat =aryor—
ai)(> 2).
{ Put 2? —a?=27 J ‘

7. (i) ore. (ii) Pee

4tde +5

8. (i) Jee (i) Peau

+79 +2
9.’ rdxr |
* J w*+Qn7? +2
10 cos r dr :
; sin"*7+4 sin rt+3

eo dr
11. \e727 4+ 96k +5.

iv
12. | JJ seo 4 (sin~ tx)?}
13. | anes dr
2° — 60° +5.
14 j dr ao
. x{10+7 log x+(log x)*}

15. (i)f bee

rdr
(ii) —r+1
a
‘ rt+i1 2r +3
16. (i) ie bhp UE (i) |An? 414

; (49+ 8) dx se xr dz
17. G) {se +8¢+1 OD ) o=60— a
2
18. \.* dz. [C. P. 19865 |
84 INTEGRAL CALCULUS

19.6) {2328
: x” + Qo
5ae. Gi)yy |[2S
wo —a@+l
ae.
8 2
wi ta +2Qe+1
20. pie dx.

ax
Ja®teng |C. P. 1987)

22. (i) JJ/1-2—-2? (ii) J ena

23. Ge,
Jon" 43044 [ P. P. 1932 ]

daz
3 . Put w-4= 2?
ae Jx? —Tet 12 panes pea

25. ae
J6+ Lix— 10x?
cos & dx
26: /d sil
sin*¢—12 sin x +4

dx
2 M@w—aXe~p)
” dz
oS a) | Jiao— 7? Gi) | J/2an +27

29. (i) {tes da. (ii) Tesi dx.

80. {.fo ast & [C. P. 1926]

(a + 1) . (Qa-1) d
oe of Jitanee | TES,
 METHOD OF SUBSTITUTION 35

82. (i ae Jitc (i)|Garis/4n +3

jPatna +4
34. (i) Iwas de. (i) \./222} de.

35) ja’
(1- 2)Ja (i) iHe a
{ Put 2=2? | ?

36.0) | ge |eragytase
(ii) |eves de +1 (iv) co ce Qe— x
: an
(v) degdee
+2n—-1 (vi) ae Jaen

(vii) ee ae STR
37. (i); |Noi-z?
/9=* 5ae, a)i | ae,
ax ee
38. \jes ( Put 1+2°=27]

39. (i) j./%

GED ay (ii) | nas dx
40. lfia<-2z i b, show oe
ore
“2.
\ez -a) Jena
aXb—-2) a-5
ANSWERS

1. tan-(z), 2. (i) $tan="(2?), (3) GleeoeaT

8. (i) tan~*(e7). (ii) - gsin'(#)’.
36 INTEGRAL CALCULUS

4, (i) tana—tan-t2, (ii)Flog 3, 082,

5. (i) 4 log (x?+ /2*+a"). (ii) log (1 +a?+ ./1+2°)/2}.

6. sin-? ie 2. (i) a Tea (ii) 4 tan-*(2+4).

1g VB Oe— 1
8. (i) 75 198 V5—I¢-+4
Qe+1
(ii) log 5 aa
eas
9. 4 tan7*(a@?+1).

10.
91 log 1+sin c.
Basinco 11. 3 tan71{3(e7+1)}.
-1 z
12. tan~?(sin-*z).
-lfainw=l

13. (9108 “=
a= 1, +logx
14. 3 log bbe >
1
15, (i) log (e@+1)+-T5

{ii) —log (~—3). 16. (i) $ log (v?+ 40+ 5)—tan7'(2+2),

(ii) + log (477+ 1)+ 3 tan-1(2z).

17. (i) 3 log (827 +3x+1)+ a tan7! { ./3(22+1)}.

i) aa log NIL+3+o¢_
JUi—-8—-2 12 log (2—6xa—a?).
oe oe

18. 2+log 19, (i) c—2 tan-"(e-+1).

45 tan7? (27).
(ii) «—log (e?+a+1)4-

1 _, 2a—-1
20. $207+2n+# log (2? -—2+1)+ V3 tan~* 8

21, 2log (J/z+2+ ./x—1). 22. (i) sin* PF,

(ii) log (22+8+2,/3+8zFa%). 28. — iy log (0+8+ Jat

+Ia+9).
a

24. 2log(J/a—S+ n/a—4). 25. Je! sin-? Phas

26. — i log {./2—5 sina+ ./5(2—sin a)}.

 METHOD OF SUBSTITUTION 87

27. Qlog (/z—at »/2—B)- 28, (i) sin-! (759):

(ii) log (t+at+ Ja*+2ax). 29. (i) Jz? +a? +b log (e+ J2*+a0).
(ii) 2a? +a+14+2 log (ct+h+ /c2?+e+1).
30. & /227 —8x+5. 31. (i) = 25 sin (95 *)—3 Ja+0i—Ba".
(ii) & 4/407 +4049 —log (Qe+14 /40? +4042).
log(J42+3 1).
ey ok
- (i) 2 tam=* /1 +m. (ii) 9 i
8

J4a+3841

iet1— NB 84. (i) /(x—-3)(a—4)+log (,/c-3 + s/z—4).

33. Io
/2o+1it VB
(ii) & (2, /(204-1)(8u+2)— V3 log (V3 /2a+1+ V2 ,/30+2)).
35.
(i og 7 Ae Jx—-1
Nxtl

36. (i) fs log Nxt amy | SCC -1 we

a (ii) - J 1-2,
1l+a
(iii) log s—log (1-+2a+ ./9c*+4z+ 1).
mae Yk ae ou.
(iv) Ja 82 Ge (v) sin? (27):

sed ti el 382+1 \.
(vi) sin7* (iis e (vii) sec"? (2-8).

37. () Jat¥—a%+alog?— Va" a", —_ 2 2

(ii) log (e+ ./x—1)- Ji tan~ .(@Na=i42),

ae
st i 2

38. $ Jog (/1+2*—1)—log .

aiwe
39. (i) a log (Nx+ Jata)+ Jale+a).
Gi) 2° Je—a—2 Na tan-* (,/ a
 CHAPTER III

INTEGRATION BY PARTS

3°1. Integration of a product ‘by parts’.

We know from Differential Calculus that if w and vz
are two differentiable functions of z,
dvs.
(uv = oy itu,

integrating both sides with respect to r, we have

WV 4 = {(au »,]ax + |(utes) dz,

or, J
(wars
o)) ae=W01—- \(@ v,]da.

Suppose aa =, then v,= fv dz.

Hence, the above result can be written as

{av) dx=u v dx-{F"( v dx} dx.

The above formula for the integration of a product of
two functions is referred to as integratson by parts.

It states that
the integral of the product of two functions
= Ist function (unchanged) x integral of 2nd
— integral of [ diff. coeff. of Ist x integral of 2nd }.
 INTEGRATION BY PARTS 39

$°2. Illustrative Examples.

Ex. 1. Inicgrate |we” dx.

I=a\ ¢ ao | o* de} de
=e" — \l.e* dz

= re" — e*,

Note. In the above integral, instead of taking 2 as the first

function and ¢* as the second, if we take e” as the first function and x
as the second, then applying the rule for integration by paris, we get

S(e* x) du=e" $a? — fe*4a" de.

Tho integral $fe7x? dx on the right side is more complicated than
the one we started with, for it involves 2? instead of x.

Thus, while applying the rule for integration by parts to the product
of two functions, care should be takew to choose properly the first
function 1.e., the function not to be integrated.

A little practice and experience will cnable the student to make

the right choice.

Ex. 2. Integrate |log « dx. [ C. P.1928|

[= \log x.1 dz.

~ logx \ax—\{ < (log a) )ac} dx

da °
1
=log w.a— \2x dt

=2 log c—Sdz
=@ logxz—a.
40 INTEGRAL CALCULUS

Ex. 8. Integrate \tan~'x da. [ C. P. 1929,'36}

r=| tan7!z.1 dx

= tan-'g, |ao—\{F (tan-'a )\ax} de

=tan7la.0— \ya x dz
1+2?

a xz tan7's
-1 - 3\25 @
9 itz?

=z tan~'x—4% log (1+2). { By Ex. 5, Art. 2°2 ]

Note. Very often an integral involving a single logarithmic func-

tion or @ single inverse circular function can be evaluated by the applica-
tion of the rule for integration by parts, by considering tho integral as
the product of the given function and unity, and taking the given
function as tho first function and unity as the second.
This principle is illustrated in Eixs. 2 and 3 above and Ex, 4 below.

Ex. 4, Integrate |
tog(a+ nJ/x?-Fa?) dz.

T= 0g (+ WatFait de
=log (a+ lara) ax—\| Fflog (2+ ve? +a")}-\aa] de

=log (a+ Va?+ a”): z-| Se oy x dz

=a log (2+ Jx?+a?)— \Jataa®

To evaluate |Seri put 2?+a?=2?, so that 2 dx=a dz,

 INTEGRATION BY PARTS 41

Ex. 5. Integrate Jz" e” dz.

I=2° e*~3faz? e* dx, integrating by parts

=> e* —3'[x? e* —2fxe* dx], integrating by paris again

=mn* e*—3 [x2 e* —2 {re*—fe* dzx})

=? ¢*—3 [a? 0? —2 {re™—e7}]

= 5 e? —3x07 e* + 6axe"
— 6e* ‘

= (a? — 3a" +62—6) 6”.

3°3. Standard Integrals.

(A) (e®* cos bx dx= — o*(a cosa?bx+b

+b?
sin bx)
= e&x
TJa2+b? cos (bxas tan -1 b).
=

ax . =
(B) (e®* sin bx dx = £2 (asinby—) cos bx)

a in (bx- tan-* 2 )
Ja2+b2 © a

( Here a=£0. )

Proof. Integrating by parts,

|e” cos ba dx = gne.8in De = {(age Sin ba) da

=O ane a e™ sin
beda
ae .s
42 INTEGRAL CALCULUS

Now, integrating by parts the right-side of this integral

_¢ az:sinhr a {ev ie
ac}
cos bx _ |act « (=298be)
ce

b b b
at os 7 2
= is ue + i e™ cos ba -4, e"” cos bx dz.

transposing,
2 ax .

(1+ “sh e"” cos ba da = aM 8 Tea

b 2 2

Now, dividing both sides by 1 ae 4.€., pr? we get

az :
ec
(a cos br +b sin ba)
e? Gos bree seg ag
| a*+ 3
Again, putting a =r cos a, b= r sina, so that r= ./(a? +b")
1
and a=tan™ : on the right side of this integral,

we have, the right side

_ ex cos (be — a) aoa
a’ +?
= ja,
a*+b?
cos (v2- tan* a® }-

Integral (B) can be evaluated exactly in the same way.

Note 1. The abovo integrals can also be obtained thus :

Denoting the integrals (A) and (B) by I,, and I,, and intograting
each by parts, we shall get
. al, —bI,, =e cos bx
and, b1,+aI,=e%* sin bx
from which I, and I, can be easily determined.

Note 2. Exactly in the samo way tho integrals fe** cos (be-+c) dx
and fe sin (ov+c¢) dx can be evaluated.
 INTEGRATION BY PARTS 45,

3°4. Standard Integrals.

(0) |Jetatdx mY
t8P4 pogi(x+ Jx2+a7)|
{D) {J? 2? dx = Zee =a" _ 2°log l(x+ »/x?2 =a) |
2

(e) |Ja?—x? dx aX Va?—-x?

5 a"
tein 1X.

Proof.

{C) Integrating by parts,

{Ja? +a? dx

‘ 2 on
= Ja? hie {2 Jat+a2” dx

=2 Je? ta? - | From dx i

2

o
a? +a"
Also, fJattat den|00, de
2
= -_ =
x ee er ' +
2 a
dx - 8 aee
isa
\-o53 data sees (ii)

Adding (i) and (ii) and dividing by 2,

=e ae dg =ex? te
|vata? +a? , a?
- a
ata?

eee ae —_
a fa log l(a + /z7+a?)I.
[ By Art. 2°38 (D)]
44 INTEGRAL CALCULUS

(0) |Va¥~a* de
= Jat ahe~| 5 a ade
=a J*-a- |- o - 2 ae

2 2
— Le +a
=2 vat-at- |© as dx

2 2
=2
127 —
V2 a"
a“4 « MX
pe a
|. dx
5
lees 2? — 4

a ia?— a? -|Ja -a* da- a

Now, transposing f /7?—a? dx to the left side and

dividing by 2,
2 28 2 £
|Jat—a" goers =e a log| (2+ /2*-a?|
[ By Art. 2°38(D)]

Note. The integral (C) can bo evaluated by the mothod of evaluat-

ing the integral (D), and the integral (D) can also be cvaluated by the
mothod of ovaluating the integral (C).

(E) Although this integral can he easily evaluated by

either of the methods employed in evaluating integrals (C)
and (D) above, yet another method, the method of substi-
tution may be adopted in evaluating this integral.
 INTEGRATION BY PARTS 45

Putting =a sin 6, so that dz =a cos 6 d6, we get

\Ja*®—-a? da=a*|costodé

=a" 4{(1+ cos 26) de

= $a" [feos 26 dé + fol
= ta" [4 sin 20+ 6]
=447.sin @ cos 0+ 4076
2 te

x : 2 oa
= $a" ~ i “> + 4a? sin? ~
a a a
_?t Va?- or” + a” sin + x e
2 2 a

Note. The integrals (C) and (D) can also be evaluated by putting
x=a sinh 2 and «=a cosh z respectively.

3°5. (Jax?+bxFe dx. (a0)

To integrate this, express ax? +ba+ce as the sum or
difference of two squares, as the case may be; that is
express az” +ha+ce in either of the forms af(x +1)? +m?}
or, a'{m* — (2 +1)7} and then substitute z forz+i. Now the
integral reduces to one of the forms (C), (D) or (E) discussed
above. This is illustrated in Mx. 3 of Art. 3°8.

36. ((px-+q) Jaxt+bxte dx. (a0)

To integrate this, put
prtq= P (Qaz + b)+ (1-22 ;
‘ 2a 2a
then the integral reduces to the sum of two integrals, the
first of which can be immediately integrated by putting
z2=ax" +bx +c, and the second is of the form of the previous
Article. This is illustrated in Ex. 4 of Art. 3°8.
46 INTEGRAL CALCULUS

3°7. (ex {f (x)-+f' (x)} dx.

Integrating by parts fe7f(xr) dz, we have

Sef (a) da = ff(a)e"da =f(x)e*— ff" (xe da.
transposing, fe*{/(2)+f'(x)} dz =e" (a).
Aliernatively, we may integrate by parts fe"f(a) da, and
derive the same result.
Note. fe7¢(x) dz, when ¢(xz) can be broken up as the sum of two
functions of x, such that one is the differential coefficient of the other,
can be easily integrated as above.

3°8. Illustrative Examples.

Ex. 1. Integrate |e?” sun 32 cos & dx.

I=4fe?*.2 sin 32 cos x dx

= $fe?* (sin 4a+sin 2c) dx

=4${[fe?* sin 4a da+fe?* sin 2a da]

aualoe
/20 sin (42 —tan7? 24°: g sin (22 —tan-?! |

=e [a5 sin (4% —tan~' 2)+ ‘sin (22- al}

[ See Art. 3'3(B) ]

Ex. 2. Integrate \ a2 da.

I= fe7>* cos*a de=tfe-** (cos 832+3 cos a) dz

=4[fe-*“ cos 82 dv+3fe-*” cos x da]

= -(—3 cos 3a+8 sin 3a)+3:- fel-—8cos x+sin z)}

e7 3 7 °
“(5 (sin 3a—cos 32)+ 5(ain 2-3 cos a).
 INTEGRATION BY PARTS 47

Ex. 3. Integrate |Jat 82— 5a? dz.

I=§ /5(¢+$2—2) dz
= 5S /88— (38 — S042?) de
= J5f J/(8)*—(@—§)* dz
= /5f /a*—2" dz, ( putting z=2—+¢ and a=)
aya 3
= Jef? va" : +5 sin7* Al [ By Art. 3°4 (#7)

at i) (5x—4)./4+8x—527
Meat ro 18 pain
ee pee . hPee
(= ee
5] 10 J5 25 ee 6 )]
on restoring the values of a and 2 and simplifying,
1 ., 18 . _,f5a—4
= 10 (0-4) n/4+ Ba — 5ar*+ ao ( G ‘).

Ex. 4. Integrate |(80-2) /z?—-a2+1 dz.

Since 38¢—2=3 (22—1)—3,

T=3$(2¢—-1) /x?—2+1 da—-3f J/x?-ax+1 dz.

To evaluate the 1st integral,
putz=27—a+1;s .. dzg=(2Qx—1) dz.

.. 1st integral=f J/z dz=%a" =2(q —2+ 1),

2nd integral=f a (a—4)? +2 da

=f /27+a? dz, putting 2=2—4 and a?=3,

= aye eat + - log (2+ ./24+a*)

= (22-1) /z?—a2 +148 log (2—4+ J/a?-2+1).
T=(e?—2+1)'-§ (2-1) Jat—aF1
— Ps log |(e—4+ /z?-2+1)].
 INTEGRAL CALCULUS

Ex.
x. 5.5. Integrate \Jatt
2tek ae+3 dzae. [ C.P.P. 1929]

r= (\@ +20+8)—(w+2)
|
n/a? +2a+5
v7 +2n-+3 dx—| e+2
Soak mys x
~ ya +9048 % Jz? +22+8

=|Ja tants an | 4 (Qa+2)+1

jx? +2243 ag
7 ee (2a +-2) da dz
|eri Fa ae 2)jaro248 J Verse
Denoting the right-side integrals by Z,, Ig, Zs,

1,-1,=| /2?+a? az—\ cae ( where z=a2+1, a?7=2)

= 32/22 +a? +ha? log (2+ a/2?+07) —log {e+ /a*+a?)

=4 (2+ 1) ./2?+20-+3, on restoring the values of sand a7.
Putting 2?+2x+3=2, so that (Qc+2) dx=dz,

1,=| =e V2=2 /x74-2n+ 3.

T=h (+1) /o?+904+3— /n74+2r+3

= (a1) JaF ETS.
Ex. 6. Integrate lovee qu. [ C. P 1980, ’33, ’37, 48]

(v+1) e*—e” . _&

a= |“@+12 rien~\ee 1)? 2
Integrating by parts, the first integral

a e* dx
1, ‘od =,
a+] e”
+\etpe ie da.
 INTEGRATION BY PARTS 49

Ex. 7. Prove that ( if ax4b e

.3 Je" sinh ba du= -5352 (a sinh b2—b cosh bz).

(id) \e** cosh bada=— px (@ cosh ba—b sinh ba:).

(i) Integrating by parts,
I= 6° cosh
b be_{
Jacas cosh
5 be az

=o coshbe_ a|
enecosh bz dz. e+e (1)

Again integrating by parts,

e*” sinh ba
{e** cosh bz dxz=- - Al e** sinh br da
6

= 250k ba _ °1.
ax .

“+ (2)
From (1) and (2),
—¢ cosh ba @ ag
= , —,28 sinh ba +3, Z;

Transposing,

(3 _ a.)= 57 (b cosh ba —a sinh ba).

ei | (a sinh ba—b cosh bz).

(ii) This integra] can be evlauated in the same way.
Alternatively we can use the exponential values of sinh z and
cosh 2 to evaluate these integrals.
Thus, fe°* sinh ba dx= fe"*.4(eo* —e-*) dx
bs es gf{eleroe — ean dizy dz

a 1 ere ecres

2 {atb a—b i
ai ove ee en
-2° ‘latb a-~bJ. iy
as 1 en
a be 7
: , a=? EM” ae

ss Leake — 0")~tet)”
red iesinh be *b soul ba].
 INTEGRAL CALCULUS

EXAMPLES Ill
1. Integrate the following with respect to x :—
(i) x sin wz. (ii) 2? cos x. (iii) xe
(iv) 2” log 2. (v) ae”. (vi) & sec*z.
(vii) sin7*-. (viii) cos7z. (ix) cosec™ *.
(x) sec” 72. (xi) cot” *z. (xii) cos”? (1/2).
(xiii) w sin7’2. (xiv) 2* tan™*a. = (xv) & cos nz.
(xvi) (log x)?. — (xvii) # log z. (xviii) sin7? /a.

(xix) log (1+ 2)¥* (xx) 198.(20).

(xxi) log (1+ 2a? +2), (xxii) log (x? + 5a +6),
(xxiii) 2* cos 2a. (xxiv) 2° (log a)?.
Integrate :—

2.fi) {a sin*a de. J) |x sin x cos a: de.

8. (i) |log (a — ./2?-1) dz. (ii) |log (2? -a#& +1) dz.

60) lfge dogay 4) |reSpgae

5. (i) {sin # log (sec + tan x) da.

(ii) jcos x log (cosec x + cot x) da.

6. (i) |cos 2% log (1+ tan x) dx.

(ii) jcosec"s log sec 2 da.

7. (i) |sin™* (82— 42°) dx. (ii) J (sin-*z)® de.

 INTEGRATION BY PARTS 51

at
8. (i) |cos ~~ os dz. (ii) |tan” * zits da.

9. (i) |sin * Zs da. (ii) |tan7* oe:

a dz.

10. (i) em
da. (ii) |tan7 + ;2 dn.

414. (i) {3sin” 12g (ii) sina dee. r

(1-7)?
12. (i) e” gin x dx. (ii) je” cos a daz.

(iii) j2” sin x da. (iv) {8” cos 3a dx.

(v) !e” sinh x dr. (vi) Je* cosh x da.

13. (i) |e” sin" dx. (ii) {ersin xz sin 2a da.

4. | A aye dx. [ Put tan o=s] LC. P. 1929 ]

15. (i) [FE
EP2 ae, (a) |ED ap
16. |fgets )di.
sin

17. |sin=* Jf ots ax. { Put z=a tan70]

zta

18. |e* (cos a +sin x) da.

19. |= (1 +2 log x) dz.

52 INTEGRAL CALCULUS

20. (i) je” (tan x— log cos x) dx.

(ii) |e” sec x (1 +tan x) de.

21. (i) |é
aati
Gai ax.
“2
(ii) i
« (l-=x)?
+253 daz.

[@ Write ea e?—14+2 w#-1 2

(a+ 1)? oerit@en |

(iii) \e a da.
(i) [-«2 1+sin v4 sin @%
22.
Toosal? ci) f —— -
- sin 2a eae
Gi) |?
2 Ae
— cos 2 (iv) fe 1+cos On @

23. Ji5=9n? de.

24. Gi) | Sigsa ae
25. (i) i
JiBe 65a? de. (ii) | Je teSaat aR:
26. | /5a? +8r+4 da.

27. | dn,
a+ /x?-1

28. j Jeg sae

*.

29. J Ne-—alp-x) dx. [ Put a=a cos"8+8 sin76]

 INTEGRATION BY PARTS 53

30. (3) |@- 1) /e®=1 de. (ii) [+9 Jetta? de.

81. (i) |(e-1) Ja? =e4 1 ae.

(i) |Ge a/eteieaa oe

soffit 0 [SRA&
sa. | ee de
84. (i) [/ 222 ae. (ii) |an/252 dz.

| 35. [etpvers de. ([P.P. 1994]

36. If u=| e” cos ba dz, v -|e” sin bx da,

prove that

b
_ (i) tan7?= + tan7?2 = oe.
u a

(ii) (a? + bu +y%)= e2%

ANSWERS

1. (i) —x cos 2+sin 2. ; (ii) ve—92) sin ¢+ 22 cos a.

1
(ii) GSages 1). (iv) = 5[168 w=— |-

(v) e° (2* —22 +2), (vi) # tan @+log cos a.

(vii) sin“'e+ Ji—g?. (viii) « cos™'a— ,/1—g?.
54 INTEGRAL CALCULUS

(ix) 2 cosce"ta+log (w+ Jez%?—1). (x) w seo~*a—log (w+ ./m*—1).

(xi) 2 cot-'a+4 log (1+2°). (xii) 2 sec™'x—log (w+ ,/a?—1)-
(xiii) 40? sin~’2—J sin” 'a+4e2,/1—2?.
(xiv) 42° tan-*a—
$x? +4 log (1+27).
(xv) i ag (xvi) & (log «)? —22 log w+ 2a.

(xvii) tx? (2 log a—1). (xviii) (a—3%) sin? Ja+4 ./2(1—2).

(xix) 4 (1+)? log (1+2)—42 (w+2). (xx) —(1+a)7? [log (1+2)+1].
(xxi) 2 {a log (1+-2:7)—2¢+9 tan'a}.
(xxii) (w+2) log (w+2)+(2+8) log (2+ 3) — 2a.
(xxiii) ta (2e?—3) sin 9+ (247-1) cos Qz.
(xxiv) d2* {(log 2)*"—4 log «+ 4}.

2. (i) 4 (2c? —2a: sin 2a—cos 2a). (ii) —4z ons 2e+4 sin 27.

8. (i) 2 log (a— J? -1)+ /x?-1.

(ii) (@—4) log (2? -—2+1)—2x74+ ./3 tan-* att

i

4. (i) a (log a)-". " (ii) w tan $042 log cos $4.
5. (i) «—cos x Jog (sec «+ tan 2g). (ii) sin x log (cosee 2+ cot 2)-+a.

6. (i) sin w cos x log (L+tan r)—42+4 log (sin 2+cos 2x).
(ii) —cot x log (sec x) +a.

7. (i) 3 @ sin-"a+ ./1— x).

(ii) x (sin“?2)*+3 ./1—
22 (sin7'z)?-G (2 sin7'a+ ./1—@).

8. (i) 2x2 tan-'x—Jlog (1+27). (ii) Same as (i).

9% (i) Same as 8 (i). (ii) 3a tan7ta —% log (1+ 27).

10. (i) Nee Ua (ii) 4 fw cos—*a— J(1—o)].

11. (i) e— /1—g? sin-'2. (ii) ang thlog (1—27).

 INTEGRATION BY PARTS 55

12. (i) $e” (sin x—cos 2). (ii) ge” (sin 2+-cos 2).
27sin{x —cot~? (log 2)}.
(i) 4 cog 9)
., 3743 sin 82+ (log 8) cos 82}
(Re gt log 2
(v) + (cosh 292+sinh 2z)—d2. (vi) + (cosh 22+sinh 2x)+42.
13. (i) ge” 41-4 (cos 2242 sin 2z)}.
(ii) Ze” {(cos a+sin x)—} (cos 82+38 sin 3z)}. .
e™ tan-lg
. [Ag.
1 1 1-2? 4x \}
14, ni ete {rmtta? +1422
15. (i) 2 tan da. (ii) 2/a+1 log (v+1)—-4./x2+1-

16. 4re—4z27. 17. (x+a)tan- (7) — Jaz.

2\
18. e* sin x. 19. c” log x.
20. (i) e* log sec x. (ii) e* sec wx.
: non 1 eae : ce
21. (i) ¢ 4 (ii) fae (iii) (i+2)?

22. (i) e* tan 42. (ii) —e* cot dx. (iii) —e? cot x.

(iv) e7 tan a. 23. a /25 —9a? +” sin“?

24. (i) 4 (@—-1) /5-2e+a07+2 log (e-1+ /5-20+27).

(ii) 2 (20-1) ,/10— 4u +447 + $ log {(2a—1)+ ,/10— 42-4 4x7}.
25. (i) 4 (a—9) /16c—65—a2+8 sin-! 4 (x—9).
ont-
(HTB (404-8) J4—Ba
sey ae TET
gs v2 sin? _ 4n+3
26, ie(50+ 4) ./527+ 80+ t+" 15log {(5a+4)+ ./5(5a* + 8%+ 4)}>
27. &4x(a— ,/a?—1)+log (e+ ./x?—1)}.

28. 4 (0-0) /Jagmat+ha" sin"? (#79).

29, j[@o-a—p) a= a)(B—a) + (8a)? sinai®-“I
56 INTEGRAL CALCULUS

80. (i) $ (22—1)" — de Ja*—1 +4 log (c+ z*—1).

(ii) § (e?-+a")* +300 Ja?Fa? +hab log (n+ Jo*+a").
81. (i) $ (e® —2-+1)?—% (Qa—1) Jz*—at1—y% log (w-3-+ Vz?a1).
(ii) § (202+ 90-41)? +8 (Q0-+1) Jn? 420-71
+579 log 22+1)+ J 2Gu* Fn+ I}.
82. (i) # sin-*2—§ (c+2) Jina’.
(ii) 2 Qa+5) JcF+at+1
+4 log (w+4)+ Jc?+0+ 1b.
88. } (c?-+ 20438)!
—4 (e-+5) Jz? +90+3—G loge +1+ J/z*+92+3).
84. (i) asinct 2 — Ja?—a%. (ii) (§e—a) /a*—= a? 30? sin-* 2.
35. 4 (a+6) J/x?#— 444 log (w+ ./z7—4).
 CHAPTER IV

SPECIAL TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS

4°1. Standard Integrals.

(A) (cosec x dx=log |tan I

- dx ee ax
Proof. cosee 2 dx = \ssin 4” cos $x
sin 2

_{ 4 sec” 4x ax
tan $a
( on multiplying numerator and denominator by sec? $2 )
=logltan $a|
since, numerator is the diff. coeff. of denominator.

(B) (sec x dx =log|tan (= + x)

=log|(sec x+tan x)|.

de _| du
Proof. |sec | ae -{ ain (iets)

aa
2 sin (2+ $2) cos ($x + $2)
4 sec*(4n +4) dx
tan (42+ 42)
= Jlog|tan (42+ 4$2)| as in (A).
58 INTEGRAL CALCULUS

Note. Alternative Methods :

cosec 2 (cosec a ~ ent 2)

\cosec # ax= | eosec ¢— col Z dz =log|(cosec x— cot x)|

ax sin
: +2: dx
cosec & da= \ ——— =
sin x 81° 2

-| d (cos 2)
--\ dz » where 2=cos &
1—cos?z 1-3?

1 il—cos& |
bg
9 8 yyt
Se
2i OF IT asa

|sec» do =| soo» (so #tan

+ tan
x
a) dz=log |sec x+tan x|,
sec e+
since the, numerator
is the derivative of the denominator.

cos & -|d (sin 2)

(sec @ dz =|
cos*z 1l—sin*¢

dz 1 1+2 ae
-| a= 9 log Tag! where = sin &
1-2?

= Ligg Ltsine,
Q 0°" l-sin a:

sec av dv -| dz -| _dn
cosa J} cos?sa—sin?dz

|seo"ga
(anadam af iodz Ee
where z=tan 42

|1+ tan dar |

=log ra = log | |
yee i1—tan ‘Hea|

It should be noted that the differont forms in which the integrals

of cosec 2 and of sec x are obtained by differont mothods can be easily
shown to be identical by clementary trigonometry.

Thus,
1 1—cos z|_ 1 j2sin an ‘
2 log i‘1+cos 2 5 8 ‘3cart =3g log|tan® g2|
=log |tan $2]; etc.
 SPECIAL TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS 59

1°2. (a+b axcos x

The given integral

2 (Pane eee: eR eee aa ee

-| a (cos* 42+sin® 4x2) +6 (cos? 42—sin? 42)
md

- |___see” tn da
(a+b) +(a—b) tan? 4a

(on multiplying the numerator and denominator by sec” 42).

CaselI. a>b,

Put /a-btan3er=2; .. $/a-b sec? de dxz=dz.

The given integral now becomes

2 | de
Jab) (a+b) +2?

ok eae
Jae=oat
f
1 ay
2
[ See (A), Art. 2°8.]
e

2. | aie |
Ja? —b* tan ee tan 9

: a 1 -1 (>+a cos ’\.

4.€., at bs tan
atbcos x

Case ll. a< ob.

Put Jb-atandr=2; .. $/b-a

sec? 4a dxe=dez.
60 INTEGRAL CALCULUS

As before, the required integral becomes

apume | dz
Jb—-a J (a+b)
—23 _

= Ipaaaerg oe {eee
[ See (C), Art. 2°3 ]
al ieee Jb-a tan Hd
eee °F) Jbta — $a
Jb—a tan
Note 1. Here it is assumed that a>0, b>0; if a<0, b>O0
or, a> 0, b <0, or, a < 0,6 <0, then the integral can be evaluated
exactly in the same way.

Note 2. (i) If b=a, the integrand reduces to s sec*4z, the integral

of which is . tan $a.

(ii) If b= —a, the;integrand reduces to = cosec? , the integral

of which is — t cot gz.

Note 3. By an exactly similar process, the integral \a¥b a

dx
or more generally { can bo evaluated by breaking
a+b cos xc sin x
sin @ and cos @ in terms of 4% and thon multiplying the numerator
and the denominator of the integrand by sec* 42 and substituting z for
tan 42. This is illustrated in Examples 8 and 4 of Art. 4°8 below.

In fact any rational function of sin x, cos @% can be easily inte-

grated by expressing sin x and cos x in terms of tan 42, 4.¢., by writing
_ 2 tan $a
sin z= i+ tan® z
1— tan? $2
and COS B= FP ian? ha

and then putting tan 4r=2.

Similar integrals involving hyperbolic functions can be evaluated

by an exactly similar process.
 SPECIAL TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS 61

4°8. Positive integral powers of sine and cosine.

(A) Odd positive index.

Any odd positive power of a sine and cosine can be
integrated immediately by substituting cos =z and sin =z
respectively as shown below.

Ex. (i) (sin?a dxz= |sin*2 sin x dxz=— \(1 —cos?a) d (cos a) :

=—f(l—s?) dz [ Putting z for cos a J

= —(s—425)= —(e08 2—$ 082).
Ex. (ii) \cos" ax=| cos*z cos 2 dz= \(1—sin*x)? d (sin x)

= f(1—2?)? dz [ Putting z for sin x ]

= f(1—-227+3') de=2z—§2° +325
=sin g—4% sin'x++# sin5a.

(B) Even positive index.

In order to integrate any even positive power of sine and
cosine, we should first express it in terms of multiple angles
by means of trigonometry and then integrate it.

Ex. (ili) Integrate |cos*a dx.

cos*x={% (1+cos 2x)}? =#{1+2 cos 22+c0s?22}

=4 [142 cos 27+4 (1+cos 42)]
=3+3 cos 22+4% cos 47.
Joos*a da= f(§+4 cos 2a+% cos 4x) dx
=87+4'sin 27+ yl sin 42.

Note 1. It should be noted that when the index is large, it would

be more convenient to express the powors of sines or cosines of angles
in terms of multiple angles by the use of De Moivyre’s Theorem, as
shown below.
 62 INTEGRAL CALCULUS

Ex. (iv) Integrate \sin®a da.

Let cosatising=y, ) .. COS nz+i sin nze=y"

then, cos g—-i sin g= ; j cos nz—¢ sin nase

". yk 1 9 COS & y+ l =2 cos nx

y 4"
1 ae ee) fue
you =2t sing ay" — —, = 22 sin nz.
v y
*, 2°49 sin?a

(v- y5)
(8) are) 9-99) (4
“NET
=(y + 8I 4 ye +281 y mae 56[ ¥ ge +70

=2 cos 8z —8.2 cos 62+ 28.2 cos 42 —56.2 eos 2xn+ 70.
sin*2= 277 (cos 8a—8 cos 62+28 cos 4a —56 cos 27+385).
fsin®x dz=2-7 f(cos 82—8 cos 62+ 28 cos 4%—56 cos 2a+35) dz
_ 1 fsin8z_ 8 sin 6z sin4z_., sin 2m| a,
= 01 g 6 +28 4 56 a at
t

= 5; (4 sin Sx—$ sin 62+7 sin 4v—98 sin 27+ 35z].

Note 2. When the index is an odd positive integer, then also we

can first express the function in terms of multiplo angles and then
integrate it; but in this case, it is better to adopt the method shown
above in (A).
Thus, fsin®s dz =Jf#(8 sin e—sin 3x) dx= —§ cos 2+ py cos 3a.

4°4. Products of positive integral powers of sine

and cosine.
Any product of the form sin? cos‘ admits of immediate
integration as in Sec A, Art. 4°38, whenever either p or q ts
a positive odd integer, whatever the other may be. But when
both p and q are positive even indices, we may first express
the function as the sum of a series of sines or cosines of
multiples of # as in Sec. B, Art. 4°3, and then integrate it.
 SPECIAL TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS 68

Ex. (i) Integrate (sin? cos®a dz.

I= fsin?z cos*x cos x da

= fsin®z (1—-sin?z)? d (sin 2)
= fz? (1—3s)? dz, { putting z=sin x ]

= f(z? —22*+2°) dz

=$29—325 +327 t

=4 sin*7—2 sin*a+# sin‘a.

Ex, (ii) Integrate \sin*a cos*a da.

Let cos a@+isinz=y; ) .. COS ne+é sin ne=y"

Sak 1 1.
then, cos z—4 sin 2= = } cos nz—4 sin nx =-
¥y y"

:
ee ‘eee =2 cos x
y oF @ y+ y" =2 cos 122

gu? a0; sin nx sn! of ain ag

eye yy" .

(0-8) a) 0-3 ea)

9°¢4 sin‘ cos*a

“(vash)(o-ae3)
(1oy )1 — 9 a1
ry)
1
( apt*)+4
Ey
cos 62— 2.2 cos 42 —2 cos 22+ 4.

.. sin‘s cos?7z=275 [cos 62—2 cos 4a—cos 27+).

.. fsin‘*z cos*e dx=275 f(cos 62 —2 cos 42—cos 27+2) dz

1 [sin 62 _2sin 4a sinn2B +g z|
"98 6 4
64 INTEGRAL CALCULUS

Note. The expression sin” x cos? x also admits of immediate inte-

gration in terms of tan a or cot x if p+q bea negative even integer,
whatever p and gq may be. In this case, the best substitution is tan x
or cota=z. For other cases of sin? a cos’ #, a reduction formula is
generally required. See § 8°14—8'17.

Ex. (lil) Integrate \sn d

Here, p+q=2-6= —4; .*. put tan c=z, then sec’ dxz=dz.

Now, I= ftan*s.sec*a da
= fz? (1+27) dz=425 +325
=4 tan°s+2 tan®a. .

Ex. (iv) Integrate \ oe in 7

sin*x cos*x

Here, pt+q=—-4-f=-—4; .°. put tan g=z, then sec’z dv=dz.

4 2
Now, r=\ — 5eal a dz
tan“ z
i 3 5
= f(z a4. 2”) da=4gh +2g°
5
=2 tan? 2+? tana.

4°5. Integral powers of tangent and cotangent.

Any integral powers of tangent and cotangent can he
readily integrated. Thus,

(i) J tan*z dz=f tan 2.tan?x dx=J tan x (sec*#—1) de

=f tan x d (tan z)—f tan « dx=$} tan*x—log soc x.

(il) f cot*x dz=f cot?a (cosec?z—- 1) da

=f cot7x cosec*z da—J cot?” da
= —f cot®z d (cot z)=f (cosec?a—1) da
= —4 cot°z+cot 7+2.
 SPECIAL TRIGONOMETRIO FUNOTIONS 65

4°6. Positive integral powers of secant and cosecant.

(A) Hven positive index. .
Even positive powers of secant or cosecant admit of
immediate integration in terms of tan 2 or cot x. Thus,
(i) f secta dx=f(i+tan?z) sec?x dx
=f sec®z dz+J tan%x d (tan 2)
=tan o+% tan*a.
(il) [ cosec’s da=f cosec*sx. cosec*a dz
= f(1+cot?x)? cosec*a dx
= — f(1+2 cot?x+cot‘a).d (cot x)
=—cot s—4% cot*z —4 cot*s.

(B) Odd positive index.

Odd positive powers of secant and cosecant are to be
integrated by the application of the rule of integration
by parts.
(tii) f sec’ dx=J sec x.sec’2 dz=soc tan x—f sec a tan*@ dz
=sec « tan x—J sec x (scc?z—1) dx
=soc 2 tan z+J sec zrdx—J sec*x dz.
.". transposing J sec*g dz to the left side, writing the value of
§ sec x dx, and dividing by 2, we get
7 a
=
Jsec 3 & de= } seca tan a+ log ton (7 + 2)

(iv) f sec's dx=Jf seo*x sec*a dx

=sec’g tan x—f 8 sec*z tan%a dz
=sec*sr tan «—3 f sec*a (sec*2—1) dx
=seo*s tan 2+8 J sec*a de—S8 f sects da.
Now, transposing 8 f sec’s dz and writing the value of f seo*z da,
we get ultimately,
Sweet eydep OD 800%H
Z
5 8 tan wseca,+ =8 «Flog tan (F+2).
co a
66 INTEGRAL OALCULUS

(v) f§ cosec*s dx=J cosec @ cosec?a dx

= —¢cosec x cot x—Jf cosec z eot?a dz
= —cosec z cot s—f cosec x (cosec*
x —1) dz
= —cosec x cot x+Jf cosec x dx—J cosec®x dx.
‘, transposing f cosce*s dx and writing the value of J cosec x dz,
J cosec*a dz= —4 cosec x cot #+4 log tan 42.

4°7. Hyperbolic Functions.

(i) (sinh x dx -|3(e" —e°*) da = ¥(e* +e") = cosh x.

(ii) (cosh x dx -|4(e* +e°*) dx = $(e" — e”7) = sinh x.

sinh x
Gii) \ tanh x dx= \ dz =log (cosh x).
\ osh &

(iv) {coth x dx= {cosh T dz =log |(sinh x)|.

nhx

(v) (cosech x dx = \. dx _o | de
pa x os
* dar

1
(2, eri) dO)
ex—1,
=log
Fi
=log |tanh ix].
(on dividing the numerator and denominator by e tz)
: agr e”
(vi) {sechx dx= (2 ; a| ae AL

ésallesi,2.= 2 tan-"(e%)
= 9 tan? (cosh ¢+ si
nh a).
 SPECIAL TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS 67

Otherwise :
_(_ae__
(sech x ax-| cosh & er seae+sinh® 4a
4 3 sech® be ji
1 + tanh? er

= 2|oar [ on puttingz=tanh da ]
1lt+2z?
=9 tan”~'s=2 tan™* (tanh 4x).

(vii) \sech?x dx =tanh x.

(viii) {cosech?x dx= — coth x.

(ix) (sech x tanh x dx = —sech x.

(x) {cosech x coth x dx = -cosech x.

4°8. IDustrative Examples.

dx
Ex. 1. Integrate | [ C. P. 1928, '80 ]
a sun a+b cos 2
Put a=rcos 0, b=r sin 6, then a sin 2+b cos =r sin (c+6).

Hore r= ./g?+63 and @=tan7! .

dx 1
i\. sin (x-+ 0)_ N cosee (w+ 6) dit

= \ cosec z dz, where z=2+8@

= *log tan 2= *log

tan 72°
J

== 3
gti G1
Wel tan(Gg tanytal OY,

Note. Since, as above, sin 2-+cos c= »/2 sin (c+ *)s

68 INTEGRAL CALCULUS

ax vr
\sing-+cosm ./2‘a|cones (2+t) ae
de c,7\!

Ex, 2.2. Integrate \ ee hyUt daz

= Sint eeB® SS
cos

Multiply the numerator and denominator by sec®x and put

tan c=2,
_\. @2._t dz b
nad Vinge ae a? \+k
a wheres a
=
a?
1
, oon
° 1 ~1
i2 =
ap
1
ee
< -1
b tan 2
(4 ri )

Ex. 3. Antegrate \pas dzaaa.

da
=| 5(sin? 42-+cos? 42)—13.2 sin 4a cos 30.

Multiplying the numerator and denominator by soc? $2, this

sec? ga da
5 (tan? 4+ 1)—26 tan $x
= Id2 ; « &
4.
5a a { putting tan $2=2 ]

o
| tan tn —
— 25)i
| 5 tan 2—1 |
on restoring the side of z.

an
Ex. 4. Integrate \L343 co ee re { C. P. 1938 J
ros DHA sin @

; qe
t=\ 18 (sin? $2+cos? $2)+8 (cos? $2—sin? $2)+4.2 sin dx cos 42
 SPECIAL TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS 69

Multiplying the numerator and denominator by sec? 42, this

_Sec” $9 da
10 tan? $2+8 tan 40+ 16
2 dz :
10a?+82z+16
F: ({putting z=tan 2 ]

-3\ = 2\ du,
(2+) Te u?+a?
where u=z+?, a=2
1 -, 52+2
tan 1 -u = 6 tan 6
ein

>:Atan -, 5 tan Ggr+2

2 sim 2+3 COS &

Let 2 sin 2+3 cos x

=1 (denominator)
+ m (diff. of denominator)
=1(3 sin +4 cos 2)+m (3 cos e—4 sin 2)
=(31—4m) sin 2+ (41+3n) cos a.
Now comparing cocfficients of sin and cos z on both sides, we
get 31—4m=2 and 41+3m=3 whence 1=}3, m=n'5.
2 sin 2+8 cos x= (3 sin 2+4 cos 2)+q5 (3 cos 2 —4 gin a).
«ey 18 1 [ 3cos a—4 sina
pag |da+ 95 3sin +4 cos «@
= 187+) log (3 sin 2 —4 cos 2).

_ { asin x+b cos x ‘

Note. Generally |©sin x+d cos x dx can bo treated in the same

way.

Ex. 6. Integrate | eked mee oe tl a = —

sin (x—a) sin (w— 5b)

1 sin {(z —b)—(z—a)}
sin (x=a) sin (x—b)~ sin’ (a—b) sin @— a) sin (a —b)

1 cos (wa)
_cos(w—b)],
gin (a—b) Lsin (x—a) sin (z—b)
70 INTEGRAL CALCULUS

ta —_1___ f( cos. <9)5 ( 08 (x=)

a I=Fn (a —b) | sin (xr —a) ce |sin (c— oe=|

“aa ia-3) {log sin (x —a)—Jog sin (x—5)]

_ ipa sin (x—a).

sin (a—b) ° sin (4-8)

tan a
Ex. 7. Integrate |en late ady,b >a.

r=\-~ Sina dr -\- _sing da |

Jacoste+h sin?x vo—(b— a) cos*z

\ sine da =. 1 \ dq |
“Th —a soneau Jb—ad Sk? ~2?
ms

; = b
a z=cos 7 aand i ae
«al

= -— 7 cos7! = = Sy --== COS” Taf 5 -- os

COS
Jb—-a lb b-a b
( See Art. 2°3(E), Note ]

ax
Ex. 8. Integrate \3B+4 cosh «

dz
Im) 9 (cau Goo aia?ga)+4 (Goel ELAR 4
ss\wey NOD wa thesoes
7 cosh’42+sinh*$x

-| sech? $t
7+tanh* ae?

(on multiplying the numorator and denominator by sech” 42.)

Put tanh d2=2; thon $ sech? 4” dx =dz.

.
r=2\ epee
= dz =
gytan’ 4a =3, tan (5 tanh a2)
2 - z _ 2 - i e
 SPECIAL TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS 71

EXAMPLES IV

Integrate with respect to x the following functions :—

1. (i) cosec 2x. [C. P. 1929|]

(ii) cos*z. (iii) sin*e.

(iv) sin®a. (v) sin®2 cos?2.
(vi) sin*z cos®z. (vii) sin‘x cos‘*z. #
(viii) sin*a2 cos*a. (ix) cos?a sin®z.
(x) sin 2x cos*a. (xi) sin 32 cos*z.
(xii) sec*z cosec?z. (xiii) sin®s sec®s.

2. (i) cot?a. (ii) tan*a. (iii) sec®z.

(iv) cosec’z. (v) cosec’a. (vi) tan*e sec*z.

Evaluate the following integrals:-——

3. (3) |28? a (ii) a
sin ee cos &

(iii) iFgin & cos£

sin on 4 ( vf.cos an @

«fests oi) [22% ae

4. (i) |/sin x cos*x dz. (ii) |/sie a,
n°x cos™z

5. i) |cn Ft oe
72 INTEGRAL CALCULUS

6 Iz _ a
: 83 sin 7-4 cos x

7 \ de
: (3 sinzw +4 cos x)?

. sin@ v sin 2
8. (i) |cos 2a ae. (ii) |sin 3a da.

9. (i) lsc”
ee nea (ii)iFaa
cot? or 1;
10. \s
cota =i4

dx
11. |aoe! a—-3 cos2

sin® © @ ., (sind a
12. (i) fe x. (ii) \cos? daz.
cos®bn

a ada e

18. (i) {Ea 2 cos*a Gi) \

aimxz cos’s

(iii) \ sin Qa da_. (iv) j de

- sin 52 sin 32 cos 32— cos £
[ Put sin?z+cos*x in the numerator of (4) and (i). ]

sy) | da
14. (i) {sin*z cos?” (ii) |sin*s cos*z
; [ Put tan w=2 in (4) and (%). J

_/tan 2 a—sin@
ee joesia
15. (i) {aaa da. (ii) Oa dx

16. (i) Ngo 5 siu®a (ii) \ ta

 SPECIAL TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS 73

1%. utytemas ae; Gi) |scx ier

*z
[ (4) Write sin*a+ cos*a=cos? 22+4 sin? Qa. J

18. 6) |PPS, a Peae

Gi) |(oe
10. fgfe ae |
20. 0) |ia ftag Ciectar
a1.) |02 ae fgi OS
[ (2) amare At xz+cos x)+(cos x—sin z)}. ]

ess cosec. 2 - cot x sec L

ll a a - dz
(iii) | cosec x + cot x J1+2 sesec

22. | POO dep:

a+b tan x

de
oy Pe tan &

24 : |atbsin
ae a [C.
P. 1983 ]
ky

wy [ aa
25. (i) |eee (ii) \axé sin £

(iii) |4+3 sinha “"! )4+8 cosh x

; de, yf da,
ae. ® |gH; w@ | srft55

cos
@ da
27. (i) |e (ii) Rene
3 cos&
74 INTEGRAL CALCULUS

28. |onfos
BF cosa

99 |Goce UT
a* cos*¢a +b? sin2z

sin 2u dr
30. |ces ae
11 cos 2-16 sin
31. re :

32. () |5 Se
1-— cos ae a

(ii) dx

3+2 sin 2 +cos ©

38 6+3sinr+ l4cosaz
; 3+4 sin c+5 cosz

34. | J/1+secx dx [ Put J/2 sin tr =z.]

1 = dx,
35. (i) |=
sec 7+ cosec 7 al (ii) \.
sin x+tan &

36. (i) |(Jian 2+ Jeotz) de. Gi) |Teste

[ () Pué sin 2—cos c=z2 and note 2 sin x cos x=1—(sin w—cos a)’. ]

a. |/{sin
sin f= aha
(e (a + a)

an? dx
58. |(c sinz'+ cos x)*
 SPECIAL TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS 75

ANSWERS
1.(i) slog tana. (ii) sinw—4sin®x. (iii) 32 —-F sin 22+) sin 42.
(iv) § cos*z—cos x—} cos*x. (v) $a—<'5 Sin 4z.
(vi) £ sin*e—$ sin®z. (vii) iy (8a—sin 4¢+4 sin 8a).
(viii) § sin'z—} sin®z. (ix) 2 cos’2—4 cos*z. (x) —} cos®e.
(xi) # sin’a2— sin‘a+4 sin®s. (xii) tan 2—cot 2.
(xiii) see « —§ seca +} sec*g.
2. (i) —3 cot?2—log sin 2. (ii) 4 tan®a—tan a+e. :
(iii) tan o(1+4 tan’x+2 tan‘a). (iv) —cot 2-4 cot?s.
(v) —4 cot x cosce*a—3 cot x cosec a+ % log tan da.
(vi) tan®a (4+4 tan%z). 3. (i) log tan 4r+2 cos a.
(ii)2 sin w—log (sec a-+tan a). — (iii) 4 log (sec w+ tan 7).
Panel 1+ J2 sino fis pS erate sig
(iv) 5 a log i< eine (v) 2 tan°x+? ian‘a,

(vi) log tan 42 —2 cosce a. 4. (i) 3 Vsino (7 sin 2-8 sin®z).

ee x
5 4 Qian * ess oats 1
tee el og
(ii) 2 cot? (} tanta +2 tang — 4). 5. (i) & (ii) tua

6.rie4 log tan (fa—3 tan~' $). a see

* — 3(8 tan a+4)
1+ J/2 ensa J/3+tan
x
8. (i);2 oh log 1— y2cosxz (ii) 2 a log J3—tan x

9. (i) 4 log tan ($7+2) (ii) 4 tan ate 8 tan7"(/2 tan 2).

10. 4 log tan ({7+2). 11. 4 log tan ({7-+ 2).

12. (i) -—4 costar + 45;cos? a. (ii) sec 2+2 cos x—} cos®z.

18. (i) sec x+log tan 42. (ii) 4 tan2x7+Jog tan a.

(iii) $ log sin 8a —}2 log sin 52. — (iv) # [cosec z— Jog (sec z+ tan 2)].
14. (i) tan 2-2 cot w—4} cotsz. (ii) 4 (tan *ax ~ cot*z)+ 8(tan 2 —cot 2).

15. (i) 2 Jtan a: (ii) log (cos a+sin 2+ sin 27).

 76 INTEGRAL CALCULUS

we PoeRes cy Hy nr( 84)

17, (i) tan-? (tan2z), (8) J,igtan'(—4, tan 2x ).
18. (i) 2/1 —sin o— w2 log tan (d0-+4m).
Get, 1+ tan x
- 19. 2tan 40a.
20. (i) 4 {2+ log (sin x-+ cos a)}. (ii) 2 cosec a tan=! (tan $a tan 42),

21. (i) 4e+log (sin z+cos x)}. — (ii) guts log (2 sin 2+8 cos 2).

(iii) sin='(% sec?3z).

22. “Jat1 aja 108tan (5

Fe
+ G5
1
tan-.@\)
.)
23. 7 .at- ee log (a cos a+b sin x)
* @7*+b?" a?+b? F

Me peg tant (a va} ifa>b;

; _1 {2tan a+b — Jb? —a?a
Vota? 8 laian goeb+ Jpa—qrs’ he <b
‘ sf ye 2tan ge+1
25. (i) 4 tan" 4 (5 tam $2+ 4). (ii) 3 logE cian kot

14-2 tanh $2, N7+ tanh $2

(iii)3log fg tanh dae (iv) 3 log -t—tanh 4x
3 ey 2+tan jz
26. (i) $ tan~! (4 tan 3a). (ii) ¢ log (Gtean *).

27, +\” (i) sina

<2. tog 88 3-@=9.
cos 4 (a+ a)
it), — far
;
+ § tam" (2 tan 4a).
1 a a
28. a fat—b? tan (-Jat 73 tan x)»ifa > 6b;:

«log tes Oo Tmo

2.80 ga te gebs.
2a noe a tan e+ /b?—a?
 SPECIAL TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS TT

‘29. — <9
— 5a 108 (Ja?— 3 cos 2+ n/a? cos?a+5* sina),

ifa>b; ~ phn - sin=*( vet - GOSr)> ifa <b.

‘30. —2b-? log (a+b cos 2) —2ab-? (a+b cos z)7'.

31. 3 log (2 cos a+5 sin x) —

2a, 32. (i) —log (1+ cot 42).

(ii) tan-'(1+tan 42). 33. 2a+log (8+4 sin 2+5 cos 2), i w

34. 2 sin71(./2 sin $2).

35. (i) 4 [sin 2 —cos 2g g log tan (42 +47)].

(ii) $ log tan 42—+7 tan? de. 36. /2sin-' (sin «—cos 2).

87. cos a cos~?(cos 2 sec a) —sin a log (sin 2+ Jsin?2—sin?a)-

sin @—a@ cos
36. & sin #-+cos x
 OHAPTER V

RATIONAL FRACTIONS
{ Method of breaking up into partial fractions ]

5°1. Integration of Rational Fractions.

When we have to integrate a rational fraction, say

¢(x), we shall first

von if f(z) be not of a lower degree than
express i by ordinary division in the form

Cpz? + Creat i Cot o

where Cyv? + steers +C, is the quotient, and y(z) is the

remainder and hence of lower degree than 4(z).

Then
St(a)
ba2) = Cy=ee it “+ Coat Hie)ax.

So we shall now consider how to integrate that rational

fraction in which the numerator ts of a lower degree

dla
than the denominator. The best way of effecting the
integration is first to decompose the fraction into a number
cf partial fractions and then to integrate each term
separately.

*Whon f(r) and (x) are algebraic expressions containing terms

involving positive integral powers of z only, of the form
Ao FG 2+ Agu? +++ + ane”.
 RATIONAL FRACTIONS 79

We shall not enter here into a detailed discussion of the

theory of partial fractions for which the student is referred
to treatises on Higher Algebra, but we shall briefly indicate
the different methods adopted in breaking up a fraction into
partial fractions according to the nature of the factors of
the denominator of the fraction.

We know from the Theory of Equations that ¢(2) can

always be broken up into real factors which may be linear
or quadratic and some of which may be repeated.

Thus the general form of ¢(z) is

A(z - a(x = B)---(x — ¥)? (2 — 6)% f(a - 1)? + amt: ,

{(a— TY? +ml*Fr.

Case Il. When the denominator contains factors, real,
linear, but none repeated,

To each non-repeated linear factor of the denominator,

such as 2-—a, there corresponds a partial fraction of the
A
form a where A is a constant. The given fraction can
be expressed as a sum of fractions of this type and the
unknown constants A’s can be determined easily as shown
by the following examples.

Ex. 1. Integrate (sf 2 ees

ae. [P. P. 1981}
og? +a? —6a =a (2? +2—6)—2(7+8)(e—
2).

xe?+a—1 A B Cc.
Let letS)\@—a) 2 tat3 a3
 80 INTEGRAL CALCULUS

Multiplying both sides by a(z+8)(x—2), we get

2*+2%-1=A (2+8)(2—2)+ Ba (e—2)+ Cx (2+8).
Putting s=0, —38, 2 snecessively on both sides, we get
A=4, B=}, C=4.
.. the given integral is
1{ dv,1[ dr 1[ dz
ay a) otal 9
=4 log x+4 log (x+38)+4 log (2 —2).

Ex. 2. Integrate |Grae Bez ax

Here numerator is of the same degree as denominator and if

the numerator be divided by the denominator, tho fraction would be
of the form

1+ 2 whore Q = (a —a)(x—)(x —c) and P of lower degree than Q. ©

Q
Hence, we can write
a* mje t 4 Bi CG,
i@ale=tiost) a= a eb ee (1)
a* =(2—a)(1 —b)(e—c) +A (2 —b)(2— 0)
+B (2—c)(ex—a)+C (2—a)(x—b). (2)

Putting «=a, b, c successively on both sides of the abovo

identity (2), we got
3 ca

A= g-sNa-0" B= (= 0620)’°=(@~a)(o=0)
=,- a* \) BS, —-—-\9

from (1), it follows that the given integral

+s ( do 3 as,
(a-—b)(a—c) J}a-a Th—¢)(6—a)
ce \*.
ax
* (e=a)(o—5)

e+ Gaiam 98 Ea aime) 28-9

+ ome=3) log (%—c).
 RATIONAL FRACTIONS 81

Case II. When the denominator contains factors, real,

linear, but some repeated,

To each p-fold linear factor, such as («— a)? there will

correspond the sum of p partial fractions of the form

__Ap s _Ap-1 echialh stngsgib atare Ay ’

(x— a)® * (g~a)?-* * * @—a)
where the constants Ap, Ap-1,...A, can be evaluated easily.

x. 3. Inteqrate {(+1)? (e+9) az.

Tj 7
cL SeA : B _ Cc
Joe
et (a+1)? (a +2) (e+ i)? (e+ 1) * (@+9)

Multiplying both sides by-(7+- 1)? (r+), we get

e?=A (2+2)+B (x1+1)(e+2)4+C (x+1)?.

Putting «= —1, —2 successively, wo get A=1, C=4.

Again, equating cocfficients of 2? on koth sides,

B+C=1; .. B=-—83, since C=4.

‘ y _( dx _ da da:
the given integral= | (+1)? 3 \ae +4] o+9

oSBiecgsll
ag totic8 log (w+1)+4
: log (2+ 2).

Note. Tho partial fractions in the above case can also be obtained
jn the following way. Denote the first power of the repeated factor
e—1)2
i.c., +1 by 2, then the fraction= a fa > Now, divide Num. by

Denom. of the 2nd fraction after writing them in ascending powers

of 2, till highest power of the repeated factor, véz., 27, appears in the
remainder.
e
Thus the fraction= =(1 82+ #-) =e
= 1 42° ad 3
taee,
Now
replace 3 by z+1, and the reqd. fractions are obtained.
82 INTEGRAL CALCULUS

Case III. When the denominator contains factors, real,

quadratic, but none repeated.

To each non-repeated quadratic factor, such as

2? + pa t+q, (or, 27 +q, q ~ 0), there corresponds a partial
fraction of the form - ee ee » the method of integration
oe? + pxtq
of which is explained in Art. 2'5.

wv
Ex. 4. Integrate |ea 1)(z*+4) dx.

Fob: ezaeiea eet aca

“2 =A (2? +4)+(Brt+C)(xz—-1).

Putting 2«=1, on both sides, we get A=}.

Equating coocfficients of x? and a on both sides, we get

A+B=0 and C—B=1; hence B= —!, C=.

the given integral becoincs

1( dv ae i @ 2a ee S|
a\ -s\Sae4 ~ 5 —1 10 +4°
)a?5 Jax?+ 4

= £log(e— 1)- 10108 (x? +4)+ 2tan™? ~1 2.

5

dx
Ex. 5. Integrate ((a?+a?)(e? +b?) [ C. P. 1928, '81, '37 |

ih
ray LE [a3 shee
— (@?+a7)(a? +b?) a? —b? Le?+b? 2? +20?

..° |
the given +
integral = i
“a7 —b?
= -_ ax
[|we? +h?
~ dx.
g3+ ml

1A_sfi,-.2_1
pe s{#tan i am +2].
 RATIONAL FRACTIONS 88

dz
Ex. 6. Integrale \. a

Since, 2°+1=(2+1)(2?—2+1),

let us assume 1 iA, Bete |,

e*+1 etl w7?-2+1
1=A (2? —2+1)+ (Bet C)(et1).

Putting c= —1, we get A=}.

4

Equating the cocfficients of x”, and the constant terms, we have

A+B=OandA+C=1. .. B= -}, C=4.

the givon integral becomes

1{ dz 5|
ote
3Jat+l1 3 w—a+1
1 da _ 1 (22-1) —8
~ SJat+l 6) w?-—a2+1

- 5) a —2\ 22-1 aot 5) 8 ey:

~ Slatl 6)e2?-24+1 2) a7-—24+1

= g1 log(x+1)—
=1 log (2? -2+1)+ ,1 | -———
dz
Seo Bee 2 |fee a+ (22)

ao
31 log (a+1) — 61 log (2?2 eo -2+1)+ 9.78
1 2
tan - (22-1
E )

1 1 ‘ AL (2 .
= 3 log (29+1)— 6 log (2? — 2 +1)+ 3 tan, B )

Case IV. When the denominator contains factors real,

quadratic, but some repeated.

In this case we shall require the use of Reduction

Formula to perform the integration, for the general dis-
cussion of which see Chap. VIII.
84 INTEGRAL CALCULUS

Ex. 7. Integrate \~#

+ 3)

Although this case comes under Case (IV), it can bo treated more
simply as follows: Put «=tan 6.
; _( sec’@ dé 3
ee r=\* gaa'D =\cos 6 dé

-| 3 (1+cos 26) da=4 (+4 sin 26)

=} fos:1 a)
2 2 14+tan?@

cell ~1 }.
~ 9 {tan +i a

5°2. Two Special Cases.

(A) In many cases if the numerator and the denominator
of a given fraction contain even powers of x only, we can first
write the fraction in a simpler form by putting z for «*, and
then break it up into partial fractions involving z, 7.e., 27,
and then integrate if. Thus,

x2
Ex. 8. Integrate \
z*+p? 2 dz.

Putting «?=s2, wo have

7 z 8 A B
8ta2—2 sta (2+ 9-1) 242° 2-1
a=A (3—1)+B (2+).
Putting z= —2 and 1 respectively, we get A=3, B=}.
te ae 2 on 14 1 — oe

wt+n7-2 3 w74+2° 8 2?—1l

2( de ,1( dz.
I= 3)a'+2° 8) a?-1

ae. tenet 2% -1
= s. a ala 3+ Glog &a1
 RATIONAL FRACTIONS 85

(B) If in a fraction, the nwmerator contains only odd

powers of x and the denominator only even powers, then
it is found more convenient to change the variable first by
putting 27 =z and then break it up into partial fractions as
usual. Thus,

x* dx :
Ex. 9. Integrate \ ay rere

w?=sg. .°. 2x dz= dz, as x? dz =z dz.

Put

I 1 \ edz |
~ 2) 3?#+-32+2

2 A
Now ee B say
" g9+32+2 (3+1)(2+2) 241 24+2°°""

We determine as usual 4 = —1, B=2.

[= :[2\-2,-|.4|- ;
[2 log (3+ 2) —log (s+1)]

=log (7? -+ 2) —4 log (a? +1).

5°3. Integral of the form

( dk |
)(x-a)™(x-b)"
where m and n are positive integers and a and b are unequal,
positive or negative.

Put r-a=2(2—)).

Ex. 10. Integrate oxy

Put 2#-1=3(¢—2)

Lm28, bd az=— da -
a I—s — (1—2)
86 INTEGRAL CALCULUS

Hence, the intogral transforms into

\*= ea hee 2ree a.

|as) dz= 2

=— : —83 log 2+32— 43”

= ~(274)—9 08 (27 9)+9(2=3)~ 3(2=2)™

EXAMPLES V

Integrate the following :

L. \& een gy [O.P. 1987]

2. | ee ee yy (CC. P. 1928]

3. {& oe ay LG. P. 1924]

4. (i) {ot OOPmas (ii) \e

x ot .: a"

5. |is aye ner)

6. () |Get a| (iy (42a.
7 @) lan
ea 12° (ii) jesse fyde,

() \5eoes ®) |gaye Fay

dee a d
9. (i) Se
renin
(@- Ba —¢) @) le=se=y
 RATIONAL FRACTIONS 87

cid |eae Ow) | +i) +a

s a: if : a:

2
10.0) fdrt (i) [Be ae,
11. @) | '—2*-¢ +1 ala’+mye
(i) ae
12. (i) |eatoo (a+1)da)
(ii) Ve:Nera
+

ee) |(2 - (0+1) ae da

Gi). (|(8a+2)
14. (i) a

15.60) |a7 4 de =a)

a*?
(H) (a(a
2

16. (i) re da. (ii) \=2a

d .. a” d
(ii) \erent)
a® da
dr + b*)
(ii) {(x? +awe")
eo .2 + a*\r? +52) ?

a |(x? te b)

(ii) \;se 12%

ah: +ev.i@
lat
(ii) {2x ee
88 INTEGRAL CALCULUS

28. |orrierep ax

24. \erste
yo +1)
de ———

sal \
24 +a +7 +2°)

ax
ae: |am
{ ot+e?+1=(c?+2+1)(2?—z+1) )

27. @) | oc (ii) (244 dx.

{ ot +1=(02?
+a /2+1){e? —2 /2+1) J

28. (i) | dx - (ii) i oa

° cos
x (5+3 cos 2) sin 2a —sin 2
dx be ewde |
29. (i) F + 30 + 2e** (ii) \z
oa 3e-* £9
ae [Putcost=z] [P. P. 1932 |
30. |sin 2 (3 + 2 cos 2)

31. Show that {2 » where ¢(2)= I (2 +r)

d(x) r=0

=+[ tos e+ =Ae 1)" C log (e+2)|

gt +

32. Show that |f(a) da

= a (a,)"—
NY = ar) : log (a — ar)
sei

where fe) =I (29-ar), [ar ¥ ap ifi xk]

 RATIONAL FRACTIONS 89

ANSWERS
1. 2 log (ve—38)—log (2 —2).

2 at {a log (cx—a)—b log (x —b)}.

3. 248 log (x+2)+2 log (x—3)}.

4. (i) 4{7 log (e-—7)—5 log (a —5)}. (ii) log {(2—-2)? (w+1)}.
5. $ log (z—1)—4 log (w—2)+2 log (4-3).
6. (i) § log (c—1) —2 log x~ log (x+2). (ii) log (2? -1) fog x.

7. (i) 42? —Tax —27 log (2 +8)+64 log (v+4). (ii) a— ;lo oso

8. (i) 4 log {a (a? —3)*}. te —4 log (B—2)—#% log (3+ 22).

j a?
9. (i) (a-ila-e) log (2—
~a)t Gg Nez
=} log (x—b)

tip Ne~b) log (x “ c).

a 1 1 —b
(ii) (b-—a)(a— a (b-a)? log ou
bite. ed: “—2 z-2 I1fa—2\2
(iii) Seg Bg ee aD) ;
; art a+1 etl lfr+i
i eka aa - 5 (243)

10. (i) pints (w+1). (ii) - *

? 4 log z+4 log (+1).

. 1 1 z+1 hie sak

11.) aig iyt 4 8-1 Ci) TB oa
eat e+1 1 «&
12. (i) 410g og gtd
se fs 2 1 e—-1
(Hi) (45 a—i 3/8 fea)
od 4n+3
13. (i) eesyt 93 108 erat tii) Dog at oer)"
14, (i)- = tan- a - 31; 18 Tit1-2
=e
90 INTEGRAL CALCULUS

-, 2041
(ii) log (1- z+ igtan? 73

15. (i) Hlog (x? oe (2?+ 1)}. (ii) $ Jog (2! —1)—log x.
16. (i) F{log (1+a) —log (1 —a)}—§ tan-' a,
a) top4108 =47 tH 2g ‘on
(ii) tan-t X.

1 2)top
17.) 9 qa—j tte.
log Yq? (ii) gf @ tan- 12 - _y L tan tance bI.

18. (i) sa* Tb) {a? log (a? +") —? log (a? + b?)}.

a’ 3
(ii) a+;ssl aye a tata?
—qa tan _ bP tan -1%,
i

1s; ea ae : =i 2}

20. (i) aH as cone tan~'z.

a 1 oi
. tan“?
21. 4 [log (2? es (2? +a
+ 1)).
e-2, J/8, _, @ wy og ee 2
22. (i log | pot 7 tan7! Js (ii) & og (2? — 2) —log (a? + 1)}.

23, 31 |tanHt (u+2)+

(pe a+2 ;-
ets tee. Tes, 9 tan”
24, tan-'e— pita (a0/2)

25. log x—4 log log (1+a*)—4 tan-'z.

26, 42 log eh)

1l-a+x? i
tan (73).
L=2
Ita J2+a"7, 1 s (24 ):
ahs ast108 Toe tat t22 2 GK
2 not 22/2
A) jg 8 1-77

28. (i) } log tan (f7+427)—

1% tan™! (4 tan 32).
(ii) 4 log (1+-cos x) +4 “og (1—cos x) —$ log (1—2 cos 2).
29. (i) wt+log (1-+e*)—2 log (1-+ 2e*). (ii) $ log (e?—1)(e*+ 8)°.
30. —4% log (1+ cos z)+y'5 log (1—cos x) +3 log (8+2 cos x),
 CHAPTER VI
DEFINITE INTEGRALS

6°1. Thus far we have defined integration as the inverse

of differentiation. Now, we shall define integration asa
process of sunwmation. In fact the integral calculus was
invented in the attempt to calculate the area bounded by
curves hy supposing the given area to be divided into an
infinite number of infinitesimal parts called elements,
the sum of all these elements heing the area required.
Historically the integral sign is merely the long S used by
early writers to denote the sum.
This new definition, as explained in the next article,
is of a fundamental importance, because it is used in most
of the applications of the integral calculus to practical
problems,

6°2. Integration as the limit of a sum.

The generalised definition is given in Note 2 helow.
We first start with a special case of that definition which is
advantageous for application in most cases.
Let f(x) be a bounded™ single-valued continuous function
defined in the interval (a, b), @ and b being both finite
quantities, and b > a; and let the interval (a, b) be divided
into » equal sub-intervals each of length h, by the points
ath, at2h,...a+(%—1) h, 30 that nh=b-a;
“¢.e.. which does not become infinite at any point. Sea Authors’
Differential Calculus.
92 INTEGRAL CALCULUS

then Lth [ (a)+at+h)+%(a+2h)+---+f(a-+n-—1h)}

nol
i.@., shortly Lt hk» flatrh), (nh=b-a)
n>0 = —r=0

b-a ., r
or, Lt sfla+@ a)” )

(*.. 2122 when h—>0)

is defined as the dejinite integral of f(a) with respect to x
between the limits a and b, and is denoted by the symbol

J:F(a) dx.
‘a’ is called the lower or inferior limit, and ‘b’ is called
the wpper or superior limit.
Cor. Putting a=0, we get
b nL
\ f(x) dx=Lt h = f(rh), where, nh=b.
0 h>0 =r =0

Note 1. |fef(r) dr is also sometimes defined as

a

n ”
Lt h = f(wtrh), or, Le h & Jlatrh) ;
h>0 r=1 n>0 =r =0

these definitions differ from one another only in the inclusion or

exclusion of the terms Af(a) and hf(a+ nh), i.e., Af(b) which ultimately
vanishos.
It should be carefully noted that whichever of these slightly
different forms of the definition we use, we always arrive at the same
result. Sometimes for the sake of simplicity we use one or other of
these definitions.
Sopposing the interval (a, b) to be divided into » equal parts each
of length Az by the poimi ao(=@), @1) Larrereccssaees X,{ =), the definite
b n~1
integral \a f(x) da may also be defined as Lt = f(x,) Az.
n>ce ¢=0
 DEFINITE INTEGRALS 98

Note 2. The abovo dofinition of a definite integral is a special case

of the more generalised definition* as given below.

Let f(x) be a bounded function defined in tho interval (a, d) ; and

let the interval (a, 5) be divided in any manner into n sub-intervals
{equal or unequal), of lengths 5,, 4,,... 6,. In each sub-interval choose
a perfectly arbitrary point (which may be within or at cither end-point
of the interval) ; and let these points be r=¢,, &4,... Sp.
nn
Let° S,=
2¥ 8,f(6,).
HE.) ?
Now, Ict » increase indofinitely in such a way that the greatest of .
the lengths 6,, 6,,... 6, tends to zero. Tf in this caso, S, tends to
a definite limit which ia independent of the way in which the interval
(a, b) is sub-divewded and the intermediate points €,, $45... $n are chosen,
then this limit, when it exists, is called the definite integral of f(x)
from a to b.

It can be shown that when f() ts a continuous function, the above

limit always exssts.

In the present volume however, in Art. 6°4, we prove that if

in addition to f(z) heing continuous in the interval, there exists
a function of which it is the differential coofficient, then the above
limit exists.

In the definition of tho Article above, for the sale of simplicity,

f(z) is taken to be ® continuous function, the intervals ure taken
1o be of equal lengths, and §,, ¢4,... S_ are taken as the end-points of
the successive sub-intcrvals.

The method of uncqual sub-divisions of the interval is ilustrated

in Ex. 5 below.

b
Ex. 1. Evaluate from first principles \: e” dz. { C. P. 1922 ]

— --——— ee a em era i a ee

*For an alternative definition based on the concept of bounds, see

Appendix.
 INTEGRAL CALCULUS

om the definition,
b nol
\ e~de=Lt h = et, where nh=b—a,
a h>O = r=0

=Tt +...tt
hl et+e t0n jy
pettin-r
h>0

= Tt h.e* [1+ eh +62" + 06 + eit 19h)

h>0

= e% (eo-* — lye De ay since nh=b —a.

=e’ —¢",

5 h
[since, ae goal |

Ex, 2. Find from the definition, the value of

(|52
1
de. [ C. P. 1935, '37 }
From the definition,

1 n
\ e?dxz=Lt h & (rh)?, where nh=1
0 h>0 y=1

=Dt h[l?n?+27n2+--4+7h7]
h=>0

=Dt [h® (174+274+---+n7)]

a~0

abt 79.7 (n+1)(2n+1)

h>0 6
1
= --eLt
Gna [2° 87,3 23,3
h* + 37h? + nh.r?)2

12 ,; .
=
6 'ns0 (2+3i+h7), since nh=1
e Lt 2 =

1 ©J9=
6 p=
Go!
 DEFINITE INTEGRALS 95.

b
Ex.3 Prove ab initio \ idz = te is [ C. P. 1943 }
az a b

Here, by the definition,

b1 =Lt 1
,{1+44.- 1 1
gh, 1
<a
|at” eg [ate +h)? (a+2h)? eae
where nh=b-—a.

Denoting the right-hand series by S, since, obviously,

1 1 1
(a+rh)? - (at+rh)(at+r+i1h) a (a+r—1h)(a+rh)
a i L. > 7 ? . = a d < = ne ear = Fie

2 1 gS1 yt elles alas bc Fee 1 Seas,

reo edt Lao oem ieee al
: 1 1. ee | ee (_ 1 tut
ie, > [3 anilt (ser ato}? . (a+n—1h) inn)!

‘ 1 1 2 1 1
4.6.5 > (+ - gt ai) 1.0.5 > ee [G “nh=b
higgeDae aAe

1 1 1
also S < h Goi saree eu snes aa!

:7 x
1 Sn
1 (; aoe fee =
1 )foes ( 1 age,
1wit )’
Mea
some
(523 at a@ ath "Nain 9h atin lh

; 1 Te NAS edhe sce Te. Ni

eter i. (at+n— in)” Sea (3; i)

1 1 1 1
Hence (7 —_ t) < S < aya

and this being true for all values of h, proceeding to the limit when
7. ¥ .
1 1

b b
becomes ( ae and hence ( a. 1_1,
aw awz a b

For an alternative mothod, see Ex. 5; here m= —2.

 96 INTEGRAL CALCULUS

b ., :
Ex. 4. Prove by summation, \ sin % dx=cos a—cos b.
a

b n-1 :
snadz=Lt jf & sin (a+rh), where nh=b—a,
a h>0 r=0

= Zi h [sin at+sin (a+h)+sin (a+2h)+ --> to v torms],

azo

h ) sin gmk
= Lt 0 h.sin. 1) af }sin
fat(n_1)! sin nh
dh

=Lta ein4h ah asin

2 sin dnh.si
4nh.sin§ {a+(n—1) 9
5}
2k3 )-cosa{ fe 5AY
alt oyAh
n>0 Sin coss((a § at+(2n

—
0
Lie [eos (a— dh) —cos (a+ nh —Hh)] since oh gad
r; —_ ~~ arg gi - Lt ee Ae

=TJit [cos (a—4h)—cos (b—3h)], since at+nh=b,

a0

=cos a—cos b.

0 ; out
Ex. 5. Heraluate [ a” dx, where mis any iember, positive or
a

negative, integer or fraction, but ~#-1(0<a<b).

Let us divide the interval (a, b) into 1 parts by points of division

1

A, AY, OF? c.eeee par", ar” where ar"=b, i.e. r=(bfa)".

Evidently as 1, —> 00, r=(b/a)" > 1, so that each of the intervals

a (r—1), ar (r—1), ........- ,ar"-' (r—1) > 0. Now, by the genoralised
definition, as given in Note 2, Art. 6°2,

; 2™ dz= oe [a™.a(x —1) + (ar)™.ar(r — 1) + (ar?)”.(ar?)(r — 1)

++. ton terms]

= Li ath (1) [1+ Mt TT. eee to n terms]

r->
 DEFINITE INTEGRALS 97

meEhatthe 4):Co) pth l Emt1 0]

= jit amt, RLaa {orynes -1}

r>1 Tr

= Dt rel mer. {(ber }

rol r@ti—y ce a :

=It —"—=1_ ‘(mie a)

rol ett b & r

pmti amt
=a ee
—1i
es Lit
—— a4 y = Lt
[ "pod retr— 1 being of the form4O rol Gina as 1 ‘|

Note 1. Since g” being continuous in (a, b) is integrable in (a, b),

% unique limit of the summation S, as given in Note 2, Art. 62,
exists ; so it is immaterial in what mode we calculate it. The same
remark holds for the next example,

2 ov
Note 2. In cvaluating |‘ a” de [m x-1, 6 >0] wo may first

evaluate \° x" dxl0 <a < 6] as above, and then make @—>O+.

Ex. 6. Show from the definition

b
\ 1 ie log a (O<a <b)
a @ a

As in Tix. 5, divide the interval (a, l) into n parts by points of

division, a, ar, ar?,.......-- ,ar"-', ar", where ar"=b i.e., r=(bfa)*!.
Evidently as noo, r=(b/a)'/"— 1, so that oach of the intervals
a(r—1), ar (r—1)---+---> 0. Now, by tho generalised definition,

\° 1 dg= Lt
a «x Ue 2
z ah (ar* —ar*-+)

=DLt ara e er)

n>00
 98 INTEGRAL CALCULUS

=Zt n [(bfa)!"—1]
NPoo

h e

:dea log q |’ Where h= © log |

= b . [:. Lt a}. |
log a " p20 A 1

lor
Ex. 7. Find ab initio the value of Cesec*2 dx.

By definition, the required integral

n
I=Lt h = sec? rh, whore nh =4r.
hoo) re=l

Now, soc (r—1) hsec rh < sec*rh < sec rh soc (r+ 1)h,
since sec g increases with z in 0 < g¢ < 4a.

1__ sin {(r+1) h—sin rh}

Also, sec rh sec (r+1) h= SA ConroeEUk

= SS {tan (r+1) h-tan rh}.

Similarly, sec (r—1) h sec rh

=--— {tan ri—tanu (r—1) a}.
sinA

Thus, I lies between Lé — Be. zwe ri.—tan (r—1) h}

, h>0 sinh »

Lit he _ part
and 230 sinh » a {tan (r-+1) h—tan rh}

‘i.e.
i.€., eee a:
{tan nh—tan 0) and Dit.
i ee es
aa2 {tan (n+ 1) h—tan hy}.

Since nh=4r, and Lt (h/sin h)=1as h->0, both the above limits
tend to tan #7, 4.¢., 1

Hence, J has the value 1.

 DEFINITE INTEGRALS 99

b
6°3. Geometrical Interpretation of ( f (x) dx.
a

Let the function f(z), which we suppose to be finite and

continuous in the interval (a, b), [b >a], be represented
graphically and let y=/(x) he the equation of the continuous
curve PQ, and let AC, BD be two ordinates corresponding
to the points x=a, x=), meeting the curve at finite points.

oe erect.
Biase
meeman
ewd
ween
é

We have OA=a, OB=b and .. AB=b-a.

Let AB be divided into 2 equal parts each of length h.
‘', nh=b-a, or, atnh=b.
Let the ordinates be erected through the points whose
abscisse2 are ath, at+Qh,...... a+(n—-1)h to meet the curve
at finite points,
Let us complete the set of inner rectangles ACO’ A’,......
and also the set of outer rectangles.
Let S denote the area enclosed between the curve
y = f(x), two ordinates x =a, x=), and the z-axis.
Let S, denote the sum of the inner rectangles.
Si<S; [f(x) monotone increasing |
100 INTEGRAL CALCULUS

Now, Si=hf(a)+hflath) +: +hflatn—ih)

n-1
=h 3 flatrh).
r=0

Let Sg denote the sum of the outer rectangles ;

S, > 8.

Now, S2,=hAf(ath)+hfla t+ 2h) +------ + hf(a + nh)

=h}, "= f(atrh) —hf(a) +hf(d).

We have, 8S; < S < Sy.

Now, let the number of sub-divisions increase jndefi-

nitely, and consequently the length of each of the sub-
intervals diminishes indefinitely.

Thus, as no, h > 0.

both hAf(a) and hf(b) > 0, since f(a) and f(b) are
finite.

8,2 Lt hs flaten) -| Aa) ae:

n-1 b

h>0 r=0 a

n~1 b
8,7 li hs flatrh)
=| f(x) da.
h>0 r=0 a

Since, we have always S, < S < Sz,

oe s-| f(x) dx.

b
Thus, | F(x) dx geometrically represents the area of the
a

space enclosed by the curve y=/f(x), the ordinates x=a, 2=b,

and the x-axis.
 DEFINITE INTEGRALS 101

Note. The arguments here postulato a concave curve. Similar

arguments apply for a convex curve, or even for a curve which alter-
nately rises and falls in the interval.

6°4. Fundamental Theorem of Integral Calculus.

If f(x) is integrable in (a, b) [a <b], and if there exists

a function d(x), such that o'(x) =f(x) in (a, b), then
b
( f(x) dx = 7(b)
— da).
a

Divide the interval (a, b) into » parts by taking inter-

mediate points,
G=%o Sry Sag oe < an=b.

Then we have, by the Mean Value Theorem of Differen-

tial Calculus,

bar)
— b(tr—1) = (tr- tr-1) (Er), Dares < br < ay J

S $b) b= ¥ [f(er)— bers)

r=0

[ where 6, =a;
— &r-1 |
= $(b) — o(a).
Et =¢'(Er) 6x = o(b) — ¢(a), where 6 is the greatest of
the sub-intervals 6. Since f(x), and hence ¢(r) is inte-
grable in (a, d), therefore,
b b
Et 3¢'(Er) dr = |ot) dt = |Sa) da.

ic da = (8) - 4a).
102 INTEGRAL CALCULUS

Note 1. The above theorem establishes a connection between the

integration asa particular kind of summation, and the integration as an
operation inverse to differentiation. This also establishes the existence
of the limit of the sum referred to in Art. 6°83, Note 2. For an alter-
native proof of the theorem see Appendix,

Note 2. From the above theorem it is clear that the definite

integral is a function of its upper and lower limits and not of the
independent variable z.

Note 3. It should be noted!that if the upper limit is the indepen-

dent variable, the integral is not a dofinite integral but simply another
form of the indefinite integral. Thus, suppose f f(z) dz=¢(z) ; then

|:f(a) dx = Ax) — A(a) = ¢(z) +a constant = \f(x) da.

6°5. Evaluation of the Definite Integral.

By the help of the ahove theorem, the value of a definite

integral can be obtained much more easily than by the
tedious process of summation. The success in the evalua-
tion of a definite integral by this method mainly depends
upon the success in the evaluation of the corresponding
indefinite integral, as will be seen from the following illus-
trative examples. The application of the above theorem
in the evaluation of the definite integral is very simple.
b
Suppose we require to evaluate j f(a) dex.
a

First evaluate the indefinite integral f f(x) dx by the

usual methods, and suppose the result is 4(a).

Nest substitute for x in f(x) first the upper limit and then
the lower limit, and subtract the last result from the first.

Thus, |* fle) da= 46) $0).

b
 DEFINITE INTEGRALS 103

b
Now, ¢(6) — (a) is very often shortly written as [+] .
a

It should be carefully noted that in a definite integral,

the arbitrary constant of integration does not appear.

For if we write f f(x) dve=¢(x)+c=y(z) say,

then |”fla)de= v0) v(a)=tgl0)+ 4 f6lo) +}

= f(b) — (a).
Thus, while evaluating a definite integral, arbitrary cons-
tant need not be added in the value of the corresponding in-
definite integral.

Illustrative Examples.
b
Ex. 1. Evaluate i:we” da.

ati
n eee
\2 da= 44

db2 7 =al.
aa=[ i
et [ars
b —a “];: n+13%0.

™
Ex. 2. Hvaluate (|
% cos*a dz. { C. U. 1936 ]

|cos?a da= 5\2 cos?a dx=4 |(1+cos 2x) dx

=dgax+4 sin 2z.

Boge
7

1cos "ax
fd[at fain
oi Be ]
eo
43

1 1. ook
mart, smr= a™
104 INTEGRAL CALCULUS

1l14i—
Ex. 3. Fvaluate \ tee ax. [ C. U. 1937J
Ol+z2

ee em ee
Vi zae-|(i, Eee
= \4 ae- |d= 2
log (1+-2)—2
l+a °

1
r=[2 log (+2)-2] =a log 2—1—2 log L=2 log 2—1.

Ex. 4. a zat
Bealuate \4 dz

; du 1 -12
Fae a ba a

r=[ 1 tan + = \s = liann! 1- 1 tan71 0

a ajo a a

pehe Dp
a4 a 4a

Note. Two points should be notcd when evaluating «a definite

integral for which the indefinite integral involves an inverse trigono-
metrical function.

(i) The result must never be expressed in degrees ; for the ordinary
rules for the differentiation and integration of trigonometrical functions
hold only when the angles aro measured in radians.

(ii) In substituting the limits in the inverse functions, care should

bo taken to choose tho right values of the expressions obtained. Unless
otherwise montioned, usually tho principal values are used.

6°6. Substitution in a Definite Integral.

While integrating an indefinite integral by the substi-

tution of a new variable, it is sometimes rather troublesome
 DEFINITE INTEGRALS 105

to transform the result back into the original variable. In

all such cases, while integrating the corresponding integral
between limits (¢.e., corresponding definite integral), we can
avoid the tedious process of restoring the original variable,
by changing the limits of the definite integral to correspond
with the change in the variable.

Therefore in a definite integral the substitution should

be effected in three places (i) in the integrand, (ii) in the
differential and (iii) in the limits.

The following illustrative examples show the procedure

to he employed.

Illustrative Examples.

1 soa" x
Ex. 1. Evaluate \P V1 aes dg.

1
Put sin~-'a=6@. .°. dd= : , dg.
/1—a?

O and 1 are the limits of 2; the corresponding limits of 6 where

@=sin~'z are found as follows :

When «=0, @=sin~' 0=0.

Whon a=1, 0=sin7? 1=47.

(3 fit et
‘T 7

|Fo ao-[407|° g™:

Note. Of course this example can be worked out by first finding

the indefinite integral in terms of aw and then substituting the
limits.
106 INTEGRAL CALCULUS

Ex. 2. Evaluate {< Jat—a? da.

Put ge=asin 6. dz=a cos 6 dé.

Also, when 2=0, 8=0, and when z=a, 6 =4r.

T
r=|'
=
a7 cos?¢ dd@=a? \™ cos?6 dé,

Now, |co3?@ d= | (1+ cos 20) dd= ;[0+ 3sin 20].

I=a?- Al 6+4 sin 20 |- ata

Ex. 3. Evaluate \2 J(a—a)(8 —2) da. [ C. P. 1925, '82, '87 ]

a

Put w=a cos?é+8 sin?é. dxz=2(8—a) sin 6 cos 6 dé;

also, c—-a=f sin?8 —a (1—cos?6) =(8—a) sin?d.

B—x=8 (1—sin*6) ~a cos?0 =(8—.a) cos’é.

when w=a, (3—a) sin?6=0.

sin 6=0. .. 0=0, since

B # a.

Similarly, when «= 8, (8 —a) cos?0=0.

cos 8=0. .°. O=adn,

T=2 (8—a)" \e sin?@ cos?6 dé.

Now, sin?@ cos?6 =}. 4 sin?6 cos?6=} sin?20=% (1—cos 46).

Also, \(1—cos 46) d@=0-—4f sin 48.

Tv
x
“. T=9 (e—a)rz {>(1—cos 46) d@ = ;(g-a)*-[ o- Fein 0]?
=4 (8—a)? (4r—3 sin 27] =§r (6—a)’.
 DEFINITE INTEGRALS 107

Ex. 4. Evaluate \: dp (B>a)

@ ,/(%—a)(8—z)

As in Ex. 3, put =a cos?0+8 sin?@.

rae
.
1=| : 2d0=2. 5 r=.
in 1

4
Ex.
x 5. S how that 0 (1-227)de la
aaa |
/t—a ah icg (2+ 0/3).
[ C. B’ 1933J
Put w=sin @. Then dr=cos@d0; also when «=0, @=0, and
when w=4, @=4r.

= at cos 0 dd ar
"Ff fl |: sec 20 dé
0 cos 24 cos 6

wT

-[4 log tan (in+0) |°

=} [log tan zyx —log tan Jr J=4 log (2+ 4/3).

Ex. 6. Show that is son°@ cos*é d= = C. P. 1925 J

Let sin 0=2. .. cos 6 d@=dz;

also whon @=0, c=O and when @=$7, c=1,

ar, : 1
es r=| ‘ sin®@ (1—sin7@). cos 0 ao=|) 2° (1-2?) da

eek aeeg -[% ls]o- a -37a

=\o2 oe \oe Ce als JJo 7 9 63

6°7. Series represented by Definite Integrals.

The definition of the definite integral as the limit of

@ sum enables us to evaluate easily the limits of the sums
108 INTEGRAL CALCULUS

of certain series, when the number of terms tends to infinity

by identifying them with some definite integrals. This is
illustrated by the following examples.
In identifying a series with a definite integral, if should
he noted that the definite integral
b
| f(x) dx = Dt hdflat+rh), when nh=b-a,
a >

may be expressed as
re 74
ttn »f (a+r ?—4) [40 dx.

In the special case when a=0, b=1, we have h=1/n.

se tar(t) =f.
Hence, in this case, we have
1

{ As if we writo x for r/n and da for 1/1. J

or putting k= 1/7, iit h¥f(rh)= {.f(x) der.

[ As if we write x for rh and dz for h. ]

wa], 1 1 a Le diee aealete

Jtelntitnsat 1
Ex. 1. Hraluale SS nbs \.

Dividing the numerator and denominator of each term of the above

serics by n, the given serics becomes
1 1 1
Ae , e + n
= TJ,/

= 1+ id
er (1+ 1+
n i) ”.

n 1 :
1 snek _t : es
=Lt . Tt

noo 2, 1+rh [putting h |

ne ae ea Spe
n

\Foie
Lg =| [118 (14 2)|) =log
log 2 2.
 DEFINITE INTEGRALS 109

Ex. 2. Evaluate

ztal(or8)(8) (ot)
noo
1
2
\n2 27\n2
4
37\n2
6 Qn
n?*\n3

Let A denote the given expression ; then

log ne
n Bri 108 (1+7,):
r?

ht
NPI
Set PrOO oy
?
a 2” log (1-475) -
1
-\, 9x log (LA-2*) dx

[ putting l+.x’=zJ
®)

=\"tog 2 dz
S
:

2 4
-[< log z~2 |=2 log 2-1=log ey

Since, log LE A=Lt log .i=log =

7 06 nso a

Tit A, we., the limit= oe

N->20 e

m ou -}- gm + Seas aw + a 1
a Dery ps Ll 1 + ve ’ = > e

Left. side

am (2) 4(2) en a(2)]

2—->CcG 71 2)

m m

alt + > (7) alt ny (+n) [where n= >|

2->OCO 1L pat 1 h->0 =i

1 m i] [es 1
-\\2 eel n +110
= AL .
m+ 1
 INTEGRAL CALCULUS

EXAMPLES VI(A)

1. Find by the method of summation the vaiues of :—

(i) [ree da. (ii) fre dx.

(iii) [2° da. (iv) [ox +0)da.

() [sin@de, (wi) [cos 0 ao.

(vii) i Je de. (viii) |.= de.
(ix) [sin na dat (x) |coseo*e der.

Evaluate the following integrals (Ha. 2 to Ex. 12) :—

1 oe % |.
2. (i) (Fexv? /1+3a* da. (ii) ie J9ax-2? dx.

dz
(iii) \r (1 +log x)? (iv) \.er
(7? ++p

1
3. [.xe” dx. [ GC. P. 1986 }

1 1
4. (i) \ ginta dx. (ii) i tan” *a da.

, 1 1
(iii) \,(cos *a)? dex. (iv) \,x log (1+ 2x) da.

1 1
(v) i a(tan™*2)? da. (vi) \,xe? J(4— 27) de.
 DEFINITE INTEGRALS 111

ew

5. (i) {;sin ma sin na dz. [ Cc. P. 1987 ]

(ii) |.cos mx cos na dx. (Mm, » being integers)

gir
(iii) |: sin x sin 2x dz. [ CG. P. 1940 ]

6. (i) [;sin?nx dx. (ii) i cos* na da.

( 2 being an integer )

7.6) | a.
0 J1+2?
ay [* a 0 (gy +22)F

(ii) I0 Jie x (iv) i Ma - re a)

8. (i) \° x sin x dx. (ii) Ie sec 2 dx.

Aw
(iii) {; (sec 6 — tan 6) dé.

9. (i) \° tan «x dz. (ii) \° tan*a da.

3 au
10. (i) | cos 22 cos 8a dz. (ii) |: sin?z cos®ax da.

(iii) \* 2 cos cos 3a dx. (iv) a sec‘@ dé.

112 INTEGRAL CALCULUS

Ne gr
11. (i) \12 log x da. (ii) ie xv" sin 2 da.

a7
(iii) {. sin ¢ cos ¢ ./(a” sin? ¢ +5? cos? ddd.

12. (i) Va
a® ne (ii) \, (1 oon)?”
dy c
(iii) \ see e > b> 0).

ada
(iv) {°1-—2a cos eta” (0<a<1).

Show that :~—

log2 4 3
13. { a Te? da = log 9°

9 Top a og (b
14, i’ ik da =% log a) log (ab).

15 e ‘i 5 in~* _
1+22 dt
= 2a tan
o “1a — logLy (1 +a") :

2 :
16. (i) \. Ma —- 12-2) da =n.

see WE 2 an ee 2
i) | Ge-ayeE1 7B EE
a a*—-7? 1
17. I (a? + 7)? dx =

18. i sinadx _x + tan7? Ll

oltcos?x 4 /2

19. he
R cos®*z 4/sin 2 dx=
 DEFINITE INTEGRALS 118

aa
20. (i) \Fas
a® cos?z +b? sin? “on bane ey

(ii) \° ~ sin“ cos’ , dx=

o (sin®z + cos*z)*

an @ F heresin © = log 2.

(ii) {’
i ae = $% tan™* 4.
0 5+4sing

22. (i) \° = tan™* 4.

0 ae cos£

fag
8}
SR MM
atbeae
hn Bain
t log 3.

(it) ie wee cone =

oe i 1 ae cos =o

2 | caersin0) 7208 #
25. Taste dom
ao) \ (a cos?coe sin*)* ae “ee = Ante

{ Multiply num. and denom. by sectz; then put 6 tan c=a tan @]

(i) \r © sin ae £ Gos & Ks Betas 6,>0

o (a? cos?z +0? sin? tab* (a+5) Ca J

. - at} neae
ass Mier (log a)*S =? log2
114 INTEGRAL CALCULUS

w%
28.() | =) Es
957 3
dx 7
Gi) \oateay sagas et 4/2
29. Evaluate the following :—
s De ee yee? |
(i) it[tote t PT aan

n
Gi) I lat
Pets meait ial
o
Gi) Le |asi1 a
1? OO yah
1 1
aerate
: Coke
1 ak. Oe + ae
J es eve
‘|e
(iv) Lt [~9, 1? Vinee v ”

{ Write n= J/2n?— n? in the last term J

Lt
t ae
1? 9? eee
n*—_—_ s}-

(v) n'syst 8 $937 * on3

; Die, SOR a ge ce,

(vi) Lt [e+ tate eapet +a]
(vii) Li [< + eo eee wn? =(n = w"}
= ne
awl
(viii) Zé Z (”fe).

6 ne, {(u+ Z)fas 2)-G+a)

) Te (n+ me)(t+pe)(oesa}
 DEFINITE INTEGRALS 115

: o ntr
(xi) ae = n* +r?

(xii) Lt Zi
3 mtr) Whore +r

a 1 1 1 1
(xiit) a tee ae +5,

(xiv) Et ltt at ce. il

(xv) Lt [ernst Mn +++ 20),

+ 2)wt
noo 1b af%

al {7

(xvi) Lt [| .
n->OO %

. dat _ (** sin 6 6.

30. If \; Jatat a cos”
find the value of a.

31. Ifa be positive and the positive value of the square

root is taken, show that
\ da ;
1 J -2ar+a*) 2ife <1;

4a >ld
a
32. If m and 7 are positive integers, show that
0:
47
%
(i) | sin mx sin nx ax ={ if ™ eZ.
cr ifim=n
ne

(ii) i sin mx cos na dz =0.

+7
Cif mx n
iii COS MZ cos n& da={ ;
cai){™ anil m= 7.
116 INTEGRAL CALCULUS

ANSWERS

1. (i) (e-*-—e7°). (ii) (e*®

—e**)/z. (iii) 4. (iv) fa+b.
(v) 1. (vi) sin b—sin a. (vii) 3. (viii) 2.
(ix) (1—cos na)/n. (x) 1.

2. (i) yg. (ii) g7a?. (iii) 4. (iv) § r+ 2).

3. 1. 4. (i) 3r—1. (ii) 4r—3 log 2. = (iii) w—2.. (iv) 2 log 3.

(v) tm (27 —1)+ 4g log 2. (vi) 44-43 3.

B. (i) omen 75 tat) ™. (ii) 0. (iii) 4.

6.(i) de. (ii) ar. 7) 2-2.) is (iii) =.

(iv) dr. 8. (i) 1. (ii) log (/2+1). (iii) log 2.9. (i) § log 2.
(ii) 1-4. 10. (i) 2. (ii) s- (iii) Ys (7-- 3). (iv) 4.

11. (i) 4. (ii) w—-2. (iii) g abe,

12. (i) i (ii) log $—1s.-

(ii) - oe cos"? (:) Gv) Za 20. Ci) tog (1+).

(ii) 47. (iii) dr. (iv) do. (v) ¥ log 2. (vi) 3.

(vii) fr. (viii) §r+1. (ix) 4/e.

(x) geilt - 4), (xi) ae i log 2. (xii) 47. (xiii) loge 3.

(xiv) 2. (xv) 4 /2-4. (xvi) e7}. 30. 4%.

Neaa

r
 DEFINITE INTEGRALS 117

6°8. General Properties of Definite Integrals.

b b
(i) ( f (x) dx -\"f(z) dz.

b
Let |f(x) dw=d(z): —e. i.fla) dee = $(b) — (a) ;

then, |le) de=9); «sf fe) do 4-40).

b “a
(ii) {: f(x) dx=—- \: f(x) dx.

tet |fle) da=gle); |”fla) da =

90)
- a),
and |"fla) de~ —[4(a) - 40] = 9(0)- (a).
Thus, an interchange of limits changes the sign of the
entegral.
b 0 b
(iii) ( f(x) dx= (" f(x) dx+ ( f(x) dx. (a<c<b).

Let |f(x) da = (x) ; a |‘f(x) dz = o(b)— (a).

Right side ={¢(c)— ¢(a)} + {(6)— d(c}} = 4) — (a).

Generalisation.

{*fe) dn {" f(z) a+ |.f(x) da+--

+ |a fla) dai+ |..fla) da

when @ < ¢, <¢3 < reese < tn < 6.
118 INTEGRAL CALCULUS

a a
(iv) ("f(x) dx= (: f(a-—x) dx.

Proof. Put a-x=z, ~. axe=-—dz;

also when 2 =0, z=a, and when z=a, 2=0.

0 a
right side= -| f(z) ae-| .f(z) dz -|; f(x) de.
a

wv

Illustration : |; sin &ae~| ‘ sin(7 -»)da -| . cos a da.

na a
(v) (: f(x) dx =n (- f(x) dx, if f(r)=f(a+7).

Proof.

f da.
\" Fla) da~|* fla) e+ |: f(r) da+- +{(a
Put z+a=za, then, dx=dz,

also when x=a, g=0, and when w= 2a, z=a;

2
- | * 40) de={* sera) dem |*flats) de
a

b
-{ fla) dx.

Similarly, it can be shown that

8a 2a a
\ f(a) da = | f(x) da -{ fla) da ;
2a a 0

and soon. Thus, each of the integrals on the right side

can be shown to be equal to {: F(x) dx. Hence, the result.

 DEFINITE INTEGRALS 119

Illustration :
Since, sin°w=sin® (r+2), .°. \oa sin®a dz=4 (Qsin’g da.

2a a a
(vi) (: f(x) dx= (" f(x) dx+ (" f(2a-x) dx.

2a a 2a
Proof. |. f(x) dx -|4 f(a) dx + f(a) da.
; [ By (uz) ]
Put «= 2a-—z in the 2nd integral ; then, dz = — dz, :
also when 2=@, =a: and when e=2a, z=0.
the second integral on the right side vzz.
2a 0 a
|: f(z) dr= -{' f(2a- 2) de~|' f(2a - 2) dz
[ By (ii)]
‘|| 20-2) de. [ By (1)]
Hence the result.

(vii) ( A(x) dx=2 (*s(x) dx, if fa 2) =f),

2a
and (: f(x) dx=0, if f(Qa-—2)= —f(2).

These two results follow immediately from (vi).

Illustration :
Since, sin (x —z)=sin z, and cos (r—z)= —cos 2,

.A (7. Z.
Jpsinedena |’sin 2 do ; and |° cos
z dz=0,
T
Tv

and generally \i (sin x) da=2 \;S (sin 2) dx,

and \;f (cos x) dx=0, if f (cos x) is an odd function of cos z.

120 INTEGRAL CALCULUS

(viii) (- f(x) dx = (:{f(x)

+ f( ~ x)} dx.

Proof. |- f(x) da = |. f(a) da + \.°HK(a) da.

Now, putting x= — z,

|1a) de=- |"f-2) dem [*A-2) ae

0 0 a

= \ fl-—2) dx.

Hence, the result follows.

Cor. If f(r) is an odd function of x +.0., f(—a) = —f(z), .

-a
{(x) dx=0,
and if f(@) is an even function of 2 i.e., f(—xr)=f(z),

\* f(x) dx=2 \"f(x) dx.

Iilustration :
45
sin’a dx=0, and
-=
+7

| 2 sin®’a dv=2 ie sin®a da.

s

. 69. Illustrative Examples.

By the help of the above properties of definite integrals
we can evaluate many definite integrals without evaluating
the corresponding indefinite integrals, as shown in the
following examples.
 DEFINITE INVEGRALS 121

Ex. 1. Show that \; log tan x dc=0,

Te
3 vT ‘
1=\* log tan (3 -2) dx [ By (iv), Art. 68)

T Tv

-\? log cot a da= -\5 log tan» dz= —I,

9T=0; . IL=0.

7, eee
/san x w-
x 2.
Ex, Show tha f >.
apa ae - du=z"
eee hee a=

pve)
* Vinson dr

-{F /cos7 Me
0 eos a+ a/sin x

ol = (3 ewa/sin a a e+ (3 io feos& ae
0 Jsine+ a/cos
x “Yo Jcos a+ ,/sin 2

-(3 J/sin at cost 5 =\3* an=[2 E ae

0 ,/sina + a/cosx

I=}jr,

3 o T 1
Ex. 3. Show that \; log sin x dx= |? log cos x dx= x log 5

Tw 7T a

a log sin 2 da=\* log sin (2 - 2) dx

wT

= \; log cos x dz.

[ By Aré. 6'8, (iv) J

122 INTEGRAL CALCULUS

ar=\* log sin x aa+\5 log cos xz dx

wv 7
-{* (log sin 2+ log cos x) da=\* log (sin a cos x) dx
T . 7
-(F log a -) an=\3 (log sin 22—log 2) dx

-\? log sin 2a da— 5 log 2.

Put Q=2; .*. dx=sdz.

T

\;log sin 2a da= iN" log sin 2 dz

T
= :\;log sin # an=\* log sing dw=I [ By (ri), Art, 68]

]
2 =I— 4 log2; . f= 90B 2= 6 log 5:

\* logee
(1+ 2) d= Tr
Ex. 4. Show that .log 2.

Put v=tan@; .°. dr=soc?é dé; also when z=0, 0=0;

and when +=1, 0=47.

aT iv
ws 1=\) log (1+ tan 0) dé -\" log {1+ tan (47
—6)} dé.

[ By Art. 68, (av) J

Now, 1+ tan (4
T
o)=1+ 1—tan
1+tan@
9 Ss,
1+tan@’
2 2

o— r-\5
7 (4 log ire
2 ay=|){** {log2—log
= (1+ tan 6)} dé
-\r log 2 ao-\"" log (1+ tan @) d0=47. log 2—T.

. W=dn.log2; .. Ie 9og 2.
 DEFINITE INTEGRALS 123

+a ne”
Ex. 5. Show that \*
1+2? da= 0.
a
@ we*
/
l= ° ce“dot \4
itz? dx=I,+TI, say.

Putting z= — z, in the first integral,

0 ae" a ze” en . ei
q, -\? lag ~\o eta a= pitt

Hence the result, ,

6°10. Two Important Definite Integrals.

A. If n be a positive integer,*
dir av
\ sin"x dx -\" cos"x dx

a=t.n
ie n-3n-5 |.
n n-2n—-4

-5
or ———— Pe @eeeee wae
« om 6 1

according as n is even or odd.

Proof. fsin"x dx=JSsin"”™*x.sin 2 dr

=sin” 7*2.(-— cos 2) +(%—1) fain”? cos*x dx
(integrating by parts)
= —gin” *z cos 7 +(n—1) fsin™” *2 (1— sin?x) dz
= — gin” ‘x cos 2 +(n—--1) fain” 2a dz —(n—-1) fain"e da.
transposing —(n—1) fsin"s” dx to the left side and
dividing by », we have
smn 1 =)
|
sin’sda= — 812" o cos aD) sina de. -- (1)

* For other forms of these integrals see § 8°38.

124 INTEGRAL CALCULUS

av * m—-1 = irr
ar
; : sin 2cosz
n-1 oo
ae | sin"a dx -[-
Sn 20082) + nat sin” 7a dx
0 n 0 nm JO

Chir
Hence, denoting \, sin"” dx by In, we have

n-1
Ty = In-2. see ea ... (Q)
n

Changing 2 into n-—2%, »—4, ete. successively, we have

from (9),

—3 —-5
TIn-2 ae 29 In-s 5 In-a sae In-«, ete.

alan 38n-5 31
In mn n-QA2u-4 4 9 to

ore
_p-lm8n-5
% nw-An-d
4 9,
5h go>

according as 7 is even or odd.

aa
But [p= i. dx = tn

ir a7
and r= { sin x dr =| cos an =].

i
Thus, we get the required value of \; sin’s dex.

av
Exactly in the same way it can be shown that
|; cos"@ da:
has precisely the same value as the above integral in either
case, » being even or odd.
 DEFINITE INTEGRALS 125

Otherwise, if can be shown thus:

tg ir ir
\; cos"@ ae~|" cos” (4x
— 2x) dx -{" sin™2 dx.

Note. Tho student can oasily detect the law of formation of tho
factors in the above formule, noting that when the index is even,
an additional factor $7 is written atthe end but when the index is odd,
no factor involving @ is introduced. The formulie (1) and (2) above aro
called Reduction Formule. { Sec Chap. VITI. J
Seaton

*
ar ue
B. ‘ sin™x cos"x dx, m, » being positive integers.”

|sin’ cos"x dx -|cos” *2.(sin™s cos 2) dx

s mt
n-1, Sin’ 7, n—-1l een os re
=¢cos M1" : cos) “@ sing sin” 9 dx:
m+1 mt1

sin™* ty
[integrating by parts and noting | sin™9 cos # dx= a “|

- m+ m—1
sin’ 2” cos “2”, 2-1] , 2 ‘ae
See ane + - ) sin”(1— cos’) cos” “2 dx
m+ I mt1 | ( )
2 ane1
sin “cos uw—-1 “r, n-] es oe
= ~~ +-- — | sin™s cos” “a da
m*+1 m*1 |
_2a-i : mm "
— => | gin” cos’x da.
m1 |

, er +n
Hence, transposing and dividing by nt we have

f sin™sz cos"2 dx
* mi
we
s1n
eee 2 ee
£2 cos’ a-1
“
2
-——- + ———-—
-I1 .-
.
sin™s cos”
es 2 az. eee (1)

m+ 2 mtn
cme a a

Soe Chap. VIII, Art. 8°15.

126 INTEGRAL CALCULUS

cos” ty] a"

n dx=|--sin™° te~~
eae cos"2
sina
mtn 0

n-1 (i. 2
= sins cos”~*a da
mtn

n—-1 (437, _
hI
ms mtn gin” cos” *a” da. (2)
lo

Again, writting fsin™x cos"2 dx =fsin™ +2 (cos"x sin xa)dax

and integrating by parts and proceeding as above, we get

sin”« cos"“ da = — sin”

—--——"a cos”**¢
mtn
m—1 otc
+ sin™~ "9; cos"a” da
m+ 1

and hence taking it between the limits 0 and 4x, we get

ar ‘Mm n
sins cos"* dz =~,m—-1-~- am + m2
sin™~ oy
"a eos"a dx. -:* (3)
0 mt+n2Jo
iv
Thus, denoting ; sin”'s cos”a dx by Jinan, We have

from (2) and (3),

In,n™a—* Im, n~-2

4
m-1 I (4)
aa en m-2,n

an
Again, since, i. sins cos"2 dx
av
e |‘ sin™ (4%— 2) cos” ($2 - x) da
iv
: |" sin”x cos” da,

Im, n= In, m. (5)

 DEFINITE INTEGRALS 127

By means of the formule (2) and (3), either index can

be reduced by 2, and by repetitions of this process we can,
since m and ” are positive integers, make the original
integral vzz., Im, n depend upon one in which the indices are
lor0. The result, therefore, finally involves one or other
of the following integrals :
7 a7 n
| sin 2 cos
# dx =4 ; | dx=" ;
0 0 2
on am (6)
\; sin da=1; i cos 7 dx=1 -

Thus, finally we have,

ar ar
\ sin™x cos"x dx= \ cos™x sin"x dx

1.3.5... (m—1). 1.3.5... (n— 1). xa9”

2.4.6...... (m+n)
when both m and n are even integers ; and
___2.4.6...... (m — 1)
(n+1)(n+3)...... (n+ m)
when one of the two indices, say mm, ts an odd integer.
Note. The above definite integrals are of great use in the appli-
cation of Integral Calculus to practical problems ; e¢.g., in the determina-
tion of centro of gravity, in the calculation of area, etc.; and also
many elomcntary definite integrals on suitable substitution reduce to
one or other of the above forms, as shown in the following examples.

6°11. Illustrative Examples.

1
Ex.1. EHvaluate \‘ v° vf(L—a?) da.

Putg=sin 9g; .°. dx=cos 6 d@ and 1—2?=cos76 ;

also when 2=0, 6=0, and when +=1, 6=4r.
The given integral then reduces to
im. , 4 _1.3.5.
|0 sin*é cos76 d=," 4.
128 INTEGRAL CALCULUS

1
Ex. 2. Kvaluate \‘ a? (1—a)? dz.

Put gw=sin?@; .°. dx=2sin @ cos @ dé

and when «=0, 1, we have §=0, $7 respectivoly.

= iv ‘ 7 2.4 16
bie r=2 | 5 sin?@ cos*@ d@=2 5.7.97 B15

Ex. 3. Braluate \- cos"a dx.

Sinco cos"*s= —cos" (r—2), when 2 is odd,

and =cos* (r—2), when x is even,

by Art. 6'8 (vii), it follows that J=0, when 2 is old,

a7 :
and J=2 \ 0 cos"z dx, when 7 is even

nal in—3 n—5 8 7

[ By Art. 6°10( A) ]
_L 7, ie
B
ef
2
-
=
ae uw mw—-2n-4 4

EXAMPLES VI(B)

Show that :—

1. (3) f° flat b-2) | Fy ae

(ii) (°° fate) dx= |” Hoy die
(iii) |°F(nax) da = = |7 Na) dx.

arr sin £ Ic
2. (% 5-8? 2 a 4
iv cos a— sin:
a ——_———_—_———dz =.
$ [song sin z= 0
 DEFINITE INTEGRALS

uf Fo
(a cos?a2+b sin?x) da =42 (a+b),

i3
5. | sin 27 log tan 2 dx =0.
0

= J7 af(sin x) dx=4n j"f(sin x) da.

0

7. |:x log sin x da =4n7 log 4.

® 7 2 %
8. 9 @ Sin z cosa dz= 3°

9. \°2 sin°’2 dz =42?,

10. |0"sinsing40 te =0.

1. |e+ Jat=2%
ae
de=0.
or
12. | ; sin* 42 cos” $x dr=0.

1
13. |: log sin (420) d@=log 4. [ Put§r@=2]

1 log x 7 Za
14. \. ee » ax 2 log 5° [ Pute=sin 0]

iv x
15. |‘ log (1 + tan 6) dé= 8 log 2.

T 4 F _ 3
16. |F « coste c= 73%.
130 INTEGRAL CALCULUS

5
17. (i) \° cos®x d “99%

a
(ii) li sin’a dx
sofia OB:
315

az Tx
(iii) i" sin*8 cos°@ dO = sag
eun . 4 8 ta é

. ir . £4 B es 8 ‘
(iv) \" sin*a cos’ x dx 315

(v) {* (1— cos x)? dpe?a

(vi) {"
. sin®z cos*a dx=O0.

(vii) \" cos’0 d@=O.

47
(viii) o sin’s da =O.
)

18. (i)“ f.Bae2? (1-2) 3 m61

ci)f _m2\t dr=gna = 2,
a* (1-27)?

iii) \° = dx = jm a 4
0 Gas a 16°

(iv) {. we’ dx _ 5
o J1l—2? 327
1
19. J,(Seige = 32 8, { Put c=1+tan @ }

2 sin # _%,
20. (i) ("2% 2g, d= 4

(ii) 0 sin +cos

Sa& =a log (./2 +1).
 DEFINITE INTEGRALS 131

ctang 7 2
(iii) {rsec x +tan x dx = tn (n— 2).

(iv) {; it eos*s
a en z=, 7"
2/9 [ C. P. 1962]
x dx _ 2
(v) \°
0 sec 2+cosec
2 4 {1+ log (V2- Dh

(vi) \, cot *(L-a+2"7) de = $n -log 2.

ie
| -. es n*
(vit)J oa sin2a2 +b? cos (a,b > 0) Qab
ete ures a de
(viii) \. 1+cos 2a+sin Qz“36 log 2.

(ix) i.o eres dz = a log (./2+ 1).

(x) i Hbf dz n(a*

2+h?)
0 (a2cos"27+b%sin*x)* ~— 4a®b°
iv
21. If = i; tan”"6 dé, show that Z,= esl — Ineo.

ar
Hence, find the value of J; tan°s dx.

22. Show that, if m and » are positive and m is integral,

1 1
\,eo” *(1-2)""* dx -|, ™-*(1—2)""1 dx

1.2.3........dm—1)_
~ a(n
+ 1).....0-.- (n+ m-— 1)

ANSWERS

1. 42-47.
 CHAPTER VII

INFINITE (OR IMPROPER) INTEGRALS AND

INTEGRATION OF INFINITE SERIES

71. Infinite Integrals.

In discussing definite integrals we have hitherto

supposed that the range of integration is finite and the
integrand is continuous in the range. If in an integral,
either the range is infinite, or the integrand has an
infinite discontinuity in the range (i.e., the integrand tends
to infinity at some points of the range), the integral is
usually called an Infinite Integral, and by some writers,
an Improper Integral. Simple cases of infinite integrals
occur in elementary problems ; for example, in the problem
of finding the area between a plane curve and its asymptote.
We give below the definitions of infinite integrals in
different cases.

(A) Infinite range.

(i) \°f(x) dx is defined as Lt \.tS(a) dx,

provided f(x) is integrable in (a, «), and this limit exists.

(ii) i f(x) dx is vefined as Lt| i Sa) da,

provided f(x) is integrable in (e, b), and this limit exists.

 INFINITE INTEGRALS ETC. 138

(iii) If the infinite integrals |:ae f(x) dx and |, fla) da

+00
both exist, we say that i f(x) dx exists, and

\ fle) da = ie:fla) da + |"40)der.

Note. In the above cases, whon the limit tends to a finite numbtr,
tho integral is said to be convergent, whon it tends to infinity with
a fixed sign, it is said to bo divergent, and when it does not tend to
any fixed limit, finite, or infinite, it is said to be oscillatory. Whon
an integral is divergent or oscillators, some writers say that the integral
does not exist or the integral has no meaning. [ See Ev. 2, § 7°2. )

(B) Integrand infinitely discontinuous at a point.

(i) If f(a) is infinitely discontinuous only at the end-

point a, 7.6, if f(z) ~°, as a >a, then
b bh
{ f(x) dx is defined as Lt | f(x) dx, « > 0,
a e>0 Jate

provided f(x) be integrable in (ate, b), and this limit

exists.

(ii) If f(x) is infinitely discontinuous only at the end-

point b, i.e., if f(x) >« asa — b, then

I f(x) da is defined as Li [ope) dz,e> 0,

provided f(x) is integrable in (a, b-«), and this limit

exists.
134 INTEGRAL CALCULUS

(iii) If f(a) is infinitely discontinuous at an internal

point cla <c < d) ie., if f(z) > asa — c, then
b ne b
{ f(a) dx = Lt {' f(x) dut+ Lt { f(x) dx
a e>0 Ja e'>0 J c+e/

when ¢ — 0 and ¢’ — 0 independenily.

Note. It sometimes happens that no definite limit exists whon
e and e’ tend to zero independently, but that a limit exists when «=e’.
[ See Ha. 7, Art. 7°2). When e=¢’, the value of the limit on the right
side when it exists is called the pr ineipal value of theim proper integral
and is very often dcnoted by P (’F(a) da.

(iv) Lf a and b are both points of infinite discontinuity,

b ¢ b
then | f(x) dx is defined as | f(x) da + | S(x) dx when
@ a c

these two integrals exist, as defined above, c being a point

between a and b,

7°2. Illustrative Examples.

Ex.1, Evaluate \~ e-* da.

e
[=Lt
nn
0° -z£ da=a Lt| (1—e-6)=1.
—_7~ —
€->00

oo
Ex. 2. Hvaluate |i cos tx dx.

{=Lt (cos te dxa= Lt — fe; but this limit does not exist.
€300 0 &->00

Hence, the integral does not exist.*

*Although this integral does not exist in the manner defined above,
it is expressed in terms o. Dirac’s delta function [ 4(¢)] in modern
mathematics. Detailed discussion is outside the scope of this book.
 INFINITE INTEGRALS ETC. 135

co dx
Ex. 3. Evaluate \* es

aa co daz
r=\°~0o i+n?* a 1+g?

¢ dz 42 Dt an7ta—tan7?
\"
iam
1+? -Lt (° 1+27 €»-—00 (tan a—tan ¢)

=tan-'a+97.
oo

a =
1+2? ht" i+2?
@ e’->00 (tan-'e’—tan-'a)
=Di_
=r—tan “a;
T=(tan7!a+47) + (37 —tan™'a)=7.
1
Ex. 4. Evaluate | da,
0ig

Tfere, 2 tends to 70 as x tends to -+0.

%
1 dr = Lt az = Jit 4
—e)=
yo zt \"
€ of e>0 Aloe)

+1 dx
Ex. 5. FHvaluate \ - “sy
~12%

Here, a —> 2» as 2 0, an interior point of the interval (—1, 1).

r=| 0 a+ 1 dee,
-1 2 0x

dr ne (ou (3
Noyes Ow? €50 Je x? ~ 630 1);
this limit does not exist. So \"a does not exist.

0
Similarly, \ aie
ae docs not exist.
; +1 dx
aN a gel has no meaning.

Note. In examples of this type usually a mistake is committed

in this way :
; I se ase tk 3 1 _f_ 1 Bee os
Since \iede=-)) os el Tn 2,
which ts wrong.
 186 INTEGRAL CALCULUS

In this connection, it should be carefully noted that the rolation

b
(f(x) dz=F(b)— F(a) cannot be used without special examination
unless F’ (x)= (x) for all values of 2 from a to b, both inclusive.

Here, since the relation a(- a 5 fails to have any meaning

when z=0, and Ois a value between —1 and +1, we cannot directly
apply the Fundamental theorem of Integral Calculus to evaluate this
definite Integra].

Ex. 6. Show that \" e~ 8% cos bx ax =ery a> 0,

\\¢ ena cos bx dz _[@[7%? (—a cos bx +b sin bey;

at +b?
‘
[ Art. 3'3 J

args {e“* (—a cos be +b sin be)—(—a)}.

co é€
| e~** cos be dv
= Lt | e-** cos bu da
€e>0o J0

met. [ate {e~@ (—a@ cos be+b sin be) +a}|+

Now, Lt @ “* (—a cos be+b sin be) =0

€—>>co

{*.' e “*-> 0 and cos Je and sin be are bounded J

ee \; éVe cos ba dz=

cos ae or 4%
eae

+1 dx
Ex. 7. Hvaluate (
x
The integrand hore is undefined for «=0.
+1 J: = Dt
~€ dx
Of 4 Tit \" dz
ag
I" oto 6 a eee os
=11{ tog (a) |+24 tog « |),
1 —e

= Lt log e— Lt log ¢’ = Lit log -,

as ¢and e’ tend to zero independently.
But this limit is not definito, since it depends upon the ratio e: ¢’,
which may bo anything, ‘nce ¢ and ¢ are both arbitrary positive
numbers.
 INFINITE INTEGRALS ETC. 137

i ; +1 dx
B utiff we put e=e, we
=«,Ww get t I >|Sie— = Lt » 0s 1 =(0,
0

Thus although the general value of the integral does not exist,
its principal value exists.
-€
Note. \r a, where the rango of integration is such that a is

negative throughout, may be written, by putting s= —a, a3 :a

=[10ge|t=| 10g (—2) |ee for log x is imaginary here.

Ex. 8. Eval sree
Put w2=tan@; .°. dx=sec?6 d@; as «x increases from 0 to ~~,
@ increases from 0 to 4x.
av tan?@ sec?0 d@_ (47 . , a
t=\; 7 ea ol sin?@ d@= fr.

Note. Thus sometimes an infinite integral can be transformed

ato an ordinary definite integral by @ suitable subsittution. Bat
whenever a substitution is used to evaluate an infinite integral, we
must sce that the transformation is legitimate.
Ex. 9. Show that \" e* ag" dr=n!, n being a positive integer.
{[ C. P. 1988 }
Let J, denote the given integral.
é€
IL,=ht \"e-* av" dz
é€~>0a

= Lf {[-e- nlite e7* ant ae}

€->00 0 0
[ integrating by parts }
=bLt \ en7* a1 da, °° Lt ee & e"=0,
€-> 00 e000

[ See Das & Mukherjees’ Differential Calculus,

Chap. on Indeterminate Forms, sum no. 2(iii). }
=n In-,=n (n—1) In-g (a8 before)
=n (n—1)(n —2) I,-, = ete.
= 91 (n—1)(n —2)---2,1 \~ e~* dx

=m !, since \""e~* de=1. [See Hux. 1 above )

138 INTEGRAL CALCULUS

7°3. The integral * e-** dx.

!

Since, e~*” = 1/e*” is positive and < 3 2?’ (forz > 0)

it follows that [;e-=* dg increases monotonically with _X,

x *

This being true for all positive values of X, however

large, and as tan *_X¥ increases with X and -4nas XO,
x
it follows that \; e~“<" dx monotonically increases with X,

and is bounded above.

Thus, the infinite integral {. e~** dg is convergent.

Denote it by J.

Now, a being any positive number, replace x by az.

oo

Then, r=" ae" dy,

oa

T.e~@’ -| ae e+e) da,

0

Since ae~**"+2") ig a continuous function for all posi-

tive values of # and a (which are independent), assuming the
validity of integration under an integral sign in this case,

r{~
0
eda =| 0* {\0 gen? 1 +29) da}de. 2.)
 INFINITE INTEGRALS ETC. 139

€
Also for any particular value of a, {;ae~@U+29) ga
€

ae ageee
1
> 91 +2) ase &,

Hence from (i), 7

eae ee
\; 9
a
L+2? de
1
ee
4.€., ’ e7*? dx=d i/x.’

~ sin bx
74. The integral (" = d X.

Let -|* ¢™ sin ba dz, a > 0.

0 x
Assuming the validity of differentiation under the inte-
ral sign, we have
du oF is
=|] @&™ cos bx dx
db )

“a LR a> 0. liSee Hx. 6, Art. 72]

Now, integrating with respect to b,

ab =
A ee
ab =
a:i(ban ~1h4,te a=
tan
te
7 te
~ib eee
(1)
where C is the constant of integration.
From the given integral, we see that when b=0, «=0.
from (1), we deduce C=0.
co ,-ax .s
| e-™™ sin bx ax = tan? b . eee (2)
0 x a

* For an alternative proof see Chapter VIII, Ari. 821.

140 INTEGRAL CALCULUS

Assuming « a continuous function of a, we deduce

from (2) when a > 0,
~ gin bx x x ;
’ ~ dxf or - 5 (3)

according as 6 > or < 0.

Cor. When b=1, we have

( sinX gya 2. a oe(a)

o x 2
Note. There aro other methods of obtaining tho result. Students
may consult text-books on Mathematical Analysis.

75. Integration of Infinite Series.

We have proved in Art. 1°4 that the integral of the sum
of a finite number of terms is equal to the sum of the inte-
grals of these terms. Now, the question arises whether this
principle can he extended to the case, when the number of
terms is not finite. In other words, is it always permissible
to integrate an infinite series term by term ? It is beyond
the scope of an elementary treatise like this to investigate
the conditions under which an infinite series can properly
be integrated term by term. We should merely state the
theorem that applies to most of the series that are ordi-
narily met with in elementary mathematics. For a fuller
discussion students may consulf any text-book on
Mathematical Analysis.
Theorem. A power series can ba integrated term by
term throughout any interval contained in the interval of
convergence, but not necessarily extending to the end-points
of the interval. -
 INFINITE INTEGRALS ETO. 141

Thus, if f(x) can be expanded in a convergent infinite

power series for all values of 2 in a certain continuous
range, V22.,
f(a) =ao tayetage* +s to ©,
b b
then | F(a) dx = J (G9 tayn +aqn" +++) dx
a a

b
=X { a,x" dg,
a

xz xz

or, | f(x) dx = | (ag tayetagu?t+-) dx

a a

xz
=> | Orn" az,
a

provided the intervals (a, b) and (a, x) lie within the interval
of convergence of the power, series,
Ex. Find by integration the series for tan7*

1+q2
1
2 z'+aet—ao8+---
— 7 on + MG or
toc, ifa’
e a
<1,

integrating both sides between the limits 0 and a,

\= ae
de e\:
_(7 7, apt 64... dx.
(L—x?+a+—a°+---)

. tanttw=a—gui
theo —datteeens, -L <a <i,

EXAMPLES VII

wofte 05%
Evaluate when possible, the following integrals :—

2. (i) [> i. (ii) \; we~™" da.

.() |" % (i) {" &.

142 INTEGRAL CALCULUS

sin £ dz. nae

ieee
(ii) (in?
A. (i) {; ae

2
aia)
5. (i) [Pai 9- a
(ii) Le

6. (i) {7 ® aa, (ii) | ee

7. (i) \- aye ie
(i) a ie

{7 daa
8. (i) ae (ii) feAy

Show that :—

[a,b>0]
. ie(x? rate! “+5?) oatla +b)

log >* > 0]

[a,b
= i (wi +0*\a"2+ 5") ~ Qt — be

a dat
[a,b >0]
i \,(a + aa? F8) ala - +b)

12. (i) [Pe-2 (cos 2—sin xz) dx=0. log

(ii) he 14 dx ae=0.
{ (ii} Divide the range (0, ©) into two parts (0, 1) and (1, 20) J

1
is joe” log a da= _ (n > —1).

‘ [oe * sin be dx= ris (a>0). [(C. P. 1988}

 INFINITE INTEGRALS ETC. 143

da _ tte
16. (i) le7+ 92 cos 0+1 na ore a 6+1.

(ii) \F ae ee
{e+ V1+22}" n*—1
where # is an integer greater than one.

(iii) & dx = 2,
a +a)(l+a2") 4
17. (i) \;sinsa ba; ee er re

according as a >, < or =b, (@ and b being supposed

positive).
(ii) |i(sin 27+ cos > = (sin + cos a)” Ana.

co 3,3
18. | an da= ™-
0 «£ 4

19. \ a en
oo °. 5

16

sin?’m@ , 2 _n
20. ie a2 dx = g Mb OF, 9,

according as m —> or < 0.

21. is(2) da= 5

99. | (2-2) dx = 3%.

oo ; 3 ©

0 x 8

23. Find by integration the power series for the

following :—
(i) log (1 + 2). (ii) log (1-2). (iii) sin~*2.
144 INTEGRAL CALCULUS

24. Show that :—

a 1 sin*s ,1.3 sin*s ]

@ | *-.- 2 Jen [1+ 5 o to4 9 .

x 3d a 4 132° _ 2

fF a
(i) 17 257949 [er <1]
x? oe

(ii)| Sn dg ==27- aa + EB a

_, fee, . b b?—-a? | b°-a?®

(iv) [°% ao=tog? +(6-a)+ 9.9| + 3.3! =
amr
(v) ie J/1—e? sin*¢ dd, where e? < 1,

~af;-(1)'2_
2 2/1
(1a)ot
2.4) 3

dx : 2
(wip{7% Jit 4" ein*e where k? < 1,

Sete (a) PG ee),

te
=
de 1, 1 13
/j-2*™ 2 —
1 tan”? x

mo fitttoc
2

[v0 2-7] 3

qi| eeGma) 4
 INFINITE INTEGRALS ETC. 145

27. (i) Show that if a > 0,

|tots 1 1 1 1
olt+sa a@ atl at2 at3

1-$t+4h—Ftes-

(ii) Show that if a > 0, b> 0,

PG oe A 1 1 1
|pip een a+b a+b a+3b 0
28. Show that
Rs 2p-1
gene = 1fil : 1 meats
Jp@ log (+2) de=5, re 34° “(ap—-1)2p]
{ Integrate by parts ]

ANSWERS

1. (i) dr. (ii) does not exist. 2. (i) $ log 3. (ii) 4.

8. (i) principal value is 0. (ii) principal valuo is 0.
4. (i) does not exist. (ii) does not exist.
5. (i) log 2. (ii) does not exist. 6. (i) 7. (ii) gfg7r.
7. (i) f. (ii) 0. 8. (i) does not exist. (ii) log 2.
17. (i) a—3x7 + $h2°-—- (ii) —Ca+$27+ $c? 4+ +--+],
ae De a AO eg on
(iii) 2+ a ata4 5t

10
 CHAPTER VII(A)
IRRATIONAL FUNCTIONS

7(A)'1. In the previous chapters we have discussed

simple cases of integrals of irrational functions. We shall
now consider here some harder types of such integrals.

@A)°2. If the integrand contains only fractional powers

of x 2.e., if the integrand be of the form
L
F (x"),
where F(a) is a rational function of 2,

the substitution is X =z",

where » is the least common multiple of the denominators
of the fractional exponents of &.
[See Ex. 1 of Examples VII(A) |

W(A)°3. If the integrand contains only fractional powers

of (a+ bx) i.e., if the integrand be of the form
F {at bx)""},

where F(x) is a rational function oftu,

the substitution is at+bx =z",
where » is the least common multiple of the denominators
of the fractional exponents of (a + bz).
[See Ex. 2 and Ea. 8 of Examples VII(A)}
 IRRATIONAL FUNCTIONS 147

7(A)°4. If the integral be of the form

Sfx™(a+bx")’dx,
where m, ”, » are rational numbers.
(A) If p be a postive integer, expand (a+ bx”)? by the
Binomial Theorem and integrate term by term.
[See Ex. 4(1) of Examples VII(A)J
(B) If p be a fraction, say, equal to 7/s, where #'and
$ are integers and s is positive.
+1 :
Case I. Ii ya =an integer or zcro,

the substitution is at+bx"=z!'.

+
Tf es 1 ¥ an integer or zero, we apply the following

case IT,

+ :
Case II. Ti a I + 4 =an integer or zero,

the general substitution is at+bx"

= z®x®", + (1)
If however the integer is positive or zero,
alternative substitution is a+ bx"=z'.

If the integer is negative,

the alternative substitution in the form ax~"+h,
which is practically the same as (1) of case II sometimes
facilitates calculation.
[ See Ha. 1 af Art. 7(4)'8J
7(A)'5. The integral of the form
dx
((ax? +b) J/(cex? +d)
148 INTEGRAL CALCULUS

Here the substitution is

ex? +d=x?z?,
Sometimes trigonometrical substitutions like
x=ktan 0, x=ksin 0, x™=k sec 0, etc. facilitate
integration.

[ See Hx. 28(ii) of Examples II(A) and Ex. 8(i) and

Ex. 8(4i) of Examples VII(A) ]
W(A)'6. The integral of the form
{ dx
) (px? + qx +r) /(ax?+bx+e)
Here we shall consider two cases only.

Case I. If px? +qu+r breaks up into two linear factors

of the forms (ma+n) and (m’x+n’), then we resolve
1
into two partial fractions and the integral
(max +n)(m'a +n’)
then transforms into the sum (or difference) of two integral
of the type (B) of Art. 2°8.
[See Hxramples 13 of Ex. VII(A)]
Case II. Ifpe?+qr+r is a perfect square, say (lz +m)’,
then the substitution is la +m =1/z.
In some cases frigonometrical substitutions as in
Art. 7(A)’5 are effective.
«If g=0, b=0, the integral reduces to the form given in
the Art. 7(A)'5.
In all these cases, the general substitution is
J (tet ay
px?+qxtr]
 IRRATIONAL FUNCTIONS 149

Briefly, we have considered integrals of the type

dx ‘
PAG
where P and Q are both linear functions of x, and P linear,
Q quadratic [ See Art. 2°8(A) and 2°8(B) ]
and P quadratic, Q quadratic.
[ See Art. 7(A)'5 and 7(A)'6 |
Also, we have considered integrals of the type .
f(x)
\P/Q dx,

where f(x) is a polynomial, and P, Q@ being linear or

quadratic. [ See Ex. 11 to Ex. 15 of Examples VII(A) ]
WA)'7. The integral of the form

) /ax*+2bx*+ex*+2bx+a)°”
where f(x) is a rational function of x.
The denominator can be written as

trl{ala + ') + 2b («+ i +e}

x x
and hence the substitution is

x+ - =Z or, eet
x x
according as f(z) is expressible in the form
Se 1 1 _i }.
( t Jeet 2) a (c+ 2 ole x
If b=0, the substitution
1 1
x? +ogZ or, x” — 5a"Z
is sometimes useful.
[ See Ha. 19 of Examples VII(A) ]
150 INTEGRAL CALCULUS

7(A)’8. Illustrative Examples.

Ex.1. Integrate \ hare

Oomparing it with the form of Art. 7(A)'4, we find here

m= —3,n=3, r= —1, s=3.

Now, mie x an integer, but

mEE eS —1, (an integor) eee ees (1)

n 8
by Art. 7(A)"4, Case II, we put
1l+2%=a5z*,

. 2F(22?-I)=1. .’. B= (5 apts" ues wre (2)

“damm, oe “i (3)
. s
.. denominator=es2*zee: = -- 3 2
(22—1)4/3 e

as\2/3
l= -\ 2 dz=—42?=—43 Gre

Alsernatively. Since (1) is a negative integer, wo can put

e-§+1=2%,

Thus, 1=|
—— 275) x7 *(a-§+1)7'19 da.
a*{a*(1+ xcs)

Since w7?+1l=2°, .°.) —a-* dx=z? dz.

I= -{ 2-'.2? dze=etc.

Ex. 2. Integrate \ daz e

(x? — 20+ 1) /(a?— 22+ 8)

It is of the form Oase II of Art. 7(A)'6.

| de
(2-1)? i.e
—1)?+9}
d :
-{oer aay’ puttin g z=x—1.
 IRRATIONAL FUNCTIONS 151

It is of the form of Art. 7(A)'5

2 sec7é dé B
=o A 29, ./2 seo Py putting z= ,/2 tan 0

= 3 coscs @ cot9 aa

= —% cosec 6.
2
Since tan 6= J 2, cosec 0= ee)
J/2

re
pe 21 MetZ 42) _ 21 Mle?x-122 +8), .

Ex. 3. Integrate the following:

e+ —1
() \204) ae. (a) 1%
nt (ii) Ja ae.

1+
(i) T= a da (dividing numerator and denominator by 27)
a? + 93

(1+ va)a
Bs x

-\ dzTg (on putting x de

ame

1 et
= patent gay ten (Fon)
(ii) It is similar to (i).

[= (-A)ae [1-3
wrt 5
oo Ths
(2+ *) —2
x x
dz“=- (on putting at --==g)
-\,,

mina e~ J/2_ 1 ve?+1—9

f2
=3 Ja °C ofa Jo 8 cities /2
152 INTEGRAL CALCULUS

(i) r=g (CFD)g,

“Hate lesa
a a -1 fo ~~ v?+1—a@J/2
“30 “2 Ge )-z
42 log FiI+1+a2
[ by (4) and (a).]

1-2? da
Ex. 4. Integrate {i+o? (lta? +o")

“lees 7
=
\;a ay
daz
[ putting
7
a+ =1 —_=z]
i ;
cosec 8 cot 8
6 cot 6 ao
— |cose Fe [ putting ¢=cosoc 6 ]

-\ d@=6=cosec™/2

satcosec ~1 (a+).
. ;
sin a +2?
_& ).

EXAMPLES VII(A)

Integrate the following :—

1 + 4/
</o
= | er Jay [ Put c=z*]

[ Put e+2=2*
Naw + 3)a eae
da
ss J V(2+2)+(J(a+e))*
 IRRATIONAL FUNCTIONS 158

4. (i) |Ja (1+ 8/x)? da. (ii) |J(2+ »/a) da.

5. (9 ieoe a cw) |ie

6. (i) | a a ae } (ii) |anes

(iii) | v oe oD ae
2. (i) |wet) a, (ii \~evil~ 22) a5
: a +s |(x2 -1) d“a? -9)
8. (i) |(x? + 1) Me +4) (ii)

{ Put (.) x=2 tan 0; (it) 2=3 sec 0.)

a? da a da
0) | Jee) i J o~ aMe-st
10. (i) | es) de. (ii) [staveise det.
_@ out
Mt.) @+i erty) ™
> | (47 +49 4+1)./(4a7 + 4x + 5)
13 an
. (Q2? ae + Ba+32)

14, |(x? + 5a .7 ae 2) a

5.0) Jarsseen sera) |getaeeT Je ta)

a” + .
16. (i) Jge feky dz. (ii) |stoky dx.
154 INTEGRAL CALCULUS

17. IF bm? +1 *

18 \zcyte
19.
jize
lt
az
Ja* +1)
[its dz
20.
(1- 8a? +24)

21. fades
(a*spot
2?)Fy)

a2, |a(a~2
257, a
2 ~-3

— 22)?

1l+77?
Be), ate a)
24. Integrate

| dz
a x/ ge? +a+ 9)

by the substitution z=a+ - ++ 2)

and show that the value is G log ee er eteT ve

25. Integrate
| ada ae
x n/(x? + 2a +1)
by the substitution z=a+ /(2? + 2”+1)
and show that the value is 2 tan™* (a+ /(27 + Qa +1)).
ANSWERS
1. 4[tan-! (4/2)+4 log (1+ J/z)].
2. 2 (e+ 2)t—4 (o+9)t +4 log (1+ (24+2)4F.
8. 2 tan7?} (2+2)%. 4. (i) dat +3202 + feat’.
 IRRATIONAL FUNCTIONS 155

4, (ii) ¢(Q+a)?—§ (24 Ja).

: 3492 : 1 (+208 1 (2-407)
5.) e241)" G) ig ae tae
; ater he (1-at)it—o
6. (i) - ot (ii) 1—n ae git

Git) ot(o?+ Mita) Mate),

n? ony? 4 a—teayt

. 1, 41/238 \. ae! -1 (M(x? -9)\,

9. (i) # (o+2)' -2 (v+2)84 a log eae o

Gd 3/5),
10. (i) J(1-+e+2?)—% sinh? ("7") -sink™ (5c ay)
(ii) ‘tat N(a? +27)]".

11. J(u? +1)+sinh-*2— a sinh”! (757).

3
12. _i N(4a07 + 4ar+ 5).
8 Qa+1

2 . 1 -, (5+82
13. 3 Bec (20+9) +55 cosh (2%).

2 4 c+
14, 7, tan™ (se ara)”
ve ad us ott et+3— j2+2)
15. (i) jg tan (xs ary) 3plage Se eka)

— ton (Seieee)
(i) ale+9)2g
156 INTEGRAL CALCULUS

16 (i) Zs tan"? aa (ii) 5 log paeet

17.
3, own (Seg) ede seth
18.
ge ee (S5g)- pees
19.
© 5 sin7? (?ep 20. sin*( -,2); 21. Niet tet),

“1 ay 23. sinh-! (=)

 MISCELLANEOUS EXAMPLES .

1. Integrate the following functions with respect

to
@ :—
*

a
32 2
. 2° #Foos’2 2
ai * cosec’ @.
2+ (ii) ae 4 a)
(33) cos 82— cos Ta tig tan a— tan &
1+2 cos 5a tan attan 2x

(v) sec®x cosec®a. (vi) w® (log x)*.

(vii) sec 2 log (sec 2 + tan 2). (viii) 2° cos x.
(ix) sec a tan a ./(2+ tan?z). (x) 2 cos?r.
(xi) (log «)*. (xii) tan~*( Jn). (xiii) log (1 + x").
(xiv) 2? sin~*z. (xv) 2” cos a. (xvi) e*z*

2c |(252
Integrate the tn —

(ii) iF +2) amr.

(ii) jones
(logs 2) ae.
3. (i) |log ae
7) ap.

: d:
4. (i) |(e* + oe (ii) |(1+
Ae +¢@*)

s. (i) | +2) Jatvet de. (ii) iG +27) Jato da.

158 INTEGRAL CALCULUS

da dz
(1 +27) /1-2? (i) |(i-a*) Jit

i)|(2 “DY Vat+:

(ai)|a” oat+1

(i) lees

(i) jdeny

(ii) | Jot | ae.

i) |oreoae
(i) | ne de.

14. (i) |eee

L+cos 2x2
de,
(a sin 2 +b cos x)”

yf de, sae a4 1-2)

(ii) |
sin(2tan ee dz.
15. (i) jcos 2 cos 22

y ( _ vedax_.
) |ger aMerriy
an
16. (i) \etne®y

17. (i) lot

Fae741) (ii) oe a-6
 MISCELLANEOUS EXAMPLES 159

sin & da iz
18. (i) |sin ax (ii) |3 cos z+2sin £

eo
On eeeaereran
- ax:
19. (i) Jaa dx

(a— 1)(@— 4) a 8a? S29

=3". -
20. (i) (ce— 2)(x— 3) ti) |(a ~ 1)(@—2)(a
—3)
ao
da
21. (i) lx44 1827 +81.
@)24 |ganar
d

22. (i (ii) | Vet Ja*+2 de.

oycucu
Evaluate the following :-—
1 3 a
23. (i) iFx*(1 ae dat. (ii)f; 2* gin 3a dz.

i
24. (i)(ix log (1 +437) dx. (ii) f;log (1 +cos x) dz.

25.0) JF faye
d
(ii) \; ve, ake
xdax
26. (i) \;strat) (ii) {. (1+a2X1 +27)

27. G) ess
ete? 2° Gi) I,
ska") HS
28. (i) |) (2aij ae. (ii)
NF 2 47
1 ety ot
160 INTEGRAL CALCULUS

Show that :—
1 dx
29. {;(4 a9 +a) 288 nearly.

x0. | rere
a *.
4

an J Wee
ue: Joe ie — 9?
eae
11)
A, 3)
[ Put 27=a? cos 20 ]
32

a daz 5 ie
a: Vd viet cock 4.

= Whee
by h%en® =p ee a

35. S log (c+ 1) Wre=m loge2.

{ Put w=tan 6]

36. If Co, C1, Ca,...05 Cn denote the coefficients in the

expansion of (1+2)" where 7 is a positive integer, show that
Co, C1, Ce, ....., Cn arte 1.
17 9*3F tak a
ANSWERS

1. (i) —(cot 2+ tan7?2). (ii) 2 cos a+sin a log sin (2— a).
(iii) 4 sin 82 —4 sin ae. (iv) sin 2a log sin (r+-a)—2 cos 2e.

(v) —§ cotta. (vl) d0*{(log x)? —} log 2 +3}.

 MISCELLANEOUS EXAMPLES 161

(vii) 4 {log (sco 2+ tan 2)}7.

(viii) (w* —6z) sin a+8 (7%? —2) cos a.
(ix) £ sec 2 /1+80c? 2+4 log (see z+ s/sec*x+1).
(x) Yea sin 38e+'; cos 84+ 42r sin c+? cos x.
(xi) a (14 —317+61—6), whero Z=log x.
(xii) (+1) tan7!(/z)— A/a.
(xiii) # log (1+ 2?)—22+2 tan~*

(xiv) 4a° sin~!2+4 J/1—-2?—-} (1 <g)", :

(xv) ae azay*cos {s—cot~'(log 2)}.

(xvi) e* (x! — 495+ 1927 — 949-424).

: -1 1 : wey 1+ Ya" .
2. (i) tan a+ oa (ii) A(L-4 22)?

3. (i) log 2 —(1+ ) log (1+ :). (ii) —4a7*(cos log a+2 sin log 2).

4. (i) ~—$(1+e?*)"'. (ii) —(1+e7)-'.

5. (i) § (227+ Sax+2a7) Ja? +e? +ha* log (2+ Va? +27).

(ii) yas (a+ a)? (15a? — 1942+ 43a).

4 -1( 22). itn, 1S. Nita? +a J/2.
6. (i) jg tan (222,) (i) 9 Yo 8 agi—e 8
QNc*—-1-e@N3 ay 1 af N83
7) gig 6 Mayan ye CH) Jy tan 72)
8. (i) _ _2+827 _ 8 “Sap, a a Jl+a? : 9. , ee x
Qn(i+a*) 2 ee (ii) x (i) log No? +1

wy Qa2—1 : e Nrt—1 ps c
(ii) Son? J/1+2?. 10.(i)
$ secttat aS (ii) log 4 a.

41. () sate og2}. (ii) Jog (2+ Ja Fi)- vite

12. (i) 2 (tan a—sec x)+log (1+sin 2). (ii) e” tan a.

11
 162 INTEGRAL CALCULUS

a—tan"* oe : sg (a+z) @ ten~ iz

18. (i) W1+a? (i) (1+a*)Ji+a?
i. ji —co3s
14. (i) $ {sec w+log (sec z+ 1an 2)}.
1
(ii) a(asin +b cos a)
1+ /2 sin a 1 1+sin@
15. (i) ‘5 log y_ /2 sin « go 1-singe
(ii) $ 4a 41 —g? — cos” *a}.

16. (i) 2/2 =~ —2 tan7" a/x.

1
(ii) log ~ it rsmts - tan "a,

mt 1 ;
17. (i) :log aia 4 Jog (a? +1).

7 Q e-1 {2(e+3),
(ii) Af g 008 af ee

18. (i) § log tan §2—} tan? $y. (ii) 7) {2n—8 log (3 cos a +2 sin a)}.

19. (i) e7 —(m+1) log (e’ +1). (ii) sinh7? (275. ‘).

20. (i) 2+2 {log (x— 2) —log (x— 3)}.

(ii) 9 log (x— 3) —5 log (a — 2)- log (x —1).
-» 1 = i}: aie dso cael a
21. (i) sa (tan aot 34g i) yg OT oF g (g2 +20 4-5)
29, (i) 2 tan-*(14-2)%. (i)32 er -+a f2+a? -2
Net J24+a?
23, (i) rst. (ii) ve yaT’. 24, (i) 3(1-2 log 3 . (ii) T log 3.

25. (i) dr. (ii) a 26. (i) $ log 2. (ii) dor.

27. (i) /8. (ti) ra 28. (i) —1. (ii) a cot”'2.

 OHAPTER VIII

INTEGRATION BY SUCCESSIVE REDUCTION

AND
BETA AND GAMMA FONCTIONS

8°1. Reduction Formulz.

It has been mentioned in § 1'6, that in some casé: of
integration, we take recourse to the method of successive
reduction of the integrand, which mostly depends on the
repeated application of integration by parts. This is
specially the case when the integrands are complicated in
nature and depend on certain parameter or parameters.
These parameters may be positive, negative or fractional

indices, as for example, x"e*”, tan”a, (a +a2)e, sin”’” cos”"@

etc. To obtain a complete integral of these trigonometric
or algebraic functions, we first of all define these integrals
by the letters J, J, U etc. introducing the parameter or
parameters as suffixes, and connect them with certain
similar other integral or integrals whose suffixes are lower
than that of the original integral. Then by repeatedly
changing the value of the suffixes, the original integral can
be made to rest on much simpler integrals. This last
integral can be easily evaluated and knowing the value of
this last integral, by the process of repeated substitution, the
value of the original integral can be found out. The formula
in which a certain integral involving some parameters is
connected with some integrals of lower order is called
a Reduction Formula. In most of the cases the reduction
formula is obtained by the process of integration by parts.
164 INTEGRAL CALCULUS

Of course, in some cases the method of differentiation

(See § 829 below) or other special devices are adopted
(See § 8°20). In the next few pages methods of finding the
reduction formule of certain integrals are discussed.
Case I. Integrals involving oné parameter.

8°2. Obtain a reduction formula for (x"ea* dx.

Let Jn =|ene dan. eos s+ (1)

Integrating by parts,
er on
xv” eda =x" A ge”te™ da s (9)

~- — Ie-1 eo oak (3)

Note 1. It may bo observed that the integral on the right-hand

side of (2) is of the same form as the integral in (1) except for the power
of z, which is »—1, and which can bo obtained from (1) replacing n by
m—lon both sides. If » be a positive integer, procecding successively
as above, JZ, will finally depend upon Jo= fe** dx=e™/a, and is thus
known.
Note 2. In evaluating (3) from (1), we could integrate x” first but
in that case JZ, would have been connected with Iny,, 4.¢., with an
integral whose suffix is greater than that of the original one, which is
not usually desirable. A little practice will onable the students to
choose the right function.

8°38. Obtain reduction formule for

(i) (sin"x dx ; (sin"x dx.

(ii) (cos"x dx ;(* cos"x dx.

 INTEGRATION BY SUCCESSIVE REDUCTION 165

(i) As in Article 6°10A(1) of the book,

Ia -| sin”2Z ax

_ sin"
*e cos # n=1 |ain" de.
”

oe In
sin"~'xn cos x +, n-1
n Tn -2 ees (1)

is the required reduction formula. .

Also by (1), taking limits of integration from 0 to a:
Tv

in=( sin"x dx=2—4 In-2 (n>1). “++ (9)

Similarly,
m1 : vs
(ii) ram |cos"a da= °°* i ea no In-2 ° (3)

z ¥ n— |
and mn=|. cos"r dx = os Jago m1), s+ (4)
Note. If the integrand be sinh"z or cosh"z, @ similar process may
be adopted.

8°4. Obtain reduction formule for

(i) (tan"x dx ; (ii) (*tan"x dx

( n, a positive integer. )

Here, i= |tan"s dx -|tan”~*2.tan*a dx

-| tan” *z . (sec?a— 1) dx

-|tan”* 2 sec’ da—{ tan” *2 dx

166 INTEGRAL CALCULUS —

Thus,
n-1
rn 6 egy
Also, taking limits from 0 to 42,
Tv
z
T

tan”~* */°Se
Jn = i;tans” dr = Si le i:tan” %~—2 *2 dx by (1)
@ =

-.-
J . — = is see 9
n— 1 Jn 2 ( )

Note 1. If n be a positive integer,

, ertan" %e
n
tan"e dz=
tan" aetan"-5z
ioe rhs ee eae
n—-1 n—-3 nm—5

If n be odd, the Jast term is (—1)#®—) f tan & de

=(—1)8"—) tog see x.
If # be even, the Jast term is (— 1)2(n+2) fitan22z da
== (— 18+) (tan g—z).
Note 2. If the integrand be cot"z, fanh"x, coth"x, the samo process
may be adopted.

8°56. Obtain a reduction formula for (sec"x dx.

Tj -|sec"x dx =| sec” *” sec*a da.

Integrating by parts,
In= sec” *a.tan #

-{(m— 2) sec” *x.sec # tan 2.tan x dx

=sec””*x tan 2 —(n— Q) fsec” “x (sec*a — 1) dx

= gec” "x tan x —(n — 2) [|sec"2 dz — {sec” 74 de|-

 INTEGRATION BY SUCCESSIVE REDUCTION 167

Transposing and simplifying,

sec"-2x tan x , n-2
In= n-1 ea 1 in-2
(1)
Note. If tho integrands are coseec"z, sech"x, cosech"z, then pro-
ceeding as akove we can got tho reduction formula for cach of them.

8°6. Obtain a reduction formula for fer cos"x dx.

Letln= [ot cosa dx.

Integrating by parts,
ax n
ln= é"te acercosse vue#& tae er) {o cos” - ty sin
. 2 dx

e*AL cos’ +}7az , nie ax

= : 1
See eo ee [ cos"~!z.sin 2— a
ala a

x {(n— 1) cos” ~*z (— sin x).sin 2 + cos” *2.cos n}dx

on
=
=" - gog”e + E Bbah anaiate
=
a

= Bfer{(n — 1) cos” *x (cos*z— 1) +cos"a} dz

e*”1G cos""*z
n-l
(a cosx+7 sin 2)
a?

9B =
2Al” for cos"e da— (u— fer cos” 7a az}

Transposing,
ae R-
1x(a cos etn sin
in x) , m ( (n=-1)
(1+ "| In = 3oe In~g
a" a* u

or,
J, = Ce cos" tx (a cos x+n sin x)4.n(n= 1),
n*-+a? n? +a? "~?
168 INTEGRAL CALCULUS

8°7. Obtain a reduction formula for ((x?-+a7)" dx.

Let In -{(2? +47)” dx.

Integrating by parts (taking 1 as second factor),

Tn = (au? + a2)" -|(ae? + a7)". Oe oe dx

= a(n +a2)"— On J(ce? +42)""'(e2 +0202) dr

= a(v? +47)” —an (27? +a*)” da

+ Ina? |(a9 + 7)" ~* da.

Transposing,
(1 + Qn) In = a(n? + a7) EeOna” Dees

ee In =
x(x?+a7)° 2na?
Tn-1-
2n+1 2n+1
Note. It may be noted that here 2 need not be an integer.
Put .=% and compare with § 3°4(C).

8°8. Obtain a reduction formula for ((ax? +bx+c)" dx.

w

Let In ~ |(a2"+ bret)" dz.

If a be positive,

Tuma” |
( +?) da where gz=a2 + so
4ac~bh*
and ee “= (1)
and if a be negative, say = —a’,
In =(a’)” {a = 22)” da,

, + 2
where z=0- 32 and k? = fact
ha’™ bh" w+ (2)
 INTEGRATION BY SUCCESSIVE REDUCTION 169

But (1) and (2) are similar to that of § 8°7 above, and
can be evaluated by the same process.

8°9. Obtain a reduction formula for (oat [n¥1]

dx dar
Let Inm|gstas then, In-1 =|? +a7)"- L*

Integrating by parts,

=
(a —1).2x.m
In (2?=- —
v — --
fF (2? tary" dx 7

9 +a*—-a"
ar “— + An — a (a* +2)"
~ (a? ee dx

Ge Pr +2(n-1) In-1- AXn-1) a? In.

Transposing,

2 (n—-1)a” Lyn = (2? +

gqayeee t Qn =8) Ins

tas 1 Xan 3 “I
ie In Sq=Da? (x Fae)" Wn— Da?!
8°10.
| |
Obtain a reduction formula for area dx
dx
Let In = oa + ba + c)* ven (1)

If a be positive,
1 dz ame Ye tae™ b*
de = As 4 he?) where z=a”+ 9a i= 4a? (2)

and if a be negative, say = —a’,

seh |ode
Ty 4 cela
x.
a 2°)"

where 2=2 ely end k a

gar
_4a'c+b
4actb™
ai (8)
170 INTEGRAL CALCULUS

Both (2) and (3) can be integrated by the same process as

in § 89 above.
Note. In Article 5'1., Caso ZV of the book, wo have remarked that
when the integrand is a rational fraction in which the denominator
contains factors real, quadratic but some repeated, in general a
reduction formula is reyuired. Thus, to integrate such functions,
separate repeated and non-repeated quadratic factors and for repeated
quadratic factors, use the result of the above Article.
x" dx
8°11. Obtain a reduction formula for (=,
f f JVax?+bx+ec
where is any positive integer.
r” dx
Let Lens
: Jax? +bnte

Noting that, 2”= Zax + b— gr

2a
1 (Qar+b) 4 eeh-f
gt
= tI err u-1
" 9a) Jaxt+ bec mn ag Jan? +brt+e da.

Now, | (Qa +b) w”—*, da

Jan? +bhete

=2 J/ax*+brt+e.n" *— Ec ~ 1a"? Jan? +batc dx

= On"? Jaz* +brt+e—%An-1) x”

| *(ax* + ba +c)
Jax? +br+ec

=22""* Jae? +bate-An-1) Lalv+bIn-1t+cIn-g |].

gn” u—-1
In = a Jan? t+ bater 2)aly t bln t elas|

b
= Qa Ta24

w-1 ; mo

ee Jaa" +bz+e-(n-1) In
2 ats
(2n-1)b Tew _(a-= Ue Tate:
2a
 INTEGRATION BY SUCCESSIVE REDUCTION 171

Transposing and simplifying,

-1 me ete os Ae a a

a Jax?+bx+e -@n—Up In-1- o= Ve Tn-2-

Case II. Reduction formule involving two para-

‘meters.
Oe OOo ae

8°12. Obtain a reduction formula for (x™ (log x)" dx

(n, a positive integer).

Here, since two parameters mm, 2 are involved, we shall
dofine the integral by the symbol Din, n.

Lin 7 -|a” (log x)” az

Integrating by parts,

I mm eTee(logOg @ 2)"—ee
—-; | n(logog 2y"-'
& + ip
1 -n™** de2
oe mo m n~ Le
rs; (to
0g 2) stile (log 2)
»M+ 1
(log x)” - es Lin, m— 15
~ om +1
. x mit i n I
2.¢., Iman (log x) ~m+i im act

Note 1. Here wo have connected, Ip, 1 with Jn, n-, and by

‘successive change, the power of log x can be reduced to zero «¢., after
m Operations we shall get a term Im, o, i.¢., J x2 dx, which is easily
integrable. Thus, step by step substitution, Jp, . can be evaluated.
It may bo noted that when two parameters are involved, this is the
usual practice.

Note 2. Students must be cautious in defining these integrals.

Here as for illustration Jm, n> Ins m
172 INTEGRAL CALCULUS

8°13. Obtain reduction formule for

., ( (atbx)™ ‘ ( dx
(i) ( xa dx. (ii) x"(a+ bx Nw

(i) Let Im, » -|\@tbe ag. [n #1]

Integrating by parts,

Ing n 2 (n = 1a"-* pod gt an.

m
ae 1 nb
n- Tm- 1, n~1- ese (1)
ee Im, n = - 7

(ii) Let Jn, =|a™(a

~ da ---- 6
+ ba)”

Integrating by parts,
ie aapt da
me ln — Ie” (0+ ba)” m—1d 2 (a + ba)"

int att ahtltan we

(m— 1)r™~2 (a+ ba)”

a ie a
7? yp 1 m4 + br)? dx ais (2)

1 -———
(m- 1)a™~*(a.+ ba)”

i ear
= In; nti
an Lim; N+

an 7 1 mtn-1
" m-1 Tis mva ~ (m— Ia” *a tbat m-1 Im, n-
Changing » to n—1 on both sides,
1 m+t+n-2
Im, an D)x"-"(atbx)"'* (n—-d
(n-i)aa Tm, n-1- ***(3)
Note. Formula (2) or (8) can be taken as the reduction formula
for (ii). (8) is more rapidly converging. The other ways in which these
integrals can be expressed are left to the students. [Seealso § 2°2. Ex. 9.)
 INTEGRATION BY SUCCESSIVE REDUCTION 178

8°14. Obtain reduction formule for

1
(i) (x™(1—x)" dx. (ii) (" x™(1—x)" dx.

(i) Let earl

Iiny n a1 a x)" ar

m4 MeL — pyri
ae
mM
,+1
= (1 aes m+“| le a

iesgmt
25 ‘(1-
aa as a. x” on (1-2)"" m~1§7 "fl (74,
-(1- 4)$ dx
ae d= a | z |

om + i. an,+1 Ly n—1~ tiny n

Transposing and simplifying,
I _xm™i(t—x) ny
me mtatio | omtnt+1 ™""
1
(ii) If Im, n= i z"(1-«2)" dr, by above, this

= [- he Ee GS
mtotl jo mtnti°mrr

J m, mtn tl Jin, n+.

Note. In Integral Caleulus Jy, , is usually denoted as Bm, a, the

first Eulerian integral. Tt is also refcrred to as the Beta-funetion.
ariel nea,
[ See § 8°21 below |]
It is interesting to note that Jnsn=dnm %¢., Bm, n=Bn, m,
although Im, 2% In, m

8°15. Obtain reduction formula for

(i) Inn sin™x cos"x dx ;
3
(ii) Inn=\ sin™x cos"x dx ( m, » being positive
integers ).
174 INTEGRAL CALCULUS

In Article 6°10, Case B of the book, we have discussed

it fully and obtained
sin™**2 cos" ta |1-1
T we oe I.
oe mtn mtn tn 2
sin” *” cos""*2 , m—1
or, =— isk +Sa Im—e,n in @ similar

way, and, when a» and 7 are a integers,

m —1
Im, (oo Im, n-2 > OF Qy Ne
on +

Using§ 6'8(iv), we also see that Jm, n=dn, m.

8°16. Obtain a reduction formula for (sine~dx. [n¥1i

Let Im, al sin” cos "a dx. ee (1)

Consider I'p, q -| sin’s cos’a dr

sin?**2 cos? 7a,

=--
g- i.»
. 1 yy) q-2°
ptq pra
[ by § 8°15 above |
Changing ¢g to q+ 2,
7! _sin?**¢ cos***2 | qtl. 7’
Bere ptqt2 ptgtQ° 4

Transposing,
. _sin?**¢ cost te, pt+qt2
Ip a™ q+1 f qt1. Lg q+2- "° (2):

[qg+1 #0]
Now, replace p by m and q by —1 in (2) and use the:
definition (1).
 INTEGRATION BY SUCCESSIVE REDUCTION 175

Then, (2) becomes

In w= — sin™tix m-nt+2 I
mn n—-1ecos™'*x n-1 -™*?

8°17. Obtain a reduction formula for (___ 9x, [w1]

sin™x cos"x

dr
Let Im; =|
sin” cos”x
‘ee

Consider as hefore,

D4: =| sin’a cos*s dx

sin?* 12 cos® pt+qt2 y

yi q+1 gtl Pr U+2>

[ as in § 8'26(2) above |

Replacing p by— m and q by— 2 and using the def. In, a,

fe eh oeKe me
mon n-1 sin™-'xcos™’*x. n-1 ™"*

8°18. Obtain a reduction formula for

Im,n -( cos™x cos nx dx,

connecting with (i) Im-1, n—1 (t7) Tm-2,n. (Cm # +n)

Gi) Let

Ties -| cos”"s cos nx da

cosz.sin nz m io
= i; ee cos 1” .(- sin x) sin nx da.
176 INTEGRAL CALCULUS

Since, sin uz sin z=cos (n—1)¢—cos nx cos 2,

_ cos” sin ne , m 2
- Inva=-° . + |cos” tz .{cos (n — 1)x
2 — cos nz cos x} dx
cos”"g
Pees sinSS Sess
na , m
dinaasy n-1— In, nf
7) n
Simplifying,
_cos™x sin nx m
Im, n m4 +n enn Im-1, n-1-

(ii) From (1),

sa sin 12a! bs : ;
Ins a=sot 1a ue |(cos”"*z sin r).sin na dx.

Again integrating by parts,

m—L
_ cos” oe sin ua , mf cos r sin 7 cos mm
Din, ” Senay n n
ee i Se?

+ ,|{(9.- 1) cos™~*a (— sin x). sin z

+ cos” m—1 1z.c0s x} cos mx ax |

_ cos” sin 2a ml(cos™™*a«COS Mat sin2)

a nha

, — oe
m. |{(m. — 1) cos™” m-2 *x (cos?*a
to 1)
+cos™xr} cos nx da
cos” *2 (n sin nz cos 2 —m cos n# sin 2)
3
%

+o
ms,|{(m —1+1) cos™s cos na
—(m—1) cos”? cos nat dx
cos”+a (n sin nx cos 2—-m cos nx sin 2)

+%[ ™ In; a—(m -1) Im-a. 0 }

 INTEGRATION BY SUCCESSIVE REDUCTION 177

Transposing and dividing,

n sin nx cos X— m Cos nx sin x mo4
Ina= ‘cos™ x
n° -m
_m(m-1),
n* — m2 m-2,n.

There are three other integrals of a similar type.

(i) |cos” sin nz dz, (ii) |sin”2 cos wz dz,

and (iii) |sin” sin na dz,

which can be treated in a similar manner, and connected by
a reduction formula either with Jin-1,2-1 or with Imn_e, n
in each case.
For instance,

(on + n)|cos"z sin nz dz = — cos”™r cos nt+tm Ini, 2-1;

(00® — m2?) [sine cos na da

= (7 sin n@ sin 2+ m cos nx cos x) sin™ tye
= m(m — 1) Im-a; 2; ete.

Case III. Special devices.

8°19. Obtain a reduction formula for t,S thee

_| dr,
Let In -|(a +b cos x)”
‘ in &
Consider P= ae ss e+ (1)

dP
dx
cos 2(a + b cosx)""*—(n—-1)a+b cos x)" *(—5 sin x). sin x
{(a +5 cos x)"~7}"
12
178 INTEGRAL CALCULUS

— 008 © (a+b cos 2) +(n—1) b(1 — cos*e)

(a +b cos x)”

_(n-1)b-+a cos 2 — (nm—2)bcos*x

(a+b cos x)”
_At+Blat+d cos 7) +Clath cos
cos @)? Sus
(a+b cos 2)” (say) my
Then comparing the coefficients,

A+ B.a+ Ca? =(n—- 1)b, B.b+ 2Cab =a, Ch? = —(n— 2)b.

Solving,

A= -(n-1) 95"> B=(Qn-3) O = -"—7....

(3)
a 2 ess

substituting these values of A, B, C in (2), we get

dP _(n—1)(a* -b*). Te sis
da: b (a+b cos x)”
it (Qn— 3)a. eS os eh ee
b (atbecosx)”* b (a+b cos x)""?
Integrating both sides with respect to z, and using the
definition of Jn,

P=
_ _(n-1Xa?—b") > | (Qn-83)a
b In + b la-1 b
2 hess

Be a SI
a (n — 1)(a?
—b?) (a+b cos x)"~?
+ (2n-3)a I __(n-ae)
—2) ey
(n— 1)(a® —b*) -""' (n— 1a? —b*) ""?

Alternative method.

sin ; v
Let P= (atb eae aye and V=atb cos 2.
 INTEGRATION BY SUCCESSIVE REDUCTION 179

cos w="
b

dP_d (sin r\_cosa# 1)8in.# (~ 5bsin 2)

dar ~ da \yr-4) = yrs Dyn
_ V-a | = oe)
pyr t Vv" 1 b

_ _(n-1a®-b*)
a(2n-3)_(n-2)
b yr b yu b y4 are

Integrating both sides w.7. 2 and using the definition

in=|se the result follows.

Note. When is positive integer, by a repoated application of

the above reduction formula, 7, will ultimately depend on T,, which is
easily integrable ( Sce § 42 ),

8°20. Obtain reluction formule for (x™a+bx")? dx.

In this integral, usually denoted as binomial differentials,

three parameters are involved and this integral, written as

Las 1 »={ a™ (a+ ba")? dx can be connected with any

one of the integrals below :

(i) Tinsny ny pea = Sa™t” (a + ba")?* de.

(ii) Tiny my p-a = Se™ (a + bar")?* der.
(iii) Ty ny por = Sa™ (a + ba”)?** de.
(iv) Im-ns ny pea = fe™" (at bx)?** da.

(v) Im-n 2, p=JSa™- (at ba”)? dex.

(vi) Iman, ny p= Sa™t" (at ba")? de,
180 INTEGRAL CALCULUS

(i) Im, wm p= Sa™ (atbae")? dx. Integrating by parts,

gti
In, asp Pee 1 (a + ba”)?

eses] [pla+ ba™)?-1 ba™ tet? dar

=_@ moe nbp

ee 1 (a+ ba”)? — ce 1 Imany ny p-1 (1)

Again, as above,
: ggmtL ‘i
In, mE 4] (a + ba”)?
ne
= ch |; (a+ ba" —a)(a+ bx")?-? da.

[
writing git
th = om (a + ba” — a) |

Transposing and simplifying,

0 athe")? anp_
Jin, nr D- npi+rmtl np +m +1 Im; fly N-1e (2)

Changing p to p+1 in (2) and transposing, we get a

connection with the integral (iii), v7z.,
gt (a + be” )?tt

Im ay v= an (p+ 1)
np+1)tmt+1 va We
an (p + 1) Im, Ms O+1s (3)

Also changing m to (m-n) and p to p+1 in (1) and

transposing, we get
ta (a : ba")? ++

Im, My p™ ae nb (p+ 1)

m-nt1
nb (p+ 1)
1) Im-n; %) Die *** (4)
 INTEGRATION BY SUCCESSIVE REDUCTION 181

To get a connection with Tin—n, n, » and Imin, n) p Write

a” — as ne y nba")

1 = 2
In, yp ab |e ned (gg + ba"), 2D. a” x ada.

Integrating by parts and simplifying,

gente (a of ha")P*t a.
In; oe U(np + m + 1)

a(m—n+1) SWE
b(nn +m +1) Tons ty (5)

Changing ™ to m+ in (5) and transposing,

_ ght (at ha™)Pt L
Im, nen a(m + 1)

_b (np +ontn +1)

Dinens yp “°° (6)
alm + 1)

These six formule of Zim, 2, » can be obtained by another

method.

Write P=a2*!1 (a+ br"4t),

where 4 and 4 are the smaller indices of # and (a +62")
respectively in the two expressions whose integrals are to
be connected.

Find a and express it as linear combination of the

two integrands. On integration the result can be obtained.

To illustrate the above statements we shall find a con-

nection of Im, 2, » with Im+n, n, p-
 182 INTEGRAL CALCULUS

Here evidently A=m, u=p. ©. P=a2™**(@+ bo")?*?,

- = (im + 1)e™.(a + ba”)Ptt + (pt 1) * nba" a+ br")?

=(m + 1)a™(a + ba")? (a + bx”) + nb(p + 1)n"* "(a + ba")”

=(m + 1)ax™a + bx”)? + (np +n tot La *"(a + ba").

Integrating with respect to 2,

P= (on ate 1a Im, n, pt U(np +ntint 1) Imtns ty Dp

Tegmy, 2s pet
D
at ha )P"* _ Unptn+
alm + 1)
m+) > My
a(m + 1) Wy YP

which is the same as (6).

Similarly the other five results can be obtained.

For another illustration see sum no. 7, § 8°29.

8°21. Beta and Gamma Functions.

In many problems in the applications of Integral
Calculus, the use of the Beta and Gamma functions often
facilitates calculations. So we give below an account of
those functions—their definitions and important properties,
some of which are however mentioned without any proof.*

Definitions :
1
(A) (" x™-1(1—x)"-1dyx denoted by B(m, n)
(m>O0,n>0]
is called the First Hulerian inteyral or Beta function.

“Results (v), (vi) and (viii) are given without any proof here, as the
proofs are based on “doubie integration’ which is beyond the scope of
the present book. Novertheless, the results are extremely important in
applications and are to be carefully remembered.
 INTEGRATION BY SUCCESSIVE REDUCTION 183

(B) ( e7*x"-t dx denoted by T(n) [n>0]

is called the Second Hulerian integral or Gamma function.

Here m and » are positive but they need not be integers.

Properties :
(i) By property (iv) of Art. 6°8, we get

{en (l-2)"") dx= \,2” *(1-2)™"* da.

-*. Bm, n)=B(n, m).

Gi) Td)= [re~" dy =,

{ See Ex. 1, Illustrative Hxamples Art. 7°2 |

ee T(1)—=1.

(iii) As in Ex. 9, Illustrative Examples Art. 72, if

can be shown that even when n is not a positive integer,
oo oo 1

: e* a" dx=n 0? 7a” da.

* L(n+1)=nT(n).

When » is a positive integer,

Tin+1)=n!

(iv) Writing ka for x in (B), we easily get

=F(n),
\ ovkegn-t dx=2™). (> 0,0 > 0)

C'(m) T(n),
(v) B(m, n)= [(m+n)
184 INTEGRAL CALCULUS

(vii) Putting m= :in (vi), we get

1(4) T(4)= sin”be ie
“ [(d)= Jz.
Alternatively, we can deduce the value of I'(4) in the
following way.
Putting m=n=} in (v),
r($)
Tay14)_BG. ={\0
_(* 78 — 78
(1-2) * dz
ar
= F d@ { on putting «=sin’6|
= 7.

Hence the result.

ie oo xm-1 o oo xa-1
(viii) B(m, n=|’rs i G@+x)e
[m >On >]

$4)o(08)
8°21 (A). Standard Integrals.

(1) \rsin’@ costa do= ———

a( = ate) Ngo

rs 3 » 2n\hd da
Left side=|" (sin?9)*” (1 — sin7@)**

nafsttta a a
{ on putting «=sin76 J
=3B (7? e si‘)= Right side by (v).
[ Compare § 6°10B }
 INTEGRATION DY SUCCESSIVE REDUCTION 185

r (Pz
lx 2
(2) |sin? de=| = cos’9@ dg=-—- ———-
: aor (x2
2

The proof is similar to (1) [ Compare § 6°10A ]

(3) i e-** dx=4 Jz.

gaat :
Left side = |; e* dz { on putting 27 =z |

= 4 T(4) by (B)=4 2 by (vii).

[ Compare Art. 7°38]

8°22. INustrative Examples.

Ex. 1. Obtain a reduction formula for )tants dz and hence or

otherwise find (i) \tan®ax dx (+2) tan°a dz.

its
From § 8°4 formula (1), 1,=\tan"e dx= ey PTE

(i) .'. 1,=\tan‘s dz=} tantaz—T,

=%$tan’z—I, where 7-4 tan a d.c=log sec a.

=f tante —$ tan?2 +log ses 2.

(ii) I,=} tan°’«—TI, 3 I,=4 tan*z—T,
a
I,= —-TI, where I, =\d==o

_tan’s tan*z, tan2

fers 3 fy
[ Campare § 8°4, Note 1 in these two cases. ]
186 INTEGRAL CALCULUS

Ex. 2. Obtain a reduction formula for |secs dz.

Hence find = (4) \sec®s dz (14) \sec'# da.

From § 8°5, I,= \sec" Sh igegegOO n-1

EETAN Be
nm-1

4
(i) .". 1,=\ soos dy = 88/2 OND 4S q,

I, = 80 fan a Tat 1,={ sec*2 dz=tan x.

_sec‘a tang, 4 sec? tan, 2.4

I,= 5 + 5° ge +3 tan a.

5
(ii) Also Z;= \ sec’x dg = *°°.% ya v4 ? da
G 6
sec: *x tan
tan 2~ 8e0 tan md
I,=- 4. 34 isi3 I,= ~~ “+ gifs ;

=| sec ¢ da=log (sec w+ tan 2).

5ec* “ar tan 3 5 _See*s tan & 3.5 sec & tan x
fom 6 6° 4 4.6. 2
1.3.5
+e 16 log (sec z+tan 2).

oo
Ex. 3. Obtain a reduction formula for \; e~** cos" dx (a > 0)

and hence find the value of \ e-*” cos*ax dz.

From § 8'6, roplacing a by —a,

oo
In= ‘ e7~** cos"a da

a) en
1-9
cos*"*x (—a cos e-+n sin
n 2) 9 .2(n—1) I.
+a? 0 n*?+a?

5 [ Lt e-**-»0 fora > J

z->00

is the reqd. reduction formula.

 INTEGRATION BY SUCCESSIVE REDUCTION 187

4 , 5.4 4 420
Ts spetpygel= ai 41 Ts;

4 3.2 4.6
Ta gry gat gay gets My5t
og73
are.eae oe : _ 108|
Leap tig? + Jo= 3465
dw
Ex. 4. Obtain a reduction formula for \ a
(2? +a7)?

dv
Hence find the value of \ as
(x? +a?)™

Let 1,=| eZ » Integrating by parts,

(2? +a")?

a0 i+ Py
12a de
(7? +a")? (x7+a")*
ty stn”2 +a? i=
(z? +a%)F (2?
+ a)*

a al atnly — na? Faye

(x? +a?)*
Changing 7 to m —2 on both sides,

Tye9= yg + (0-2) Ina (0-9) 4?Tn

(x? +a") 7

ies
n
1
a e
as
(n—2)a?- o?4a”) 3 + E oe u—3
2)? ae2

This result can be obtained from § 8°7, by substituting — 5in place

of n and changing the definition of In.

=\-- - -ss-—.
1 -
x +.
4 .

" (a? +02)" 5a” a 5a”

1 oC a@
I,= I t=
~ 8a# (x?+a? i ta a*
cetant
1 x 4 a 4.2: 4 2
a te I,= aay eH “4
5a? (23 +42)? Jas (2? +a?) F 3.5a* (2?
(x? +02)?
188 INTEGRAL CALCULUS

Ex. 5. With the help of a reduction formula, find the value of

(=:5 ae
cos*a
From § 816, we get the general form of the reduction formula as

n mtlymM = +9

as a ne Im, n-3 [n1]

Ins 0 3 50 = dao

1 sin’r 1 1lsin®’z 3 ;
amas ban 5 Tost Tora = 3 eosin g Te}
_sin®a ‘
T5, o> Bene 22 I, o; Also TI,, o=| sin®g dz

om sin‘rcos2
: ye4sin’xcosa
CORN ae4 2 ¢ ee
5 5 3 aa 8
[ From § 83(2) ]
Isin’a 1 sin®a, 1 sin®s
1 .
51 6 5 cos8s 15 cos*e 5 cosZz
1 4 sin Ir cos7m, 4 2
+ ,-sin’s cosat+ .- 3 ——“#t g* 9° C08 a.

Ex. 6. From the reduction formula for \cos" cos nx da obtain

\cos*z cos 5a dx.

From § 8°18 (i), Zn: =| cos™z cos nx dx

-c08"e Sin me, _m -Im- —

m+n men tt Bek

Here, m=3, 2=5;

cos*a sin 5a 8
". Da, »=\ cos*a cos 5a da= 8 +3 Toya

cos*z sin4 2 cos x sin37

In ,= 6 4
telisi Tus= a © = ZToros

Io; =| cos Ix dig= S1028,

”. Ty, someon 5bz , COE

os’° si foe
Bein 4 Os oe
os 2 sin in Be,
82. 4 sin
Be 2
 INTEGRATION BY SUCCESSIVE REDUCTION 189

Ex. 7. With the help of the different reduction formule for

\2™ (a+ be")? dz, find the value of

(i; {a*(a+bx)*
‘ ety
de. (8a gFigsys
2
A
(i) Hore, m=38, 1=2, p=4, and since 7)=4 is positive,
.’. (i) can be connected with § 8'20 (1) or (2).
Using (1),

Tay as eee_BB Ts
Tos oo aoe feb808 Tas
Tieaigee Oe daigen

7
ae
ee
Jay as o~| e+ dr= 12

I _ 2 (at+br?)* ba (a+bx?)®,b7x° (a+a2 ba)?

5".
- ty 994 ap 5 = caret oh K-
bee? (a+ ba:?) bt oo
10 5 12

Using § 8°20(2) the result can be obtained in a different form.

(ii) For this, the suitable formuls are § 8°20 (3) or (4).
Using (3), replacing p by — 4,

- 1
T5591 +" 2a(— 3) (a+ b22)>* 7
ot ,2(-8)4+3+1
2a(— 3) Ls, ars

1 a 1? ;
“6a (a-+ba*)*
3a 7% 2 «3
1 nat a* 1... 2(—2)+3+1 I
oe Qa(—2) (a+ ba?)? 2a(— 2) mane
a*

* dalatbn*)*
a* 1 a
os Day 2 ‘6a (a+bz*)* * Toa" (a+ baz*
)?”
190 INTEGRAL CALCULUS

Ex. 8. Find the reduction formula for \(ae ee (1 3 —1),

; 2 G a 2ie+5)*"
\" dx
and hence obtain

x” dx
Let Taw a |arabe roa"
Consi ae 9 dy “A
nsider Ins, 2= (a+ 2ba-+ ow?) Integrating by parts,

I es pnt 4 7 (_a@™—*(2ca + 2h) daz

moar nm (m—1)(a+2ba+cx?)" © —-1 ) (a+ Bhat cx?)"*?

werd, be ee, a” {a| ev dy -

(mm —1)(at+2br-+oxr?)" m—-1 YY (a+ 2bn+ cx?)rtt

atid
so((at abet em)"}
Changing n to (1:—1) on both sides,

seas oy 8 nat, F
Tm-ayai ~ (m—1)(a+-
2ba + ex?)"= Tak [ 2e Tm n+ 2b Immry a]

Dividing and transposing,

x tte L
Lin n=
Qe(n — 1)(a + 2ba+ cx*)"~*

m—1
+ oef—iy er mit
i
Term oe (DD

9 *da r~*(a+ Iha+ cx?)

| cite (a+ 2ba + cx?)" da
pene
=a Jinaai ut2b dias wate Tims ne

Substituting and simplifying,

pe Tg mn)
mn e.(Qn — m—1)(a+ 2bat cxe?)"-* c(2n—m—1) °"""'*
a(m—1)|
e(22—m-—1) Tm-a m- res Ae
Hither of (1) or (2), may be regarded as a reduction formula.
 INTEGRATION BY SUCCESSIVE REDUCTION 191

Hence, using (2), (a=5, b= —2, c=1, here ),

Ts -[- 4.(a:?ate ], a Ty FL 3

Ty om [-gaze] ytYY Te ot 5 Tors

Ly om [-aye caeselot Jo
To, |) es -\; _
da
0 (w?- 40+5)* Jo 4(~ —2)?+1}*

= \ Pane. [ Putting z=2—2 ]

= te tan~!2 [ Using § 8°9 successively ]=A (say).

Then, I,,4= = gaat en

I. 22sea

=F
ttetan~*2.

Ex.9. If un =F we” sin w dx(n>QO), prove that

tint n(n —1) tn-g = n(hr)"*!.

Integrating by parts,
7, vT

in =[—2"-c08 x ott \; a"-' cos & da

T T

=n{[ar sin 2] (-2) \e 2°"? sin x des}

= n(fn)"~* —n(n— 1) an- a»

we Unt n(n —1) Un-g=n(hr)*"?.
192 INTEGRAL CALCULUS
. = , : 3
ir sin (2n—1)2dz, Va= |e"(2.72) dz, n being
Ex. 10, Jf 5.= 0 sin 2 0 \ sina
an integer, show that
Sat i= S: = dr, Vat er Va= Satis

Obtain the value of Vn.

Ww “ : _et =

Here, Sur.-Sa=\3 sin (2n+1) a —sin (Qn—1) @ de

0 B1n &
wv wv
Q.cos Q7.s8in
=\3 th AIM dpm |® cosana de
0 sin x 0

=. [ee]? -O for all integral values of 2.

Sav,
= Sn= Snore =§,.
wT T
% sinz x Tv
Now, s,=| dz= F dz = 2"
Oo sing

Sat, = Sa=47.

. _( 8 sin*(n+1)a—sin2nz
Also, Vue. vw=\? sin 2g dz

(?sin (9%+1)2.sinx
= 0 ginee
2a

«\3
¥ SUsi (201+
Gs $ ett 1)
UE eGo
0 sill &

Va — Va-1 =Sa=4n, Va-1— Va-_= 47," V.-V,=4r.

adding, Va—-V,=(n—1) :.
Tt

Since, Y,= \; dx=a47, .. Vatdnm.

Ex, 11. Show that

(3) NG) =48 Jr ;

(i) PANE) =—2y xs

(iii) ie sin*8 cos*8 ao=\" sin®@ cos‘) dd
=ayn.
 INTEGRATION BY SUCCESSIVE REDUCTION 198

(i) D() =C(8+ 1) = §r(8) C8 Matl=nl(n) Art. 8'21(iii) ]

= §0(3+1)=£.4.0(8)=6.2.0(§+ 1) =$.2.30(3)
= 3S afer, [ By Art. 821(vii) J

(ii) Left side=r(g)P(1—})= ae [ By Art 821(vi)] = at

(iii) By Art. 8°21{A)(1),
First Integral= a p Joh(3)_3.3.4 ae 3 ale_ =Sr.
By Art. 6°8(iv), Second Integral= First Integral.

Ex.12. Show that

Pa 3)=D On) Wa
22°D(n+1)°
rth =0 (2773) = as ‘41)

==2% — 1), ( -*) ( By Art. 8:21(2i4) J

2 2
_an—-1_
ae, r( fan—-3
: +1)
ae Bg
2 2 2
—2u—-1 In—-3B An—H Cae va)
2 2 2 oe 2° 2

[ By repeated application of the result

of the above Article. ]
_(2n os Die
PY ee
ae bcs 5) 2 5.3.
BBL WQ
Now, multiply numerator and denominator of (1) by
Qn(2n — 2)(2n—
4) --+ 4.2
Qn(Q1— 1)(Qre — 2)(Qx — 3) «+--+ 5.4.3.2.1 de
C(n+4)=
27.2.n. a(n — 1).2(n — 2)-++-+-2.9.9,1

~ 972" n(n
— I) —2)eee 21
_U(2n+1) Jr.
“927 (n+ 1)
18
194 INTEGRAL CALCULUS

Note 1. The above result can be written in the form

P(g) 0 (2n)= 27" 'p (a)P(n+ 3).
It is an important result often used in Higher Mathomatics.

Note 2. The right side of (1) can be writton as (3), T°(3) where the
notation (a)n denotes a(a+1)(a+ 2):+-(a+2—1).
I'(n +3) = (4). 0(4).
Ex. 13. Show that
Bim, 2) BOntn, 0 = Bn, 2) Bint], mw).

tt etda ae Llam) D(n) 2 (m+n) PL) _ POC(n) F(x)

Left ade aa) D(l+oat-n) UV (b-+ -k 2)
Dane . : P(N) (2).
Similarly, right side: Sai a)

Ifence the result.

Ex. 14. Evaluate

\"attk~lp_ yyBth-! ay

and jind vs value when a=f =%.

Put w=ly, .. dx=tidy; when x=0, y=0; x=t, y=1.

ra|)1 reser= Wyethbas Mey yyB+E-T = ay

= petht2k-1, (a+ k) (8+ ky.

U'(a
+ 8+ 2k)
When a=f=4,

T=t?* Ek +3) P(b+3)

C(2k+1)

== pak Ea ate { By Ex 12 and Note (2) above J

[ By Ex. 12 and the Note (2) of Art. 8°22 |

se pak ¥ Ger a
Q°*% }
 INTEGRATION BY SUCCESSIVE REDUCTION 195

EXAMPLES VIII

1. Obtain a reduction formula for fae dz, (n¥ —1)

and hence find fa*e~* de.
Ce

2. Show that fae dr =". (a°a* - 3a2a? + 6ax- 6).

a
3. Find the reduction formula for
(i) feot"x dx. (ii) feosec"# da.
4. If I,=fsinh"0 dé, then show that
nJIn=sinh” *6 cosh 0-(2%—- 1)Jn-2-
5. Obtain the reduction formula for
(i) ftanh”e de. (ii) fsech"@ dd.
6. Show that if Jn= fe” sin"be dz, then
asin hn — nb cos ba: ff gin} + nln,- 1)
Ju = a" +27b? a ree a? + 7b? Iu-s
7 If In=JSe” cos br dw and Ju= fa” sin ba dz, then
show that
(i) bln =a” sin br — nJn—1.
(ii) bJn= — 2” cos ba +nIn- 1.
(ij) 672, =a"
1(be sin br + cos bx) — n(n —-1)In—2-
(iv) b°J, =a" 4(n sin ba — br cos bx) — n(n —1)Jn—a.
8. Find the values of the integrals :

(i) j(a2? — 62+ 7)° da. (ii) Wego e

bat 1 9 da
(iii) |Gar” (iv) \-Tee— On +9
9. Show that
es 24 2y7
(0,24 218 7m = tla al) na
(a + 2°) de nmt+1 tay ,
find also J.
196 INTEGRAL CALCULUS

10. If In=JS(l+a?)"e™ dx,(n>1), deduce that

Ann — -1) 4 4 (2 —1) I
In - In-1
a” a® rn
= 1 porte
; ayn — ame e"*(1 +.2?)""?,

11. Show that if wn

= fx” i —g” da, then
8

m-1/ 2 2\Z
x” *(a =e w—1
Un = — : ca =
* ntQ nt+2% “tin
12. Find the reduction formula for
x” dp
ti) ie a" (ii) \sc ae
18. It In=JSa” J/a-a dex, prove that
8

(Qn + 3)fn = 2anIn-, — 2a%a — x)*.

a 3 : S34),

Hence, evaluate 0” Jan- x? dx.

a” dr
14. If un | > show that
us” + bm +e
(n + L)atn+1 + $(2n + bun + ncun1= 2" Jan? +br +c.
15. If I,=f(sin «+cos 2)” da, then
nIy= —(sin « +cos x)"~?.cos Qa + 2(n—-1)In—o.-
16. Show that
de _In-3
@) In= i: (i+ 2%" 7 on 2 In-1-
(;i)
(- dx =e 3.0.7, ge :
= (1+z7)® 2.4.6.8 2
z z
17. Show that if J; -|;cos"a dx and Jn -|'sin” dz,

Gi) In= Tne (ii) It In-a(n > 2).

 INTEGRATION BY SUCCESSIVE REDUCTION 197

18. With a suitable substitution, using the previous

example, find the values of

(i) (72>
Jing? it ii) i(T+oy
( 2 being a positive integer. )
1
19. Prove that tia=|2" tan ‘2 da, then

= 5a -1 ;
(x + Leen + (x = Ling

+1
20. If n>2 and l,= [: -a?) cos mx dz,

then m7 Jn = 2n(Qn -1)In_1 — 4nlm — 1)In-2.

a
21. If Un -|'6 sin"@ d@ and n> 1, prove that

- n—-1
L
Un = On-g t
%

22. (i) Obtain a reduction formula for |(i+ eee

x ar _, *
ba
and (ii) find i (1 + 2)” J1 +? [ Put x=tan 0

23. If B(n)= |" “"7"~* log « dx, show that

b(n + 2) — (Qn + L)d(n + 1) + 27 h(n) = 0.

z
24, If In={" tan”6 d@, prove that

Tn + Tas) =],

1 1% |
25. Show that \,2*”*(log x)" da= ( ae
198 INTEGRAL CALCULUS

1
26. Show that if Bm, n= {,a" (1 —2)""* da, then

= *_(m-1)!
(n- 1)!
Bryn= Bry m= mani)

{ m and n being integers, each > 1 ).

27. If m, 7 are positive integers, then
b ie
Inn = f (2 ~ a)"(b ca ax)" dz = tbe : Tin, n-1.

_m 1 2 1@ = ar.
Hence, prove Jm, n= (m + nt 1)!

28. Find the values of

Tv T
z x 3 4
(i) ifsin®s cos*x dz. (ii) {.sin? cos*r da.

sa cos 5 7 . de,
(iii) |ane ax. (iv) | B 7
sin?s cos?”
29. If Im, n= JScos’’s sin"2 dz, show that
(m + nm +m- Im, n

s” 2 sin” 72
= {(n — 1) sin?” — (m— 1) cos*r} co
or (m = Xn a Dina; n—-2-

30. Obtain a reduction formula for

Im, n= [cos sin nx dx, and deduce the value of
wv

i cos’2 sin 3a dz.

‘$31. If In, n=JSain™x cos nx dz, show that

Lop, og=
My %
G08 % C08 Ne+n sin SID NT | m-14
m2 ee mm?

m(m — 1)
eer | Limn-2) ne
nm — Mm
 INTEGRATION BY SUCCESSIVE REDUCTION 199

7
z
32. If Im, n -{' gin” cos na da and
wv
5
Jin 0 -|'sin” sin nv dz, show that

(m+ n)Im, o= sin 4nx— mtd m—a, 2-1 (m > 1).

3
33. If f(m, n= {: cosa cos na dx, show that

f(m, n) oa f(m—-1, »-1)= mona —1)f(m— 2, n)

mn?
— 71
aN
- = f(m—-1,
(m—1, w+
7+1),

and hence show that f(a, m)= git

34. Obtain a reduction formula for | = a

(a + sin 2)
35. Find the values of
(7 dz, a d.
() |sGtcaccea. “W fa $e sina)? (eS).
36. Using the integral {x(a +bx7)” da, find the values of
7 5

(i) fora +7)? de. (ii) | od dx

(1 + Qa*)
{ Use § 8'20(5)J [ Use § 8°20(4) J]

(iii) {,pee [ Use § 8'20(6) ]

ac* /1—2x? :
37. Find the reduction formula for fz™ /Qax—- a? da.
Bea oie
Hence, show that i oe"mm J/2ax-a77 2 dp
m+
ae,
dr=x
(9m+9)+1)!
Sema,
2 (m 1m |
200 INTEGRAL CALCULUS

oo

88. If In= |. ve * cos x dx and

oa

Ina xe” sin x dz,

then prove that (m being an integer > 1)

(i) Im = $m(Im-1 — Jm- 1). (ii) JIm= $m(Tm- 1t+dm- 1).

(iii) Im a mIm- L + 4m(m oe Linas =0.

gn
39. Show that ik sin 2nx cot x dx= tn.

40. (i) If un = {cos »@ cosec 6 dé, then show that

tin — Une 2 cos(nm— 1)8,

nm-1
(ii) Tt Pa=| sin (2n- z 1) ie Qa= | 2 ME ay
sin # sin*s
show that (Pn. — Pn)=sin 2nz
and Qn+17 Qn = Pasi.

41.Prove that if
In= ™ 1-— cos nx dx, where
~~.“ 1s. a positi
Ste ve integer
0 l-cos2
or zero, then Inza t+ dn = 2 n+1-
T

2 gin? n@ mT
Hence, prove that {; sin2@ dé = 9
eS
42. (i) Prove that | eu do=0, or, x according as
0 sin 0
m is an even or odd positive integer.
(ii) By means of a reduction formula or otherwise,
prove that
™ sin” n0 aghe23f
--—y~ d0=nx, n being a positive integer.
0 sin’é
 INTEGRATION BY SUCCESSIVE REDUCTION 201

43. Show that if » is a positive integer, then

|20 cos3 (nm—
pat
1)a ae— cos nx demas
0 l—cos &

and deduce that \"(2 nz)" dx = 2nn.

gin $x

7
44. If Inn =|. cos’’x gin na dz, show that

1 a eo gu
Im, mgmt [a+4,
Bi 3 ae 92S eE x

45. Show that i:e"* gin"a dx

nn — 1)n _ Y)- “3.2 1

~ (a? + 02 )fa? + (0— 2)7}--(a? + 3°) a7? +1
if 2 is odd ;

nln —- In - Q)-* WANS 5. Dee

~ fa? + n*Ha? + (n—2)"}---(a? +27) a
if #2 is even.

T
F
46. If = [;(a cos 0+0 sin 6)” 0, then

nln = ab (a? + b"—*) + (mn — 1a? +?) Inne.

47. It I,=JS(a cos?xt+ 2h sin 7 cos r+b sin?2)” da,

prove that
A(n + 1Xab— h*) Inga — HQn+ a+b) Inga +4nIn
Ieos" a —sin?x)+(b—a) sin ¢ cos
~ “(a cos*z + 2h sin # cos +b sin ap)rrn
{ Apply the alternative method of § 8°19 }
202 INTEGRAL CALCULUS

48. Show that

. {F P(1 — \d do = OPtatsilythP +1I(¢+1
TANG + )1),

[ Put 1+2=2y ]

cae [2 Tm
oie +
fF1)Ase(n+1)
(ii) (e(a — a)'"(b — x)” dafs =(h-a)
— 4 lh — »n\ — 7,\mtrnt1
Contant) & 4,

[m>-1,n>-1]
[ Put c-a=(b—-a)y)

49. Show that

oo

\; ez? af? de =41(25 4). [a >-1]

( Put 2?=y.)

50. Show that

oo oo

e~** 97 drx ; e~*' dy= 7% .

0 8/2
[ Putat=2]

561. Show that

Bim, n) Bon +n, ) = Bln, 1) Bint t, m)
= Bl, m) Bl +m, 2).

52. Show that

T($) TB) T'($) = Fen".
{ Combine Ist and last factors, 2nd and last but one, ele. and apply
formula (vi), § 821. ]

53. Show that

1
| _ de {= [ Put 2° =z]
°(1- 2°)
 INTEGUATION BY SUCCESSIVE REDUCTION 208

54. Show that the sum of the series

1 1 , m(mt+1) 1
Eeepas ara? 91 nwn+3

melon + 1)(02 +2), 1 i

. 3! mtaA i aoe
_ 1% +1)T0 — m)
= Ww nm =>-~landm < 1.
I(n-—m +2) here nd
1
[R.S.=DBort+1, t-m)=" x'(1—a)-” de ete.|

55. Show that

br sin®”"" "6 cos*"”'0 19=}- Vm) 1(n)
o (a sin®@+b cos?6)"*” ee ah” Ton + n)
[ Apply -irt. 821 (VITI) |

ANSWERS

-ar
T,=—° , [x'at+4n%a' + 12070? +24n0+ 24).
: _ cot ta sey COE cosec””*.r
3. (i) La= ae n2—1 Toe (ii) nu—1 Tae op
1 -

; Se sech™~7@ tanh @ . 24-2

5, (i) In = os ae +Iyn-. (ii) In = “a—-1 Fe ea Linas

8. (i) (e—3) ("=ek - >, (ot 6247) 42005 (2? Ge 7)3

_ 20,16.12 nya g,20:16.12.8 ¢ 4 _ Serra
179.75 Set) + ogg e-8et+D-"11 9753
(ii) 6(2? 2
=" +1)* + B4(n? oe+1)? + 6x? +
5 tant,
eit 16
Qn+1 Qv+1 4 I+1
(iii) 6(z?
iatpk ay? ste or-+1) F398 aa wa

(iv) = aa Va?—22¢+2—4% sinh-*(z—1).

204 INTEGRAL CALCULUS

9. ix (a? +22)? + 80%x(a? +02) +9a! log (v-+ Ja?-+2?).

12. (i) nIn= —2"~' an— a? +(2n-—1) alg-y.
ze _ /x2—1 m—2 Tr a®
(ii) eG tat al Teas 18. 256

-. w—-Ln-38 Ds 2
18, (i) ap ll cacee 3 if 7 is odd.

aeam er if n is even
am 2-2 2 2 ee
.-, 27-3 An—5 lr.
(ii) On —-2Ian—a aa? ed

and 9’ if n=1.
7 1 lee

1 x 2 —2
22. (2) Inga ee? ST nt and
(ii) an—-22n—4 ae
Qn-1 A@n-3 3

. OW 1 8 wit cos'z , 4 cos’, 8 sinx

28. (1) go96° (i) 45° (iii) —Scinset 3 sina? (3
=

(iv) 2[ 3 tan* r+2 tant an--4 cot! xz).

3

_ —GCOR™ECOS NT | mh 1,
80. Joma= m+n men imag
84. 7 a_p2y )In=
(n—-1)(a?-b pe Fh2 COS
ie zen t (an = 3)a In-, —
afi (1-2)
oe Ta-a-

35. (i) 5 - (2+ c0s?a) cosec*a.

y) 2, cose 4 2 ye {tan gate),

(ii) 1l—e? 1l+e sinz ( ~ 3 san { /1-e?

-(1+07)°
36. (i) 911.13"
Fog ans
992* — 3627+ 8 }|-

(ii) 4(1+22°)* (22-1). (iii) 2 V3.

m-1 —_ »2)t
87. Iam” - (2a2 —2)" 4 (2m+ 1a |e
m2 net 2
 CHAPTER IX

AREAS OF PLANE CURVES

[ Quadrature™ }

9°1. Areas in Cartesian Co-ordinates.

Suppose we want to determine the area A, bounded by
the curve y=/(r), the a-axis, and two fixed ordinates «=a
and x=. The function f(x), is supposed to be single-valued,
finite and continuous in the interval] (a, b).

Consider the variable arca QONP=A say, bounded by

the curve y=f/(x), the a-axis, the fixed ordinate Q/; where
OL =a, and a variable ordinate PN where ON=a. Clearly,

"The process of finding the area, bounded by any defined contour

line is called Quadrature, the term meaning ‘the investigation of tho
size of a square which shall have tho same area as that of the region
under consideration’.
206 INTEGRAL CALCULUS

A has a definite value for each value of 2 and is thus

a function of x When 2 is increased by an amount 4zr
(=NN’), A assumes an increment 4A=the area PNN’P’.
Now, if f(z1) and f(a,_) be the greatest and the least ordi-
nates in the interval Az,

such that,7<a7,<atda,raiae, <atdaz,

clearly the area AA lies betwecn the inscribed and circum-

scribed rectangles FIN’ and I°N’,

ie., (te) du << AA < f(xy) Ao.

AA
Ae

Now, as Az approaches zero, by the continuity of the

function f(z) at v, f(r.) and f(re) both approach f(r), and
also ae tends to ue Hence, as the relation (i) is always
Ax ua
true, we get in the limit

aA
de Tt.
by definition, 4=f f(z) dx+C=F(x)+C where C
is an arbitrary constant, and F(x) an indefinite integral of
f(z). Now, when z=a, PN coincides with QL, and the
area. becomes zero. Also, when x=), the area A becomes
the required area A,.

O= F(a)+C and A, =F(b)+C.

b
A, = F(b)- F(a) = ("f(x) dx.
 AREAS OF PLANE CURVES 207

The definite integral

b b
| f(x) dx, ie., | y ax
az a

therefore represents the area bounded by the curve y=f(a),

the x-axis, and the two fixed ordinales cx =a and #=)h.

Note. An alternativo method of proof of the abovo result, depend-

ing on the definition of a definite integral as a summation, has been
given in Art. 6°3.

Cor. 1. In the same way, it can be shown that the area bounded
by any curve, tivo giren abscissa (y=c, y=), and the y-axis ts
"a
\ x dy.
c

Cor. 2. If the axes be oblique, w being the angle between them,

the corresponding formulm for the areas would be

d
sin w \ y dx and sinw | x dy respectively.
a c

Illustrative Examples.

Ex. 1. Find the areca of the quadrant of the ellipse nates 1

between the major and manor axes.

B P
208 INTEGRAL CALCULUS

Clearly the area being bounded by the ourve, the a-axis and the
ordinates z=0 and z=a, the required area
-— = y dx

wi% oO pea
| . a/a?—x? da,
[[e +iir for the curve |

-2\3 a cos 0.a cos 6 dé ( putting =a sin 6)

im

ahs (14 cos 26) a0 =% fgseas

Cor.1. The area of the whole ellipse is clearly four times the
above, 4.¢., =7ab.

Cor. 2. Putting Lb=a and proceeding exactly as beforc, the area

of a quadrant of the circle, r?7+y?=a7, is $77, and the area of the
whole circle=ra’.

Ex. 2. Delermine the area bounded by the parabola y* =dax and

any double ordinate of tf, say r=2,.

The area OPN is bounded by the curve y?=4az, the z-axis, and
the two ordinates 2=0 and 7=2,.
 AREAS OF PLANE CURVES 209
x oe ‘.
area opy=\"" ydo=\7 /4an dx

[The positive value of y is taken since we are considering the

positive side of the y-axis ]

= Jia [ae]
= J/faae,'=3a,y,

( whero y,
= PN= 4/4az, ).

Tho parabola being symmetrical about the z-axis, the requirod

area POQ,
=2. 90,9.= $0.4,
=4 the arca of the rectangle contained by PQ and ON,
a.¢., =4% the area of the circumscribed rectangle.

Cor. The area bounded by the parabola and its latus rectum= $a?.
Ex. 3. Find the whole area of the cycloid xw=a(6+sin 8),
y=a(lL—cos 0), bounded by its base.

The area of half the cycloid, viz., area AOC, is evidently bounded
by the curve, the y-axis and the abscisse y=0 and y=2a. Hence,
this area is given by
2

_(t ‘ ‘ *.° y=a(1—cos 6)

-{" a (@+sin 6).a sin
@ dé [ z= al0-+sin 6)

14
 210 INTEGRAL CALCULUS

=a*|- 6 cos 0+sin 6+39(6 —4 sin 26)

|"= tra”.

Hence, the whole area of the cycloid is 37a’.

Note. It should be noted here that if AM be drawn perpendicular

from Aon OX, the expression i" 1) dx represents the arca OAM, and
not the area OAC.

Ex. 4. Find ihe area of the loop of the curve

cy?+ (2+a)? (2+ 2a)=0.

Here let us first of all trace the curve. Tho equation can be put
in the form y?= — tay’ +24), We notico that y=0 at the points

Band A where 7=—a and z= —2a, and y> +0 when z->0. For
positive values of x, as also for negative values of x lcss than —d2a,
y? is negative and so y is imaginary. There is thus no part of the
curye beyond O to the right, or beyond A (z= ~2a) to the left. From
A to B, for each value of x, y has two equal and opposite finite values
and a loop is thus formed within this range, symmetrical about the
g-axis. From 8 to O, eac'. value of 2 gives two equal and opposite
values of y which gradually increase in magnitude to oo as g& appro-
aches 0. The curve therefore is as shown in the figure.
 AREAS OF PLANE CURVES 211

The required area of the loop now

=2.area APB

=2. ° janes \. a)_(e+a)*(e+2a) g,

-2a' ~2a z
and substituting 2 for 2+ 2a, this reduces to

afi(a 4)AV int as

¢ — * - 2

> x sin 36 . 0 6
=al? @ cos oe 40 2a 5in _ cos , dé

[putting = 2a sin? 4

ts

=2a"\? cos 6 (1—cos 6) d@=2a? (1- *)

=a? (4-7).

9°2. Area between two given curves and two given

ordinates.

Let the area required be bounded by two given curves

y=fx(z) and y=fa(z) and two given ordinates x=a and
x=b, indicated by 91Q92P2P1Q,: in the above figure, where
OM=a and ON=0.
 212 INTEGRAL CALCULUS.

Clearly,
area Q1QeP2P191=area PysMNP, — area Qi1MNQ,

=" Fle) do- |”fale) ae

= ’{fs(x) — fa(x)} de
b
-| (y1— Yo) dx
a

where y, and ye denote the ordinates of the two curves

P,P. and Q1Q. corresponding to the same abscissa x.

Illustrative Examples.
Ex.1. Find the area above the a-axis, included between the para-
bola y?=ax and the circle x? +4? = 2ax.
vl

‘The abscissew of the common points of the curves y?=ag and

o3+y%=Iax are given by «*+ax=2az, t.e., 2=0 and z=a.
We are thus to find out the area between the curves and the ordi-
nates =O and 2=a above the a-axis (i.¢., for positive values only of
the ordinates).
 AREAS OF PLANE CURVES 213

Tho required area is therefore

\° (vy. —Ya) da [ where y,? =2ax—27 and y,?=az ]

=\" ( /2ae—a*— Jan) do.

Now, putting 2= 2a sin7@,
T

\;/2an— x? du=\*20 sin 0 cos @.4a sin 6 cos @ dé@

—p72 = es —,21Aa— sin 407Vif

z
a \ (1—cos 40) d@=a [e 4 iF_ 740:12

« Jag da~ Jal2at]t=

Also, \\Jax da= Jal 31 = 3 2a:

Hence, the required area is

woo 2a ae _ 3
ge gh Oe Nas
Ex. 2. Find by integration, the area of the cllipse
az? + 2hay + by? =1. [ C. P. 1926 ]
Y

The equation can be put in the form

by? + Bhay+ (az? — 1)=0.
 214 INTEGRAL CALCULUS

If ¥,, ¥, bo the values of y corresponding to any values of 2,

we have

Yi-Yo= : J ha? — b(az®— 1) = ; /b—(ab—h?)zx?;

ab—h? being positive here, since the conic is an ellipse.

The extreme values of x, where the ordinates touch the ollipse, are
given by

Yi —4,=0, 410r, c= ye e
ab—h?

The required area can be treated as boundod by two curves, MP,D,

LPM respectively, both satisfying the given equation, but one having
a Singlo value y, for y corresponding to any value of xz, and the other
also having a single value ¥, for the same value of zx.

Hence, the area required

__b
9 ab~h?
4 Ye) d= 4 i b-(ab-h?)x? dz
Sie _6
a pea ae ere

and putting ./ab—h? x= No sin 6, this becomes

3

Se ale
2 ede Jen hi?
Note. The area of tho above ellipse can also be obtained as
follows:

Assuming the cquation of the ee rere to its major and

minor axes as axes of co ordinates to be © +4,,=1, by the theory of
7

invariants as given in Conic Sections, we know that—“5

a?B2 mwab— he

Now (from Ex. 1, Cor.. Art. 9°1) the area of the ellipse is

ras =-- sae

alab—h?
 AREAS OF PLANE CURVES 215

_— m\3
Ex. 3. Find the area between the curve yale ae and the

asymptote.

To trace the curve, wo notice that y is ‘imaginary for values of

x greater than a or less than —a. At z=a, y=0, and for ato —a,
for each value of a, y has two equal and opposite values, tending
to +co as @ approaches —a. At z=a, the g-axis touches both the
branches. The figure is therefore as shown above, symmetrical about
the z-axis
The’ required area between the curve and its asymptote is therefore

Stach VR a
and substituting 2 for a+ this reduces to
th feet dz

cos -4a sin 6 cos 9 dé

[ where 2= 2a sin*6 J

= 16a? \*"cos*@ dé=16a7 ae

12 Sra’.
216 INTEGRAL CALCULUS

9°3. Areas in Polar co-ordinates.

Let r=f(0) be a curve APB, where f(6) is supposed to be

a finite, continuous and single-valued function in the interval
a<@< 8. The area bounded by the curve, and the radiz
vectors =a and 6=8 is given by the definite integral

+I. r2d6, ie, i("{1(6)} do.

a a

Let A denote the area POA, bounded by the curve, the

given radius vector OA, 1.e., 0=a, and the variable radius
vector OP at vectorial angle @,a<@< 8. Then for each
value of 6, A has a definite value and so A is a function of 6.
If Q be the neighbouring point r+ Ar, 9+A0 on the curve,
we have

4A = the infinitesimal change in A due to a change AQ in 6

=the elementary area POQ

and this clearly lies between the circular sectorial areas

OPN and OQM, where PN and QM are ares of circles
with centre O.
 AREAS OF PLANE CURVES 21

Thus, $7740 < AA < 4(r+4r)? 48,

ie, HAO < 42 < 4ipo a0).

Now, proceeding to the limit, and remembering that
f(6) being continuous, f(6 + 40) > f(6) as Ad > 0, we get

., br?.
oo7B OH, ie
Thus, A=% fr? d0+C=F(8)+C say.
Now, taking P coincident with A and B respectively and
denoting the required area AOB by Ax, we get
O= F(a)+C and A, =F(8)+C,

whence A, = F(f)— F(a)=3 8

|r?2 do.
a

Note 1. The curve APB is here assumed as concave towards O. ,

A similar proof with corresponding modifications holds even if the
curve be convex, or partly concave and partly convex or wavy, in fact
of any form.

Note 2. As in the caso of area in Cartesian co-ordinates, the above

result can also be deduced directly from the definition of a definite
integral as % summation. [Sec Appendix ]

Cor. The area bounded by the two curves r,=f, (0) and r.=fa (8)
and wo given radii vectors dé=a and @=8 is

2{? (r,2—71,7) dé.

2 Ja

Illustrative Examples.
Ex. 1. Find:the area bounded by the cardioide r=a(1—cos 6).
The curve is symmetrical about tho initial lino, since replacing
@ by —6, r does not alter. Beginning from @=0 and gradually
218 INTEGRAL CALCULUS

increasing 6 to w, the corresponding values of 7 are noticed, and the

curve is easily traced as below.
P

Now, the required area is evidently, from the above article,

wT T
2.3 \; r? dd=a? (° (1—cos 6)? d@=a?.89r=82g?,

Note. It should bo noted that the area bounded by the cardioide

whose equation is =a (1+cos @) is also $1a’.
Ex. 2. Find the area of a loop of the curve r=a cos 20.
 AREAS OF PLANE CURVES 919

In tracing the curve, we notice that as 6 increases from 0 to da,

+ diminishes from a to 0, the portion AP,O being thus traced. As
@ increases from jm to Zr, r is negative'throughout, and the correspond-
ing portion of tho curve which is traced is OP,B’P,O. Then as @
increases from 2m to $7, r remains positive and the portion OP,4’P,O
‘of the curve is traced. As 6 increases from $7 to jr, r is again negative
and we get the portion OP,BP;O of the curve. Finally, when @
increases from {7 to 27, r is positive, and the portion OP,AP,O of
the curve is described. The curve thus consists of four equal loops as
shown in the figuro.

It is now clear from the figure that area of one loop

=%.area AP,O
9.1L
=9 |,
(37,5
T ao=a7\,
iva
cos
= der?
20 d0=47a’.

Cor. Lfence, the entire area of the curve 7.e., the sum of the arcas
of the 4 loops=47a’.

Note. All curves of the type r=a sin né, or r=a cos né may be
similarly traced, by dividing cach quadrant into n equal parts, and
increasing @ successively through cach division. If r be found positive,
the traced portion of the curve will be in the same division; if r be
negative, the traced part will be in the diametrically opposite division.
Any way, when the curve is completely traced, it will be found to
consist of n equal loops if n be odd, and 2n equal loops if n be even.

Ex. 3. (i) Find the area of the loop of the folium of Descartes
a+ y* = 8any.
(it) Find also the area included between the folium and tts
asymptote and show that it is equal to the area of the loop.

(i) Transforming to corresponding polar co-ordinates by putting

z=r cos 6, y=7 sin @, the polar equation to the curve becomes

= 8aa cos @ sin

cae0
~ eos5@+sin*o (1)
As 6 increases from 0 to 47, r at first increases from 0 to 4
220 INTEGRAL CALCULUS

reaching the maximum at @=41, and then diminishes to 0 again, thus

forming a loop in the first quadrant.

bo
A
The required area of the loop is
=i\o
4 19 = 94
9g? \ _Sin?6 2 cos’?
a
ag
2 Jo (sin*6+cos*6)?
9a7(% 27 dé :
ig \; . [ putting ¢=tan 6 ]

9a fit \s oY dt _oa" 74 [- to +1]

2 esoo JO(1+¢")? 2 es00 1+e*
= 3a",

(ii) The equation of the asymptote of the folium is

ttyta=0. s+ (2)
Ita polar equation is

os 7a. : bas
~ sin @+cos @ (8)
Now, r-—> ~, if (sin 0+cos 6) —>0 ie., if tan @>—-1
i.0., if 0—> Bx,
.. the direction of the asymptoto is @—> $7.
 AREAS OF PLANE CURVES 221

The asymptote intersects the two axes at A and B, where

OA=a and OB=a, i.e., OA=OB.
Honce, the area of AOAB=$a?. oe (4)

Area between the folium and its asymptote = triangular arca

OAB+ tho limiting value of twice the area between tho curve and
the asymptote in the second quadrant (from symmetry)
=$a7+ limiting value of twice the curvilinear arca OK PQ AO
=4a?+
Qo (say). wee (5)

Draw a radius vector OPQ making an angle @ with the a-axis,

such that §r < @ <r. Suppose it cuts the curve wnd the asymptote at
P and @ rospectively.

Let us denote the curvilincar area OKPQ AO by S,

tho triangular arna OQAO by S,,
and the curvilinear arca OKPO hy S,.
S=S,-S8,.
o=Li S=Lt (8,-S,).
639 d=» tr

Now, applying the formula for area in polar co-ordinates i.e., $fr? de
wnd using equations (1) and (3), we get
gm~ BEY
2L
pas ee ge STJo eee
Ja (sin @+cos 0)? (sin*0+c0s*0)?
ae]
=a" (7,—T,.) say.

dé =| sec?@ dé
Now, (sin q + cos 0) 2 (1+ tan 6)?

[on multiplying numerator and denominator by sec?9 J

2 |a
i?
[ putting ¢=1+tan @ ]

1 _ 1 -——@

t 1+tan @
222 INTEGRAL CALCULUS

Mest: |sind cos”@ dé ae 8

gar, (sin®@+cos*@)? }(1+tan*6)?
(on multiplying numerator and denominator by sec®@)

i \aa putting 1+ tan°0={

11 1 1

¢ Les 3

I,=9+— 3 Freee ~ 1+tan®@ 3.

2
3
9?
x [2+ paren vase

2
ian*A—tan 4-2
4
5 a7[a + 1+tan*@ |

34
2
[2+
Genus (tan 6-4-1)(tan 6 — 92)
eee ce
(1-Ftan 6)(1—tan 6+ tan? 0)
|

5a
[ tan @—2 |
2+y_tan @+tan26

Now, s=Lt S=4a*.

g>r
4

required arca = 4a7 +20= 4a?

= area of the loop.

_& sin? 8
Ex.4. Find the area between the cissoid r= ep and tts

asymptote.

The curve may be traced either from its polar oquation, or by

converting it to Cartesian form, and the figure will be as shown
below. The asymptote is easily found to be the line x=a, or in polar
 AREAS OF PLANE CURVES 223

co-ordinates r cos 0=a. Now, let OPQ be any radius vector at an angle
6 to the z-axis, intersecting the curve and its asymptote at P and Q
respectively.

[ where r, =OQ
Area OA apo=1 ga (*,? —r,”) do
. 8:
co r,=OP j
* ia

. aa)
es oie cos*6 ae

a
4
a +sin?0) da

=2'{ Bom 20
242 4

Now, tho required area between the curve and the asymptote is
clearly (there being symmetry about the z-axis, and since the direction
of the asymptote is given by @=4n),

Lt
O->4
[24
Oe::(3
8
o—s.
6 sin 26ee )| a a (dn)
ee = oa
Sma".
8
224 INTEGRAL CALCULUS

Ex. 5. Find the areca common to the Cardioide r=a(1+cos 0) and

the circle r= a, and also the area of the remainder of the Cardiotde.

At the common point P of the two curvos, we have

8=1+cos @, .°. cos 6=4, or, 6=4n.
The reqd. area is casily seen to be
2 {area OCP -+ area eo

=2] 5\" (3a)? dot; Vee a? (1+ cos0)?da}

=%q et (or — tr) +2 (sin r—sin 4x) +4 (sin 27—sin 4n)}
=-(F9- oe) a’.

Again, the area of the remaindor of the Cardioide, t.¢e., APCR

Sa inren APC=33\ ee
-| {a? (1+cos 6)? —Za"} dé

=a* |* (2 cos 0+4 vos 20-2) do *

=a? {2.V3,1 78 _ 8 1 n
g9°74°2 7 4'°3”
sao [9/3
ya? rt7}

Note. The whole aroa of tho Cardioide is evidently the sum of

these two, 7.¢., =8ra?. [Sea Hx. 1 above. ]
 AREAS OF PLANE CURVES 225

9°4. The Sign of an area.

b
In the expression | y dx for an area, we tacitly assume
a

that the ordinate y is positive throughout the range (a, d),

and that 2 increases from a to 6, i.e, b > a. In this case
the area calculated by the above formula will he positive.
If however y be negative, or if b< a while y is positive,
4.é., in moving along the curve from 2=a to r=b, we are
moving parallel to the negative direction of the a-axis, the
calculated aren will he negative.

y|
|

ee

Fie. (i)

If therefore we proceed to calculate the total area

where, in the range (a, b), y is positive for some portion and
negative for the rest, as in the above figure (i), by using the
b
formule | y daz, the calculated result will give us the
a

difference of the magnitudes of the two areas ACP and

CQB, which may be positive or negative or even zero if the
magnitudes of the two areas are equal.
Hence, if our object be to get the sum-total of the
magnitudes of the two areas, we should calculate the part
15
226 INTEGRAL CALCULUS

o b
separately by formule of the type | y ae,| y dx, the
a 0

results being found to be associated with their proper signs.

We shall now discard the signs and consider the sum of the
magnitudes.

Fig. (ii)

In each individual case therefore we should first of all

have a clear idea of the figure and the area to be calculated,
and then we should proceed. For instance, notice that in
fig. (ii) area PACR is +, area CRSD —, and area SDBQ +,
and that for the range DC of the x-axis, y is three-valued
and in calculating the area PACR we are to use one value

of y for the portion in the formula [1 dx, for calculating

the area CRSD we are to use a second value of y in the

formula i’y dz, the upper limit d being less than c for this

part, and ‘lastly for the area SDBQ we are to use the third

value of y for this part 11 the formula f:y ax. Tf we take

the algebraic sum of the three areas, with their proper

 AREAS OF PLANE CURVES 227

signs, we get the area bounded by the curve, the z-axis and
the ordinates AP and BQ.
B
Similarly, in the formula a\ ry” d@ in polar co-ordinates
a

if B < a, 2.ée., if 6 diminishes in moving along the curve from

6=a to 0=8, the calculated area will be negative. Then

O E

area OPR is +, aren ORS is —, area OSQ +, the area

bounded by PRSQ and the radii vectors OP, OQ, being
their algebraic sum. Also for the range SO, for each
value of 0, 7 has three values, and we must use the right
value in each case for that part when moving along PF or
along RS or along SQ in the expression r7d0.

9°5. Area of closed curves.

Fia., (ii) Fa, (iii)

228 INTEGRAL CALCULUS

In a closed curve given by Cartesian equation, clearly for

each value of x there will be two values of y, say y1 and ¥>
(See Fig.1). The extreme values of y, say a and 3, are
b 3
obtained by putting yz=y,. Now, | (ya —Ya) dx will give
a

the positive value of the required area provided 6 >a and

Y1 = Yq. This amounts as it were, to the determination
of the area hetween two curves having the same equation
asthe given one, but y being single-valued in each, the
proper value being chosen for each part. The method has
been illustrated in ])x. 2, Art, 9°92.

In polar curves, if the origin be within the curve,

or
(See Fig. 2), :I, r” d0 gives the desired area.

If the origin be outside, corresponding to each value of 6

there are two values of +, say 71 and 7, (See Fig. 3). The
extreme values of 6, namely a and 8, are obtained by putting
ry,=r,. Now, if ry > 7, and B >a, the positive value of
the area will be given by the expression ,, : (r,? —1r,") do.
é : : 1 B 3 2

B
In fact the area OAPB is given by - f-ri° dO and
@

is positive, while a ro” QO gives the area OBQA, with

negative sign, the algebraic sum of the two giving the

desired a7ea,

In the case of closed curves there is another method of

calculating the area. Let x, y be the cartesian co-ordinates
of a point on the curve whose polar co-ordinates are 1, 9.
Then z=r cos 9, y=7r sin @.
 AREAS OF PLANE CURVES 229

If now ¢ be a single variable parameter in terms of

which 2, y and therefore r, 0 of any point on the curve can
be expressed, we have,

SO GiON cig
dt dt FORNEYin 6 at
dy
di ar .
di sin 6+7 cos @ do

ge yO my? ae
dt ” dt dt
Hence, the area which is expressed by the integral 4 fr? do,
can as well be expressed by the line inteyral
1(( dy_ ar)
ala: at} at
along the curve, the limits of ¢ for the closed curve being
such that the point (z, y) returns to its initial position.
The rule of signs for the areca is that the above expression
is positive when the area lies to the left of a point describ-
ing the curve in the direction in which ¢ increases.

9°6. Approximate evaluation of a definite integral:

Simpson’s rule.
In many cases, a definite integral cannot be obtained
either because the quantity to be integrated cannot be ex-
pressed as a mathematical function, or because the indefinite
integral of the function itself cannot be determined directly.
In such cases formule of approximation are used. One
such important formula is Simpson’s rule. By this rule
the definite integral of any functiom (or the area bounded by
a curve, the x-axis and two extreme ordinates) is expressed
in terms of the individual values of any number of ordinates
within the interval, by assuming that the function within
230 INTEGRAL CALCULUS

each of the small ranges into which the whole interval

may be divided can be represented to a sufficient degree of
approximation by a parabolic function.
Simpson's Rule: An approximate value of the definite
integral ;
b
( y dx where y = f(z)
= 3h [(y, +yan+1) +2(Va tye t+: +Y2n-1)
+4(yotyat-::+yon)]
where na i8 and Y1, Ye, Ys,-- are the values of ¥ when

z=a,ath, at+Qh,......
In words, the above rule can he written as
+h [sum of the extreme ordinates + 2.sum of the
remaining odd ordinates +4.sum of the even ordinates].
Let PQ be the curve y=f(r) and PL, QM be the
ordinates «=a, z=b. Divide the interval 2M into
2n equal intervals each of length h by the points Nz, N3...

LN, N, N4 N,,M X

so that pitsa and Itt PgNs, PsN3--. be the ordinates

at Ne, NN geise . Then PL=yYy,; PaNe=Ya; P Ng =Ya-

 AREAS OF PLANE CURVES 231

Through PP,Ps draw a parabola having its axis parallel

to y-axis, and let its equation referred to parallel axes
through N, (a +h, 0) be
y=atbetcx’. “oe - (1)
Then the area bounded by the parabolic arc PPaPs,
the ordinates of P, Ps, and the z-axis (such to be called
hereafter shortly as area under the parabola)
-{" (a + bx + cx*) da = 2h (a + 4ch?). = (9)

P(-h, y1), Pe (0, ya), Ps (h, ys) are points on the

parabola (1),
yy =a bht+ch’, yg=4, ¥g=atodntch?
from which we get a=Ye, c=
— 25 +
re vs

from (2), area under the parabola = th (yi + 4ye + Ys).

Now, area of the Ist strip (ordinates y1, ¥2, ys) under
the curve y=f(z) is approximately = area under the
parabola
= th (ys + 445 + Ys).
Similarly, area of the 2nd strip (ordinates y3, Ys, Ys)
under the curve is approximately = 4h (ys t4y,t+ys);
area of the 3rd strip (ordinates y,, ¥s, Y¥7) under the
curve is approximately = $h (y, + 4y6 +47);
and area of the th strip under the curve is approximately
= th (Yon—1 + 4yont Yant 1).
b
summing all these, area under the curve 7.e., | y ax
a

is approximately .
= th [ys + Yan+1) + ys FY 5 tos tYan- 1)
+ A(ya Ug to + Yan)I.
232 INTEGRAL CALCULUS

Note. It should b2 noted that the closer the ordinatcs, the more
approximate is the valuc.
Simpson's rule is sometimes called ‘Parabolic rule’.
Ex. Given c°=1, e?=2'72, e7=7°39, e° =20°09, e* =54'60; verify

Simpson's rule by finding an approximate value of \ e” dx, taking

4 equal intervals, and compare it wath its exact value.
Here, a=0, b=4, n=2, h=1, y=f(z) =e”.
by Simpson’s rule we get the approximate valuc
gh (yi t ys)+ 245+ dys + ys)]
= th [(e°
+e+) +e? + 4(e' +e°)]
= 4h [1+ 54°60-+2 7°39 + 4(2°72+20°09)}
= 58°87,
4
Exact value= [-], =¢* —]=5§4'°60 —1=53°60.

error = 53'87 — 53°60 = ‘27 approx.

EXAMPLES IX

1. Find the area of a hyperbola wy=c*? bounded by

the z-axis, and the ordinates =a, c=).
2. Find the area of the segment of the parabola
y =(c¢—- 14-2) cut off by the z-axis.
3. Find the area bounded by the z-axis and one arc
of the sine curve y=sin 2.
4. Inthe logarithmic curve y= ae”, show that the area
hetween the z-axis and any two ordinates is proportional
to the difference between the ordinates.
5. Find by integration the area of the triangle bounded
by the line y = 32, the w-axis and the ordinates c=2. Verify
your result by finding the area as half the product of the
base and the altitude.
 ARHAS OF PLANE CURVES 233

6. Show that the area. bounded by the parabola

Jet /y= J/a, and the co-ordinate axes, is 40°.
7 Show that the area bounded by the semi-cubical
parabola y? =az°, and a double ordinate, is ? of the area of
the rectangle formed by this ordinate and the abscissa.

8. Show that the area of

(i) the astroid city? oe :

x y .
(ii) the hypo-cycloid (2° + (
" =lis #nab ;

(iii) the evolute (az)* + (by)® =(a? -b*)*

is 2no ae.ay

9. Find the area enclosed by the curves : (a > 0)

Gi) w(1 +2?)=1-—¢7 5 yl +7) =20.
(ii) =8 cost; y=2 sin t.
(iii) 2 =a cos ¢ (1— cos t); y=a sin ¢ (1— cos 2).
(iv) e=a (2 cos t+ cos 2t); y=a (sin ¢ +sin 22).
10. Hind the area of the segment cut off from y* =4r
by the line ¥ = 2er.

11. Find the area bounded by the curve y* =x* and the
line y=2.

12. Find the area of the portion of the circle 2? + y? =1,

which lies inside the parabola y* =1—- 2.
13. (i) us that the area bounded by the parabolas
y? = 4ax and 2" =4ay, is 45°a*. [C. P. 1928 ]
(ii) Find the area bounded by the curves
y* ~4%-4=0, and y7+4¢-4=0.
234 INTEGRAL CALCULUS

14. Prove that the curves y* = 4a and x? = 4y divide the

square bounded by «=0, 2=4, y=0, y= 4 into three equal
areas.

15. The curves y=42z? and 1? = 22 meet at the origin O

and at the point P, forming a loop. Show that the straight
line OP divides the loop into two parts of equal area.

16. (i) Find the area included between the ellipses

x? + 9y7 =a? and 227 + 4? =a?,
(ii) ee ans the area common to the two ellipses

=1, and +"G=1,(a>0)

+58 i:

is 2ab tan™* - ae

17. Find the area of the following curves: (a > 0 )

(i) a?y*? =a°a2* - 2%. [ P. P. 1935 ]
(ii) (y—- a)? =a? -2?.
{ See Bx. 2, Art. 9°2 ]

(iii) (aw? +7)? =a? (2? - y’).

(iv) (x? + y2)? =a2a? + b%y?.

{ Transform (tit) and (iv) to Polar |

(v) =a cos @+h sin 0, y=a’ cos 6+’ sin 0.
(vi) «=a sin 2¢, y=a sin ¢.
18. Find the area of the loop of each of the following
curves: (a>0)
(i) y? =a(e - 1)?.
(ii) ay? =x27(a- 2).
(iii) y? = 2?2(a +4). [ 0. P. 1986 ]
 AREAS OF PLANE CURVES 235

(v) =a (1-27), y=at(1—-#7) (-1<t<71).

19. Find the area of the loop or one of the two loops
<where such exist) of the following curves: (a> 0)
=ala? — 4”).
(i) ala? + 4?)
Gi) y3(a? +2") =27(a? - 2”).
(iii) y2a-2)=27(at2).
(iv) y? =27(4—- 2%).
(v) vw? =¥?(2-y).
20. Find the whole area included between each of the
following curves and its asymptote: (a > 0)

(i) a7? =a*(y? - x”).

(ii) y2a-a2)=2°.
(iii) y2(a- 7) =27?2(a +2).
(iv) e?y? + a°b? =a7y?.
(v) ay? =4a"7(2a - 2).

21. Find the area of the following curves: (a > 0)

(i) r=a@ sin 6.
(ii) 7? =a? sin 26; r* =a? cos 29.
(iii) r?(a? sin? +5? cos?6)=a7b?.
(iv) =a sin 30.
(v) r=a (sin 26+ cos 26).
(vi) +? =a? cos76+ 5" sin”6.
(vii) r=3+2 cos 0.
236 INTEGRAL CALCULUS

22. Show that

(i) the area included between the hyperbolic spiral
78=a and any two radii vectores, is proportional to the
difference between the lengths of those radii vectores.
(ii) the area included between the logarithmic spiral
r=e and any two radii vectores, is proportional to the
difference between the squares of those radii vectores.
23. Find the area of a loop of the curves: (a> 0)
(i) at +y* = a7 ry. [C. P. 1982 ],
[ Transforn to Polar }

(ii) r? =a? cos 26. [C. P. 1982, °38 }

(iii) r? =a? cos 46. [ C. P. 1924 }
24. Find the area of the ellipse
Qa" + 4y? — 182 —16y—11=0.
25. If for the curve 2(z2* +4") =a(z? —y?), (a >0) A be
the area between the curve and its asymptote and I be the
area of its loop, show that 4+ D = 4a’.
26. Show that for the curve
y7(at+2)=27(8a-2),(a>0)
the area of its loop and the area between the curve and its
asymptote are both equal to (3 ./8)a?.
27. Show that the area included between one of the
branches of the curve 2°y? =a*(x7+y7) (a> 0) and its
asymptote is equal to the total area of the curve (2? + y?)*
=a'(z?*—-y*), (a>0).
"28. If p=/f(r) be the equation of a curve, show that its
area =1i|5 |pr
Bis dr
taken between the proper limits.
 AREAS OF PLANE CURVES 237

29. If »=/(y) be the equation of a curve, show that its

area _1
= 9 |p (p+ d*y
dy? cp

taken hetween the proper limits.

30. (i) Show that the sectorial arca of the equi-angular

spiral p=r sin a included between the two radii vectores
r, and 7g, is (7,7 — 717) tan a.
(ii) Show that the area of the lemniscate a°p=r°
is a",
[ For half a loop r varies from 0 toa]

31. Find an approximate value of

ie (1- on) da, taking 2 equal intervals.

Given f(0'1) =0°99334, #(0°2) =0°9725 where

fle) =(1- anh

32. Find the approximate value of
9
|i a,
Cine taking 10 equal intervals, and calculate

ihe error.

Given f(1'1) ='90909 f(1'6) = "62500

f(1°2) = "83333 f(1'7) = 58824
f(1°3) ="76923 f(1'8) = "55556
f('4) ='71429 f(1°9) = 526382
f(1'5) = "66667
where f(2)= :
 238 INTEGRAL CALCULUS

33. Evaluate
7
i J(2+sin x) dz, using 4 equal intervals,

given when 2=0° 0’, 22° 30’, 45° 0’, 67° 30’, 90° 0’,
J(2+ sin x) =1'414, 1°544, 1645, 1°710, 1°782.
34. Obtain an approximate value of
1
{,1a , taking 4 equal intervals, and hence
obtain an approximate value of 2 correct to four places of
decimals,

35. A river is 80 ft. wide. The depth d in feet at a

distance x ft. from one hank is given by the following table.
z=0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
d=0 4 4% 9 12 15 14 8 38
Find approximately the area of the cross-section.

36. Use Simpson’s rule, taking five ordinates, to find

approximately to two places of decimals the value of

iiJ (a2 -1/x) da.

ANSWERS
4. c? log i 2, 43. 8. 2. 9. (i) 7. (ii) Gm.
(iii) 2xa?. (iv) Gra®. 10. &. 11, 3°9, 12. dr+4.
18. (ii) 48. 16. (i) 2/20? sin-? ae 17. (i) $a. (ii) wa?
(ili) a3. (iv) 32r(a?
+ b?). (v) r(ad’— ad). (vi) §a?.

18. (i) (ii) a? Gi’) a, (iv) 2-47. (v) 02.

 AREAS OF PLANE CURVES 239

19. (i) 2a7(1—dr). (ii) a7(dr —1). > (iii) 2a7(L—4r). (iv) Ak. (v) 2y%s.
20. (i) 4a. (ii) 21a’. (iii) 2a7(1+47). (iv) 2rab. (v) 47a?
21. (i) 47a?. (ii) a?; a3. (iii) ab. (iv) tra’.
(v) 2a?. (vi) Ara? + b?), (vii) 119.
23. (i) 4ra?. (ii) 4a. (iii) 4a°. 24. Gr. 81. 0°1982.
32. ‘69315; crror= ‘00001, 33. 2°546. 34, 3°1416.

35. 710 sq. ft. 36. 0°84.

 CHAPTER X
LENGTHS OF PLANE CURVES:

[ Rectification |*

10°1. Lengths determined from Cartesian Equations.

We know from Differential Calculus that if s be the
length of the arc of a curve measured from a fixed point A
on it to any point P, whose Cartesian co-ordinates are (a, d)
and (7, y) respectively, then
Os pec
ap at Y=
dc 4 ‘\ +tan*y
an’ y = 1+(4
""

y denoting the angle made by the tangent at P to the z-axis,

Thus, we can write

[ft + (3) dz + C,

where wv is expressed in terms of « from the equation to

the curve, and C is, the integration constant. If the indefi-

“Jan\ 2
nite integral ja/r+(3") dg he denoted by F(z), then

since s=() when 7 coincides with A, 7.¢., when 2=a,

we get
0 = F(a) +C, whence C= — F(a).
Thus,

s= F(x) - F(a)= (*
a/1+ 82)" dx.

“The process of finding the length of an arc of a curve, i.¢., ‘of

finding a straight line whose length is the same as that of a specified
aro’, is called Rectification. Hor the definition of the lengéh of an arc
of a curve, seo Authors’ Differential Oalculus, Appendix.
 LENGTHS OF PLANE CURVES 241

Hence, between two points having x, and z, as abscissz,

the length of the curve is given by

s2-8:= | “A
/1+(2) dx - ("‘/1+(®) a

=" /14+(S) ax ei)

; be convenient
If it ; du, and accordingly
to get daz naly 2,
2 ;
ir

terms of y, Instead of x, from the equation to the curve, we

can use the result
ds /1+(2 )"

whence the length AP is given by

. y ax)"
\ 1+| dy dy,
dx . :
where day is expressed in terms of y.

Also the length of the curve between the two points

aon fae
whose ordinates are y; and ¥, respectively will be

If both x and y are expressed in terms of a common

variable parameter ¢, and so s is also a function of ¢, we can
write

ds _ds dx =/i+(#ay)? dz
dt dx dt ki

2 af (#)"+ ak Ps dy_ dy dx ]
dt] “ \dt "dt de dt
16
242 INTEGRAL CALCULUS

Thus as before, the length of the curve between two

points on it for which ¢=#, and t=f,g respectively will be
given by
ta a dx\2 _ dy \?

ae \ (zi) + (3) (8)

oxano dt. ees 3
=*& =

All the above cases can be included in a single result in

the differential form
ds= Jdx?+dy?, - vs (4)
where the right-hand side is expressed in the differential
form in terms of a single variable, from the given equation
to the curve. This, when integrated between proper limits,
gives the desired length of the curve.
Note. In the above formule (1), (2) and (3), it is assumed that
ak oe a ouare all continuous in the range of integration.

Ilustrative Examples.
Ex. 1. Find the length of the arc of the parabola y* =4ax mcasured
from the vertex to one extremity of the latus rectum.

Here, 2y du
ae dy 2a.
4a, or, ae ta
ae ‘m [e,
:

The abscisse of the vertex and one extremity of the latus rectum
are 0 and a respectively. Hence, the required length

(4 dy\* =(3/ 222

: Voa/1+(32) ae \o oe
-{; eta |
0 Na(e-+a)

|Jaleta)+a log (Jz+ Jera)| 3

af J/2+log (1+ ./2)}.

 LENGTHS OF PLANE CURVES 248

Ex. 2. Determine the length of an arc of the cycloid x= a(0+sin 0),

y=a(l—cos 6), measured from the vertex (i.e., the origin).

Here,

iow(as) +(38)
Also at the origin, @2=0. Hence, the required length, from 6=0 to
any point @, is
0
s=|) 2a cos 44 dé=4a sin 40.

Cor. 1. Since at the extremity of the cycloid (i.¢., at the ousp)

y=2a, we have =m there. Thus, the length of a complete cycloid
being double the length from the vertex to the extremity, is
2.4a sin $r= 8a.

Cor. 2. s?=16a? sin?40 = 8a.a(1— cos 6) =8ay.

Ex. 3. Find the whole length of the loop of the curve

3ay? = x(x —a)?.

We notice here that, for negative values of 2, y is imaginary, and

so there is no part of the curve on the negative side of the z-axis.
Again, at the points where z=0 and w=a, we have y=0. Between
these two points, for every value of « there are two equal and opposite
244 INTEGRAL CALCULUS

values of y, a loop being thereby formed. For each value of 2 greater

than a, y has two equal and opposite values, and with 2 increasing,
y continually increases in magnitude. The curve is thus traced as in
the adjoining figure. The extremities of the loop are given by x=0
and g=a.
Now from the oquation to the curve,

Gay 5oa
= (“— a)? + 2a(2—a)=(2—a)(82—a) ;

ds_,/,,(ay\7?- (z—-a)?*(32— a)?

aa V1 +(4) a/14 36074?
= (8x—a)?_ 3u+a_
/ 1+ ar 72 Bae"
the half length of the loop is
\; 3a+a Hes 1
[2-3
a +a.2 Az)"
0 2/3aa 3a
2

i [2a*]-= 7g NBa.
The whole length of tho loop therefore, from the symmetry of the
curve= ¢ J/3a.

10°2. Lengths determined from polar equations.

From the formule
0, adr _,, 46
tan o=T 7 cos } a sin tas

in Differential Calculus, where s represents the length of

the arc of a curve from any fixed point A of it to a variable
point P whose polar co-ordinates are r, 6 and ¢ denotes
the angle between the radius vector to the point and the
tangent at the point, we can write

lds
eda _
7 cosee & a J/1+eot?¢
Des afLt 1(as
lee“)",

whence ads
76 r? 4+ (Hr).
6 Sauer Oe(i)
 LENGTHS OF PLANE CURVES 245

Again,

seop= Ji+tan%=: af147"

WS
ds ~
(2°.
aay2
Gi
From (i) and (ii), the length of an arc of the curve can
be expressed in either of the forms

Ga ve - dr 2
a 2 beast
: \. . +(i) do,

oll ite F)
Po /d6\2
r \" 1+r ir dr,

where 71, 9, and re, @ are the polar co-ordinates of the

extremities of the required arc. In the first form, 7 a8 also

_ are expressed in terms of @ from the given polar equa-

tion to the curve. In the second form, is expressed in

terms of 7.

Both (i) and (ii) can be combined in a single differential

form,

ds= ./dr?+r? d62.

Note. It is assumed in the above formule that e, a aro conti-

nuous in the range of integration.

Ex. Find the perimeter of the Cardioide r=a (1—cos 8), and show
that the arc of the upper half of the curve is bisected by @=4r.

Here, since r=a (1—cos 6), area sin 0.

246 INTEGRAL CALCULUS

Hence, the length of any arc of the curve measured from the origin
where 6=0, to any point, is given by

Vo ela) 2
1] i ~TGip\2

6 a steartis
-(" /a*(1—cos 6)?+a? sin7@ dé

_( 8 hs Oise. “i= ( 6
=|",2a
sin? ao=4a [ cos 0 42 1 cos9 )

Thus, the length of the upper half of the curve, which clearly extends
from @=0 to 6=7, is 4a (1—cos 47)
=4a.
{ Seo Fig., Hz. 1, Art. 9°3 J

The whole perimeter is clearly double of this, and thus= 8a.

Again, the length of the curvo from 9=0 to @=437 is 4a (1—cos 47)
=2a, and so the line @=47 bisccts the arc of the upper half of the
curve.

10°3. Lengths determined from pedal equations.

From the formule a cos ¢? and p= sr sin ¢ in Differen-

tial Calculus, we can write

as _ 1 - me --- _1 bce = ig
dr cos¢ J/1-sin*¢ p? vr*-p?
:

J te
whence the length of an arc of the curve extending from
r=r, to r=7re will be given by

‘i{"* _rdr_
P41 Nr? p?

where p is to be replaced in terms of 7 from the given

pedal equation to the curve.
Ex. Find the length of the are of the parabola p?=ar from r=a
to r= 2a.
 LENGTHS OF PLANE CURVES 247

The required length is given by

s= | vdr 2a oy dr
a Jr —p? a sfr?—ar
"Rear epee ope]?
=| Jr? —arta log (rit Jr—a)| .

=a /9+a log (/2+1=a[/8+log (1+ /2)1.

10°4. Length of an Arc of an Evolute.

We know from Differential Calculus that the difference
between the radii of curvature at two points of a given curve
is equal to the length of the corresponding arc of its evolute.
Y

oO x

Thus, if p; and pz be the radii of curvature at P and Q

of a given curve PQ, p and q being the corresponding points
on the evolute, the length of the arc pq of the evolute
= P1— P2-
In fact p, gq are the centres of curvature and so Pp and
Qq are the radii of curvature at P and @ of the curve PQ,
and if the evolute be regarded as a rigid curve, and a string
be unwound from it, being kept tight, then the points of the
unwinding string describe a system of parallel curves, one
of which is the given curve PQ, of which pq is the evolute.
PQ is called the involute of pq.
248 INTEGRAL CALCULUS

Ex. Calculate the entire length of the evolute of the ellipse

3
At el [ C. P. 1918 ]

CLS
AA
b
a, b, a, db’ being the centres of curvature of tho ellipse at A, 3,
A’, B’ respectively, the cvolute, as shown in the figure, consists of
four similar portions, the portion apl corresponding to the part APB
of the given ellipse.
Now, from Differential Calculus, it is known that at any point on
the ellipse, the radius of curvature
ab?
e= » ,

where p is the perpendicular from the centre on the tangent at the

point.
Thus, the length of the are apb of the evolute
a7b? 7b? _ae
a? b?
~ Pa Pa 42 G8 ba
ee ee -

Hence, the entire length of th . evolute of the ellipse

= ar_®),
(4 a
 LENGTHS OF PLANE CURVES 249
10°5. Intrinsic Equation to a Curve.
If s denotes the length of an are
of a plane curve
measured from some fixed point A
on it, up to an arbitrary
point P, and if y be the inclination of
the tangent to the
curve af P to any fixed line on the pla
ne (e.g., the a-axis),
the relation between s and y is called the
Intrinsic Equation
of the curve,
It should be noted that the intrinsic equation
of a curve
determines only the form of the curve,
and not its position
on the plane.
(A) Intrinsfe Equation derived from Cart
esian Equation.
Y

Let the Cartesian equation to the curve he y=

fla).
Then y denoting the angle between the tangent ab any
point P and the z-axis,

tan » = =f'(a). oe oe ay)

Also, s=are AP -|*/ 14 (24° dx

[°isiF doe), ay Gi)

‘a’ denoting the abscissa A, and ‘x’ that of P.
250 INTEGRAL CALCULUS

Now, the z-eliminant between (i) and (ii), (which will be

a relation between s and y) will be the required intrinsic
equation of the curve.

If the equation to the curve be given in the parametric

form x= fit), y= ot),
we can write
dy _dy [dx _
'(t) er
tan? "ie dt/ at f'(t) (i)
; > t (da\? re dy)"

os jw di] . (i ut
=|. APR Fisie ae
i a eee ae seh

an F(t) say, can an (ii)

where /, is the value of the parameter ¢ at A.

The t-eliminant between (i) and (ii) will be the required

intrinsic equation to the curve.
(B) Intrinsic Equation derived from Polar Equation.

Let r=/(6) be the , olar equation to a curve.

Let ¢ denote the angle between the tangent and the
radius vector at any point P (r, 6), y the angle made by the
 LENGTHS OF PLANE CURVES 251

tangent with the initial line, and s the length of the arc AP
where A (a, a) is a fixed point on the curve.

Then, tan _,, @=r 48

7 _ 76)
(6) = ma. it(i)
y=O0+¢, on vee (ii)
6 Te Ve

and
i
sf re?
dr\*
+ ar) dé

J JOM FPO} d= 700) say. (i

Now, eliminating ¢ and 6 between (i), (ii) and (iii), we
get a relation between s and y, which is the required
intrinsic equation of the curve,

(C) Intrinsic Equation derived from Pedal Equation.

Let p=/f(r) be the pedal equation to the curve.

Then, as in Art, 70°38,

l eta) fae re 0
. r dr = : oe rdr =I (¢ er ’

Also, from Differential Calculus, p denoting radius of

curvature Oe p=r OM es sal --+ (ii)

s dy dp f'(r)
Eliminating + between (i) and (ii), we get a relation of
the form

ds _ dy i. -|#
dy Hs), or, Gy os) °° * ) $63)
which, when the right side is integrated, will give the
required intrinsic equation.
 252 INTEGRAL CALCULUS

Illustrative Examples.
Ex. 1. Obtain the intrinsic equation of the Catenary y=c cosh*

in the form s=c tan W.

Here, tan potyosinh ¢ (i)

Also measuring s from the vertex, where x=0,

al \ A/
/'11. + (%Y
oy. du
. 7
-|af 1+sinh? © de
0 ¢c

-|* cosh ” ax=[e sinh * |r= e sinh ™

0 c c J0 c

H{ence, from (i), s=c tan y.

Ex. 2. Olitain the intrinsic equation of the cycloid

ae

z=a (0+sin 0), y=a (L—cos 8)

taking the vertex as the fixed point and the tangent at that point as the
jized line. [ C. P. 1928, °82 }

As shown in Fix. 2, Art. 10°l, the length of the arc of the above
cycloid measured from the vertex is given by

s= 4a sin | (i)

dy_dy /dz_ _asin@ _ 0.

Also, tan Y= 3°= 40/ dea (1+ cos )7 8"9

= 5+ Hem», from (i), s=4a sin y

which is the required intrinsic equation.
 =
LENGTHS OF PLANE CURVES 253

Ex. 3. Find the intrinsic equation of the Cardioide

r=a (I-—cos 6),
the arc being measured from the cusp (1.e., where 6=0).
[ C. P. 1987, ’49)
Here, y=0+¢ see eee se (1)

d@_1—cos@ a
and tan 9, 1.é.,a sin 6 = tan 9°

p=h0. wee ae pee (2)

Also by the Ex., Art. 10°2, we have,

s=\a/r? +(e) dé = 4a (1~cos¢). vee (3)

Since, from (1) and (2), y=6+40= 30, 7.2, 0=4y,

from (3), s=42 (1—cos 4y),
the requirod intrinsic equation.

Ex. 4. Find the Cartesian equation of the curve for which the
intrinsic equation is s=ay.
a da _ da ds
Tere, dv” as " goo W.a.

de=acosydy. .°. r=asinyte. vee (1)

; dy _dy ds _
Again, dy ds ‘ay =sin ya.

.. dy=asinydy .. y=-acos¢+d. see (2)

From (1) and (2), climinating y, we get
(w~c)? + (y— d)? =a, the required Cartesian equation.

EXAMPLES X

1. Find the lengths of the following :

(i) the perimeter of the circle 27+ y* =a? ;
%
(ii) the arc of the catenary y= 2(.8+¢ “)from
the vertex to the point (71, y1) ;
254 INTEGRAL CALCULUS

(iii) the perimeter of the astroid 2 +,y=ar 3.08.

;
[ C. P. 1941, ’°44 }

(iv) the perimeter of the hypocycloid :i + (; 1;

(v) the perimeter of the evolute (ax)?/* +(by)?/°

=(q? _ b*)? i

(vi) the are of the semi-cubical parabola ay? =2* from

the cusp to any point (z, 4). [ C. P. 1924 ]
2. If s be the length of an are of 3ay?=2(x-a)"
measured from the origin to the point (z, y), show that
3s” =4a7 + By?,
3. Show that the length of the arc of the parabola
y" =4ag which is intercepted between the points of inter-
section of the parabola and the straight line 3y=8z is
a(log 2+44).
4. Show that the complete perimeter of the curve

x ae
L +” a=
Y at
1+¢° »is18 2 4%.

5. If for a curve
2 sin 0+¥4y cos 0=f’ (6),
and z cos 9—y sin 6= f” (6),
show that s=f(0)+f” (@) +c,
where ¢ is a constant.
6. Find the length of the ares of the following
curves :
e = q J

(i) ee an? }from 0=0 to 6= 42.

y=e' cos 8
- -
(ii) =a (cos 0+7% sin 6) \ 6=4,.
y=a (sin @— @ cos@) from6=0 to
 LENGTHS OF PLANE CURVES 255

(iii) 2 =e sin 20 (1+cos 26) }

y=c cos 26 (1— cos 26)
from the origin to any point.
7. Show that the perimeter of the ellipse 7=a cos @,
y=b sin 6, is given by

Le Ls)"« rea) ee,

Qan41 (3) 1° \94) 3° \o46) 5 }
8. Compare the perimeters of the two conics
2 2 2 2
GY
5 + 7 1 and 36 US98 dy [ C. H. 1925 }

9. Find the lengths of the loop of each of the following

curves :
(i) 9y? = (a+ Ta+ 4)? ; [P. P. 198-6 ]
(ii) a=2?, y=t—-4e°.
10. Find the lengths of the following :
(i) & quadrant of the circle r= 2a sin 0;
(ii) the are of the parabola 7{1+ cos 6)=2 from 6=0
to @=4n;

iii) the arc of the equi-angular spiral r=ae’ °°?

between the radii vectores 71 and 72.

11. Ifs be the length of the curve r=«a tanh 46 between

the origin and @=2n, and 4 the area between the same
points, show that A=a (s— an). [ C. P. 1981 ]
12. Show that the area between the curve

the r-axis, and the ordinates at two points on the curve,

256 INTEGRAL CALCULUS

is equal to a times the length of the arc terminated by

those points. [ Nagpur, 1986 |

18. Show that in the astroid gt + stat

(i) sx a?
(ii) p? +457 = Gas,
s being measured from the point for which «=0.

14. Show that

(i) in the cycloid r=a(@+sin 6), y=a(1— cos 6),
p?+s7= 16a",
the are being measured from the vertex (where 6 = 0);
[ C. H. 1933 ]

(ii) in the catenary y =c cosh ©

y° =cp =o" +37,

the arc being measured from the vertex ; [ C. P. 19380 |

(iii) in the cardioide r=a (1+ cos 6), s7 + 9p? =16a*,

the are being measured from the vertex ( i.¢., @=0 ).
15. Show that the length of the arc of the hyperbola
zy =a" between the points 7=b and x=c is equal to the
arc of the curve p* (a* +7*)=a‘*r* between the limits r=)d
and r=c.

16. Show that the length of the are of the evolute

27ay?
= 4(2—2a)* of the parabola y? =4az, from the cusp
to one of the points where the evolute meets the parabola,
is 2a (3 /3—-1).
 LENGTHS OF PLANE CURVES 257

17. Find the intrinsic equation of each of the following

curves, the fixed point from which the arc is measured
being indicated in each case :

(i) the parabola y? =4amz +++ (vertex),

(ii) the astroid ot + yea at sense (one of cusps),

(iii) the semi-cubical parabola ay? =a° +--+: (cusp),

(iv) the curve y=a log sec ---++ (origin),

(v) the equi-angular spiral r= ae? ©°*2 --- (point a, 0),

(vi) the involute of the circle, viz.,
ft 8
g= aa : - cos™* ++ (point a, 0).

18. Find the intrinsic equation of each of the following

curves :

(i) p=r gin a,

(ii) p* =r? -a’?.

19. Find the intrinsic equation of the curve for which

the length of the arc measured from the origin varies as the
square root of the ordinate. Also obtain the Cartesian
co-ordinates of any point on the curve in terms of any
parameter. [ C. P. 1981 ]

20. If s=c tan y is the intrinsic equation of a curve,

show that the Cartesian equation is y=c cosh ; ’ given
that when y=0, x=0 and y=c. [ Cc. P. 1926}
17
258 INTEGRAL CALCULUS

ANSWERS

co meee 0 «(8-2
1. (i) Qa. (ii) 4a a aan), (iii) 6a.

coi) 22{(1492)'
a}.
6. (i) /2(e2" —1). (ii) 3a0,?. (iii) $¢ sin 30.
8. 1:2. 9. (i) 4/3. (ii) 4/3.
10. (i) dra. (ii) ./2+ log (/2-+1). (iii) (rg—7,) sec a.
17. (i) s=a cosec ¥ cot Y+a log (cosec Y+cot y). (ii) s= ga sin7y.
(iii) 27s= 8a(sec*y— 1). (iv) s=a log tan (4~+ 47).

(v) s=a seo afef?—2)Oba_ 7}, (vi) s=gay’.

18, (i) s=Ce¥ SoFe, (ii) s=dayp?.
19. s=4dasin y, c=a(é+sin 6), y=a(1—cos 6).
 CHAPTER XI

VOLUMES AND SURFACE-AREAS OF

SOLIDS OF REVOLUTION

11°1. Solids of revolution, the axis of revolution

being the x-axis.

Let a curve DM, whose Cartesian equation is given,

y=f(x) say, be rotated about the z-axis, so as to form a
solid of revolution, and let us consider the portion LZ’M'’M
of this solid bounded hy w=2, and x=@q respectively.
We can imagine this solid to be divided into an infinite
number of infinitely thin circular slices by planes perpendi-
cular to the axis of revolution OX. If PN and P’N’ be
two adjacent ordinates of the curve, where the co-ordinates
of P and P’ are (a, y) and (a@+ Az, y+ Ay) respectively, the
 260 INTEGRAL CALCULUS

volume of the corresponding slice, which has thickness

Az, is ultimately equal to ny? Ag.*
Hence, the total volume of the solid considered (bounded
by #=a, and #=@2) is given by
4 Xa
V= Li Say)? A= x y? dx.
Ac>0 x1

Again, if 4s he the element of length PP’, s being the

arc length measured up to P from any fixed poiné on the
curve LM, the surface-area of the ring-shaped element
generated by rotating PP’ is ultimately 2ny.As.
Hence, the required surface-area is given by
82
S Tit . S(Qny As) = 2 ( y da.
/ $1

[ 31, S2 being the values of s for the points L, M |

~ 22( y-n/1+(22) dx.

X2

x4
;

dx
2

Cor. 1. When the avis of revolution is the y-axis, and we consider

the portion of the solid bounded by y=y, and y=¥y, respectively,
Ver \""
x* dy,
v1

and S=2r \*
81
x ds=2r \e
¥1
xa/1+(22)"
dy
dy.
Cor. 2. Even if the curve revolved be given by iés polar equation
(the axis of revolution being the initial line), and the portion of the

"Strictly, the volume of tho slice lies between ry,?7 Az and ry,27Az
where y, and y, are the greatest and the loast values of y within the
range PP’, and thus equals ry? Aw, whore y lies between y, and y, and
is thus the ordinate for so.ne point within the range PP’ (not neces-
sarily of P). Thus, Li Sy? Av=fy? dx. [ See Art. 6'2, Note 2. ]
 VOLUMES AND SURFACE-AREAS 261

volume considered be bounded by two parallel planes perpendicular

to the initial line, we may change to corresponding Cartesian co-
ordinates, with the initial line as the x-axis, by writing «=r cos 0,
y=r sin 0.

Thus,
a
V=r \"" y? dv=r \ * y? sin?6.d (r cos 6)
1 Oy
cD 0 ee Ae as
S=2r |ig y ds=2r I r sin 6. ,/dr?4r7d6",
§1 1

where 7 is expressed in terms of 6 from the givon equation of the curve,

or, if convenient, we may use 7 as the independent variable, and express
6 in terms ot + from the equation, the limits being the corresponding
values of r.

Note. For an alternative method of proof see Appendix.

Illustrative Examples.
Ex.1. Find the volume and area of the curved surface of
= 4ax
a paraboloid of revolution formed by revolving the parabola y?
about the x-avis, and bounded by the section =).
 262 INTEGRAL CALOQULUS

Now_the required volume

vy vy ; ;
Ver \" y? dz=T \; fax dy =2rasr,?= $02.1?

( where y, is the extreme ordinate, so that y,?7= 4am, )

=h.ry,72,=4. (the volume of the corresponding cylinder,

with the extreme circular soction as the baso and height
equal to the abscissa).

Also, the required surfacc-area

at 99a a _
S= a8\" ya 1+(4) d= Oe \" Jac |144 dee
x ee 3 3
= dr val Jatz de= 5m aflat 2)? a5,

Ex. 2. The part of the parabola y? = 4a% bounded by the lutus rectitne
revolwes about the tangent at the vertex. Fund the vclime and the
area of the curved surface of the reel thus generated.

Here the axis of revolution being the y-axis, and the extreme values
of ¥ being evidently +2a,
 VOLUMES AND SURFACE-AREAS 268

the required volume

V= T \+2a
og. a? 9 dy=
dy=mr \\_ °, ia?
aL
+2u 4
dy [°.°"th yt=dar
yte ]
= ig . (2a)* = 4 5
*j6a?' 2 5 5h:

satenace 0/4
Also, the required surface-area
+20
$= 40 -2a 1+ aa) dy
+20 y fl 4
= 2 i. tA/14, lise ae a

14,0a dy dy 2a
ie
=41a? (_e tan?™ sec*@ dé { putting y= 2a tau 6)
+
= 47a? | = (sec5d —sec*0) dé
-in

+h7
= a*|3 tan @ sec?@—} tan 6 sec 0—4 log tan (+30) 4

=:4ra” (2 /2—4 log cot 4x]

=1a? [5 ./2—log (/2+1)].
Ex. 3. Find the volume and the surface-area of the solid generated
by revolvwng the cycloid n=a (0+ sin 0), y=a (1+ cos 8) about tts base.
The equations show that the cycloid has its base as the z-axis ; the
extreme values of @ are given by @= +7, 2.e., = tam.

The required volume

oa ar 3 - , (7 i
Var y? dx=a (1+cos 6)* dé
-ar ~T

5
= §7ra* Nee cos® 46 d@=8ra’: gu == or 28
a”.

The required surface-area

S =r |y ds= Or ly afdx? + dy?

man (™ a(t-+c08 6). fall Fe08 8)dO +(=a sin 6 da)

= 20a” \ee (1+cos 6) ,/2(1+cos
6) dé

= Bra? \" cos* 40 d@=8ra?

—643 a
~% oe
264 INTEGRAL CALCULUS

Ex. 4. Find the volume and surface-area of the solid generated by

revolving the cardioide r=a (L—cos 0) about the initial line.

Here, since the curve is symmetrical about the initial line, the
solid of revolution might as well be considered to be formed by revolv-
ing the upper half of the curve about tho initial linc. The extreme
points of the curve are given by 6=0 and 0=7.

Tho required volume

V=r (yy! dx=7 r* [email protected] (7 cos’@)

=r" |(1—cos 6)? sin?6.d{(1—cos 6) cos 4}

=7a5 \’(1—cos 6)? sin?@ (—sin 6+2 sin @ cos 6) dé

[ x increases as 6 diminishes from 1 to 0)

=7a' |5 (1—z)?(1—2?)(1—22) da [ putting z=cos 6 J

= fra’.

The required surface-area

S=%r (y ds=2r (rsin 6. /dr?+r? do?

= Qn \;a{i—cos 6). sin 6../(a sin 6 d@)?+a2(1—cos 6)? dé?

= Ora? \"(1—cos 8) sin 0 »/2(1— cos 6) dé

2 :
=2 /2ra? \"s dz [ putting z=1—cos 6 ]

=2 J9ma?.? (2)'=52ma?.
11°2. Solids of revolution, axis of revolution being
any line in the plane.
If the given curve LM be revolved about any line AB
in its plane, and the portion considered of the solid of
 VOLUMES AND SURFACE-AREAS 265

revolution formed be bounded by the planes perpendicular

to AB through the points A and B respectively, then PN
being the perpendicular on AB from any point P on the
curve, P’N’ the contiguous perpendicular, the volume of
the portion considered is given by

AB
V= Lt ¥n.PN*.NN’ =n{’ PN?.d (AN).

Also, the surface-area of the portion considered is

given by,

S= Lt =9n PN (elementary arc PP’)=2nf PN.ds.

From the given equation of the curve and of the line

AB, PN, as also AN and ds are expressed in terms of a single
variable, and the corresponding values of the variable for the
points A and B are taken as the limits of integration.

Ex. A quadrant of a circle, of radius a, revolves round its chord.

Find the volume and the surface-area of the solid spindle thus generated.
266 INTEGRAL CALCULUS

P being any point on the quadrant APB, where Z AOP=

clearly 4P=2a sin 40, and 2 PAN=42 POB=4(4r— 8).

0 i mn

*, PN=2a sin $6 sin (}7 —4$0)=a {cos (@— 7) —cos 47}

AN= 2a sin 40 cos ($7 -46)=a {sin a+ sin (0 — j7)}.

Elementary arc PP’ =a dé.

Also for tho solid formed, limits of 0 are 0 and 47 respectively.

Hence, V=7 \ PN? (.4N)

Am ‘
=a? \; {cos (0-11) —cos |}? cos.(@— jr) dé

=a" ne{cos* (8 — fx) — ./2 cos? (@ -- tr) +4 cos (0— }r)] dé

=ras if [3cos (30 — $a)

-+§ cos (6-47)

_ a {ons (20 — 4m) + 1} |do

ena’ J sin (38— 3)— a sin (26— 47)

+? sin (@— tr)~ 7,0\F

=na° ("G0")
 VOLUMES AND SURFACE-AREAS 267

av
Also, S=2r \; PN.a dé

2 (a7
= ra” \ {cos (9 — 41r)—cos tx} dé

= Ora” [sin(0 —47)—-— 19° :

efog,1 _ @ \__ (4-7).

ae (2 V2 2 "n)=*8 ( 4)

11°3. Theorem of Pappus or Guldin.

If a plane area bounded by a closed curve revolves through
any angle about a straryht line in tts own plane, which does
not intersect the curve, then

(1) The volume of the solid generated is equal to the

product of the revolving area into the length of the arc
described by the centroid of the area.
(II) The surface-area of the solid generated is equal to
the product of the perimeter of the revolviny area into the
dength of the are described by the centroid of that perimeter.

Proof.

2’

(I) Let 5A be any element of the area whose distance

from the axis of rotation is z. Then 6 being the angle
268 INTEGRAL CALCULUS

through which the area is rotated, the length of the arc

described by 6A is 26, and hence the elementary volume
described by the element 5A is 20. 6A.
The whole volume described by the given area therefore
= 320.54 =0N2.6A=02A (From Elementary Statics)
[ where A is the total area of the curve and z is the distance
of its centroid from the axis of revolution |
= Az0 =area of the closed curve x length of the arc
described by its centroid.
(II) Let Ss be the length of any element PP’ of the
perimeter of the given curve, and z’ its distance from the
axis of revolution. The elementary surface traced out by
the element és is ultimately 2’0 . 6s.
The total surface-aroa of the solid generated is therefore
= 32'0.6s
= 0N2'.5s= 62's (From Hlementary Statics)
[ where s is the whole perimeter of the curve, and z’ the
distance of the centroid of this perimeter from the axis |
= §.2'@= perimeter x length of the are described by
its centroid.
Note. The above results hold even if the axis of rotation touch the
closed curve.

Ex.1. Find the volume and surface-area of a solid tyre, a being the
radius of its section, and b that of the core.
The tyre is clearly generate! by revolving a circle of radius a about
an axis whose distance from the centre of the circle is b.
‘he centre of the circlo is the centroid of both the area of the circle
as also of the perimeter of the circle, and the length of the path
described by it is evidently 2xb.
Hence, the required yvolume= ra? x 2ab = 277a7b
and the required surface-area = 29a xX Irb= 447 ab.
 VOLUMES AND SURFACE-AREAS 269

Ex. 2. Show that the volume of the solid formed by the rotation
about the line 0=0 of the area bounded by the curve r=f (6) and the
lines 0=6,, 0=86, is

ar ie
8
r® sing dé.
1

Hence, find the volume of tie solid generated by reroleina the

cardioide r=a (l—cos @) about the initial line.

Dividing the area in question into an infinite number of clomontary

areas (as in the figure, § 9°38) by radical lines through the origin, let
us consider one such eleinentary area btounded by the radii vectors
inclined at angles 0 and @+dé@ to the initial line, their lengths being
rand r+drsay. This elementary area is ultimately in the form of a
trinngle whose aroa is $r (+ dr) sin dé, t.e., $7? d6 up to the first order.
Its C. G. is, neglecting infinitesimals, at a distance $r from the origin
and its perpendicular distanco from the initial line is ultimately
4r sin 8. The clementary volume obtained by revolving the elementary
urea about the initial line is therefore by Pappus’ theorem, ultimately
equal to

Qn. 3r sin 6.47? dO=3rr* sin 6 dé.

Tlence, integrating between the extreme limits 6=0@, and @=84,,

the total voluine of the solid of revolution in question is

0
ax | > +? gin
6dé.
4

In case of the cardioide »=a (1—cos 8), the extrome limits for 6 are
easily seen to be 0 and 7, and so the volume of the solid of revolution
generated by it is

ar \"a*® (1—cos 6)* sin @ d0, which on putting 1—cos 6=z2

easily reduces to
2 4

$ra* \ 2* dz= ora? = ara’.

270 INTEGRAL CALCULUS

EXAMPLES XI

1. Find the volumes of the solids generated by revolv-

ing about the x-axis, the areas hounded by the following
curves and lines:
(i) y=sinzw: c=0; z=n.
Gi) y=5r-a*7: 2=0; w=5.
(iii) y* =9n 5 y= 387.
(iv) Jat J/y= Ja; 2=0; y=0.
2. Show that the volume of a right circular cone of
height fA and base of radius a is 4na°h.
3. The circle 2° +y? =a? revolves round the r-axis:
show that the surface and the volume of the whole sphere
generated are respectively 4na” and gzxa°. [C. P. 1941 }
4. Prove thai the surface and the volume of the ellip-
2 2

soid formed by the revolution of the ellipse n3 + 2 =!

(i) round its major axis are respectively

Qnab { /1-e*+e7* sin~7%e} and $xab*,
and (ii) round its minor axis are respectively

24
ona wes log tog4/28
1-ef ona
and Sn
3 mh b.

5. Show that the curved surface and volume of the

catenoid formed by the revolution, about the a-axis, of

the area bounded by the catenary y= 5 (ec+ es), the

y-axis, the x-axis, and an ordinate, are respectively

n(sy+anr) an” tna (sy + az),
s heing the length of the are between (0, a) and (2, y).
 VOLUMES AND SURFACE-AREAS 271

6.
The arc of the astroid z=a cos°0, y=a sin*@, from
6=0 to 6=4n revolves about the z-axis; show that the
volume and the surface-area of the solid generated are
respectively jo'sna® and £2a".
7 A cycloid revolves round the tangent at the vertex ;
show that the volume and the surface-area of the solid
generated are n°a° and 42207 respectively, a being the radius
of the generating circle.
8. The portion between the two consecutive cusps of
the cycloid 2 =a(@+sin 6), y=a(1+cos 6) is revolved about
the x-axis ; show that the area of the surface so formed, is
to the area of the cycloid, as 64: 9. [ Nagpur, 1984 |

9. Show that the surface of the spherical zone contained

between two parallel planes = 22a x the distance between the
two planes, where a is the radius of the sphere.

10. Show that the volume of the solid generated by

the revolution of the upper-half of the loop of the curve
y? =a? (2-2) about OX is $n.
11. Show that the volume of the solid produced by the
revolution of the loop of the curve y*(a+2)=27(a — 2) about
the «x-axis is 2na° (log 2— 4). [ P. P. 19865 ]
12. Show that the surface-area and the volume of the
solid generated by the revolution about the z-axis of the
loop of the curve e=t7, y=t—4t° are respectively 32
and #n.
13. The smaller of the two ares into which the parabola
y? =8axr divides the circle 2? +y?=9a" is rotated about
the z-axis. Show that the volume of the solid generated
is Bona? ‘
272 INTEGRAL CALCULUS

14. If the curve r=a+5cos@(a> ), revolves about

the initial line, show that the volume generated is
$na (a? + 5°),
15. The following curves revolve round their asymptotes ;
find the volume generated in each case :
(i) y* (Qa-2)=2°.
(ii) y (a? + 27)=a', [ P. P. 1983 ]
(iii) @- 2) y? =a*z.
16. An are of a parabola is bounded at both ends by
the latus rectum of length 4a. Find the volume generated
when the arc is rotated about the latus rectum.
[ Nagpur, 1986 |
17. Show that the volume of the solid formed by
revolving the ellipse =a cos 6, y=6 sin 6, about the hne
x2=a, is 4n°a7b.
18. Show that if the area lying within the cardioide
r=9a(1+cos 6) and outside the parahola 7(1+cos 6) = 2a
revolve about the initial line, the volume generated is 182a°.
19. Show that the volume of the solid generated by
pevounee about OY of the area hounded by OY, the curve
y* =° and the line y=8 is 284.
20. The arc of a parabola from the vertex to one
extremity of the latus rectum is revolved about the corres-
ponding oie Prove that the volume of thg
2 afb
formed is “75 na”

ANSWERS
1. (i) gx? (ii) £347, (iii) gr. (iv) 7a’.
15. (i) Qr2a'. (ii) 47a’. (iii) dr7a°. 16. }27a°.
 CHAPTER XII

CENTROIDS AND MOMENTS OF INERTIA

12°1. Centroid.
It has been proved in elementary statics that if a system
of particles having masses m,, Mg, Mbg,...--- have their
distances parallel to any co-ordinate axis given by 71, 2a,
2 g,---, then the corrosponding co-ordinate of their centre of
mass will be given by
ga Mes + mete tes Smx,
M1 +Mg ter am

Similarly, 7
_>my > ote.
xu
nd

Now, if instead of a system of stray particles, we get

a continuous body, we may consider if to be formed of
an infinite number of infinitely small elements of masses,
and in this case it may be shown, as in the other cases viz.,
determination of lengths, areas, etc., the summation 2
will be replaced by the integral sign.
Thus, if 6m be an element of mass of the body at a point
whose co-ordinates are x, y (or in three dimensions, 2, y, 2)
the position of the centre of mass of the body will be
given by
a fadm,
f dm
the limits of integration being such as to include the whole
body.
18 t
 274 INTEGRAL CALCULUS

In practice, the elementary mass 6m is proportional to

the element! of length 6s, or element of area, or element
of volume of the corresponding element, according as we
proceed to find the centroid of an arc, or area or solid, and
the limits of integration will then be the limits of the
corresponding element.

12°1(1). Illustrative Examples.

Ex. 1. Find the centroid of an wire in the form of @ circular are.

Let AB be a wire in the form of circular arc of radius ‘a’, which

subtends an angle 2a at its centre O.
Take O as origin, and OX, which bisects the arc AB, as the
a-axis.
Then by symmetry, the centroid G lies somewhere on OX.
Now, @ denoting the vectorial angle of the point P on the are, the
element PP’ there has a length a d@, and the abscissa of P is a cos 6.
Also, to covor the whole arc, @ extends between the limits —a to a.
Hence, the abscissa OG of the centroid G is given by

2. fan )*, @c0s 0.pa do

Q@="37-. -
Sada vg 2 8

( p denoting the linear density of tho wire )

 CENTROIDS AND MOMENTS OF INERTIA 275

a
| cos 6 dé a 5
ges eet nts ee
4 \ S do 2a a

Cor. The distance of the centroid of a semi-circular arc from the

. 2a
centre is .
T

Ex. 2. Find the centre of grarity of a uniform lamina bounded

by a parabola and a double ordanate of at.

Let the lamina be bounded by a parabola y°=4az and a double

ordinate RM/?’ given by w=a2,.

By symmetry, the centroid lies on ‘the axis, and hence y=0.

Divide the Jwnina into elementary strips by lines parallel to the

y-axis. Considor the strip /QQ’P’, whero the co-ordinates of P are
(x,y). The length PQ is 2y and tho breadth NN’ is dz. Hence, the
area of the strip is ultimately 2y dz. The limits of x, to cover the area
considered, are clearly 0 to z,.

Iience, for the required centre of gravity,

ey
x din 0 zw. 2ydz.a
sel “)
Be
dm \; 2y dz.

( where o is the surface-density of the lamina}

 276 INTEGRAL CALCULUS

2 -_—— 1
|, @2Niae deo ‘, a* da £
3 <= a0 BL
as z 5 Uae
\"*2 Jéaa dv 6 | a? ae ax *

Thus, the centre of gravity divides the length OM in the ratio of

8:2.

Ex. 3. Find the centre of gravity of a uniform lamina in the form

of Z ; a? 43
@ quadrant of the ellipse a? th? =, [ P. P. 1985 J

Y
B P

Let 40.8 be the quadrant considered. Divide it into elomontary

strips by lines parallel to the y-axis. The area of the elemontary
strip corresponding to the point P, whose co-ordinates are 2, y, is
ultimately y 5, and the centroid of this elemont is at the middle point
of the strip (which is supposed infinitely thin) and thus has its

co-ordinates 2, The limits of « for the quadrant considered are

evidently 0 and a.

Tience, the O,G. of the area considered will be given by (2’, 4’

denoting the co-ordinates of the centroid of the element dm which is
taken here as the strip),
co Z
| & am \% 0.ydoc { o being the surface-
density of the lamina }
\ am 5 dees
 CENTROIDS AND MOMENTS OF INERTIA QTT

& <b ya =
Ven? Ja?—2? dz.o [-. x
+¥,=1 |
0a _ Na ceeo? dz.c a® ftpa

\scJ/a?—x? dz \"
0
sin 6 cos?@ d@
\"
Jat — a? dz \ cos76 dé
0 0
[ putting z=a sin @ J

\* cos*6 d@
=-1l,
= 0
——————= _1 ae
Trae
2 (5 cos*@ ao oe OF
0 2

Cor. The centroid of half the ellinse bounded by the neinor axis is

on the major axis at a distance — from the centre.

Also the centroid of # semi-cirenlar area of radius ‘a’ is on the

radius bisecting it, at a distance 2 from’ the centre.

Ex. 4. Hund the centre of gravity of a solid henaisphere.

Clearly, the hemisphere may be suppose to be generated by revolv-

ing @ circular quadrant APB about one bounding radius OA, which
we may choose as the z-axis. By symmetry, the contre of gravity
of the homisphore will be on OX. Now, divide the homisphere into
infinitely thin circular slices by plancs perpendicular to the axis of
reyolution OX. An element of such slice, corresponding to the point P,
278 INTEGRAL CALCULUS

has its volume ultimately equal to ry? Sx (x, y being the cartesian
co-ordinates of P), and the z-co-ordinatos of its centre is x.

Hence, if ¢ be the density of the solid hemisphere and a its radius,

the position of the C. G. is given by

a a
\ x.y? dx.p \ x(a? —2x’) du
2 0 _So 30
Qe - ae:
x -- 4 2 =a 2 ]

&0 7 a dx .p @ ta tna”) da
\F

aa
2 +

ag 4 8
so a.
a?-a—%

12°2. Moment of Inertia.

If a system of particles have masses 71, Me, M3,-.. and

if 74, 2, 7g,--. be their distances from a given line, then
mr? is defined as the moment of inertia of the system of
particles about the given line.

If M be the total mass of the system 41, %%2, etc.,

it is usual to express the moment of inertia of the system
about any line in the form Mk°, where k represents a length
 CENTROIDS AND MOMENTS OF INERTIA 279

and is called the radius of gyration of the system about the

given line.

If instead of a system of particles, it is a body in the

form of a thin wire, or a lamina or a solid, of which we
want to find the moment of inertia about a given line, we
may consider the body to be made up of an infinite number
of infinitely small elements of masses, and then the summa-
tion Smr? reduces to the integral f r? dm, where the limits
are such:as to cover the whole body.

12°2(1). Illustrative Examples.

Ex. 1. Find the moment of wnertia of a thin uniform straight rod
of mass M and length 2a about its perpendicular bisector.

Y,'

rr
B Q: P A

An infinitesimal clement of length dz at P whose distance from

the middlo point of the rod is x, has its mass 5be. Hence, the
moment of inertia of the rod about the perpendicular bisector OY is
given by

ta 4M, MM 2a*_ 4,0”.

|~~ wg oa 3 MS
 280 INTEGRAL CALCULUS

Ex. 2. Find the moment of inertia of a thin uniform lamina in the

form of a rectangle about an axis of symmetry through its centre.

Let 2a and 26 be the lengths of tho adjacent sides AD and AB of

the rectangular lamina ABCD, and OX, OY the axos of symmetry
through its centre O, which are parallel to them.

M being the mass of the lamina, the surface-density is clearly

is Now, divide the lamina into thin strips parallel to OX, and
consider any strip PQ at a distance y from OX, whose breadth is dy.

The mass of the strip is then evidently re - 2a dy. Every portion of it

being ultimately at the same distance y from OX, the moment of
inertia of the whole lamina about the z-axis is givon by
+b M
I =
° y 2, dab 2a dy

=M*

Similarly, the moment of inertia of the lamina about OY is given by

Iy= M%..
 CENTROIDS AND MOMENTS OF INERTIA 281

Ex. 3. Find the moment of inertia of a thin uniform elliptic

lamina about its axes.
eve
Let 7ie Vis 1 be the equation to the ellipse. Its area is known
5
to be rab, and if M be its mass, the surface-density is oa Dividing
tho lamina into thin strips by lines parallel to the g-agis, in
elementary strip at a distance y fiom the z-axis has its length
Qe =2F J/b?—y7 from the equation of the elliptic boundary. Thus,

dy being the breadth of the strip, its mass is oa, a/b? —y" Sy.

Hence, the moment of inertia of the lamina ahout the z-axis is

given by

=
+b ye
M see

2 4
— 2Mb
wra sin?@ cos*0 d@ [ putting y=b sin @ ]

_2Mb” bh?
gg Ge
Similarly, the moment of inertia of the lamina about the y-axis is
given by
a?

Iy=M 1 ms

Cor. Tho moment of inertia of a thin uniform circular disc of

2
mass M, and radius a, about any diameter is MG . [ P. P. 1932]

Ex. 4. Find the moment of inertia of a thin uniform circular plate

about an axis through its centre perpendicular to its planc. ~

Let M be the mass and a the radius of the circular lamina, so that

its surface-density is ™a,ae

282 INTEGRAL CALCULUS

Divide the lamina into infinitely thin concentric rings by circles

concentric with the boundary. Any elementary ring between circles

of radii 7 and ++6r has its area ultimately equal to 2rr ér and so its
mass is eon dr. As covery part of the ring is ultimately at the

samo distance r from the axis in question which is perpendicular to its

plane through the centre, the moment of inertia of the ring about the

axis is ultimately ester or.r?,

Henco, the required momont of inertia of the disc about the axis
is given by

T= |: a Qry dr.r?
0 ra,

=a2
43 (ey dr=
\N 4 2M
oa a’ _ 4,0"
4719

Ex. 5. Find the moment of inertia of a sphere about a diameter.

ale ( P. P. 1984]
If M be the mass aud a the radius of the sphere, the volume of the
sphere is known to be $7a*, and hence its density is -
3

Take the diameter about which the moment of inertia is required

to be the #-axis. Divide the sphere into infinitely thin circular slices
by planes perpendicular to this axis. An elomentary slice betwoen the
planes z and x+462 has its volume ultimately equal to w (a?—a?) dz,
 CENTROIDS 4ND MOMENTS OF INERTIA 288

since its radius is /(a?—2). [Seo Fig. He. 4, Art. 12°1] Hence, the
moment of inortia of this slice about the z-axis, which is perpendi-
cular to its plane through its centre, is ultimately
3 oe 2
4,
[ Sec Er, 4 above ]
(a” —a;") ae - .
tae

T{once, the required moment of inertia of the whole sphere about

the diameter is given by
2
se ta M 2,8 a'-a
ra\it Yr (a x?) dz 9

3 w(t 2a? 2? +2") dx

=; i ” (a!
-a

3 Mf 4.9 _5,2,20° 4"\ = * ‘

= ¢ It
(a'.20 2a" 3 + 5 =, Ma’.

EXAMPLES XII

1. Show that the C.G. of thin hemispherical shell

is at the middle point of the radius perpendicular to its
bounding plane.

2. Show that the C. G. of (i) a solid right circular cone

is on the axis at a distance from the base equal to ¢ of the
height of the cone ; (ii) a thin hollow cone without base is
on the axis at a distance from the base equal to 4 of the
height of the cone.

3. Find the centroid of the whole arc of the cardioide

r=a(1+cos 6).
4. Find the centroid of the area hounded by the cycloid
x2=a(6+sin 6), y=a(1—cos 6) and its base.
5. Find the centroid of the sector of a circle.
[ P. P. 1981 ]
284 INTEGRAL CALCULUS

6. Find the centroid of the arc of the parabola y? = 4a

included between the vertex and one extremity of the latus
rectum.

7. Find the positions of the centroids of the following

areas : :
(i) A loop of the curve y*(a+2)=27(a- 2).
(ii) Area bounded by the curve y?(2a-7)=2", and
* its asymptote.
(iii) Area bounded by y? = 4az and y = 22.
(iv) One loop of r=a cos 206.

8. Find the moment of inertia of a solid right circular

cylinder of radius a about its axis. [P. P. 1988 |

9. Obtain the moment of inertia of a solid right

circular cone of height & and semi-vertical angle a about
its axis.

10. Prove that the moment of inertia about an axis

through the centre perpendicular to the plane of a thin
circular ring whose outer and inner radii are a and 6 is
4M (a? +b*), where M denotes the mass of the ring.
11. Find the moment of inertia of a rectangular
parallelopiped, the lengths of whose edges are respectively
Qa, 2b, 2c, about an axis through its centre parallel to the
edge 2a.

12. Show that the moment of inertia of a thin hollow

spherical shell of radius 7 and mass M, about a diameter is
2a?
M3
 CENTROIDS AND MOMENTS OF INERTIA 285 .

138. Show that the moment of inertia of a parabolic

area of latus rectum 4a, cut off by an ordinate of a distance
hk from the vertex, is #Mh? ahout the tangent at the vertex,
and $Mah about the axis, 1 being the mass of the area.
14. Show that if a thin lamina has its moments of
inertia about two perpendicular axes in its plane respect-
ively equal to I, and Je, then the moment of inertia about
a normal to the plane through their point of intersection
is J, + Tg.

15. Prove the theorem of parallel aves in case of a

lamina, namely, that the moment of inertia of a thin lamina
about any given line in its plane is equal to that about
a parallel line through its C. G., together with the moment
of inertia of the whole mass concentrated at the C. G.
about the given line.

ANSWERS

3. g2= ta, y=0. 4, 2=0, y= ga.

5. On the radius bisecting the sector, at a distance $a Ae from

the centre, 2a boing tho angle of the sector at the centre, and a the
radius.
@ 3 J/2—log (./2 +1) 4a. 2/2-1
6. = 4° Yoriog (241)' Y=3° J2+log (241)
. @ 3r—-8 wy OG
7. (i) c= gogo y= 0. (ii) <= 3? V=0.

Ble
(iii c=2a, y=a. ae iw) pa2282.4,
(iv) #= i0k yoo,
3 7 =0.

8. My
a? 8
9. 10 Mh?
me
tan*a. 11. M-
b? +3 ¢?
 CHAPTER XIII

ON SOME WELL-KNOWN CURVES

13°1. We give below diagrams, equations, and a few

characteristics of some well-known curves which have been
used in the preceding pages in obtaining their properties.
The student is supposed to be familiar with conic sections
and graphs of circular functions, so they are not given
here.

13°2. Cycloid.

The cycloid is the curve traced out by a point on the

circumference of a circle which rolls (without sliding) on
a straight line.

Ou mM D Oo’ x
Fig. (i)
g=a(0—sin 6). 4)=a(1—cos @).

Tet P be the point on the circle MP, called the generat-

-ing circle, which traces out the cycloid. Let the line OMX
on which the circle rolls be taken as z-axis and the point O
on OX, with which P was in contact when the circle began
rolling; be taken as the origin.

Let a be the radius of the generating circle, and C its

-centre, P the point (x, y) on it, and let 7PCM=06, Then
 ON SOME WELL-KNOWN CURVES 287
6 is the angle through which the circle turns as the
point P traces out the locus.
OM =are PM=ao.
Let PL be drawn perpendicular to OX.
x= OL=OM- LM =a —- PN =a0—a sin @
=a(0—- sin 8),
y= PL=NM=CM-CN=a-a cos 0
=a(1— cos 0).
Thus, the parametric equations of the cycloid with the
starting point as the origin and the line on which the circle
rolls, called the base, as the x-axis, are
x =a(0~sin 0), y=a(1—cos 6). + (i)
The point A at the greatest distance from the base OX
is called the verter. Thus, for the vertex, y 7.e., a(1— cos 6)
is maximum. Hence, cos @=—1 i.¢., 0=2.
AD=<a(1-cos2)=2a. .% vertex is (ax, 2a).
For
Oand O',y=0. .. cos@=1. .°. 6=0 and 2x.
As the circle rolls on, arches like OAO’ are generated
over and over again, and any single arch is called a cycloid.

Fig. (ii)
2=a(#+sin 6). 1/=a(1—cos 6).

Since the vertex is the point (ax, 2a) the equation of

the cycloid with the vertex as the origin and the tangent
 288 INTEGRAL CALCULUS

at the vertex as the t-axis can be obtained from the previous

equation by transferring the origin to (az, 2a) and turning
the axes through x 7.¢., by writing
anta’ cosn-y’ sinn and ata’ sinaty’ cosz
for x and ¥ respectively.
Hence, a(0—sin 6)=azn-7'’,
Or 7 = “ile—6)+a sin 6=a(6'+sin 0’),
where 6’=2-6,
and a(1l — cos 6) =+2a-y’,
or, y' =2a-—atacos 0=at+u cos 6
=a—a cos (xn— 0)=a(1 — cos 6’).
Hence, (dropping dashes) the equatson of the cycloid
with the vertex as the origin and the tangent at the verter
as the 2-axis 18
x=a(6+sin 6), y=a(1—-cos 6). o> (ii)
In this equation, 6=0 for the verter, 6=n for O, and
6=—-x for 0’.
The characterzstic properives are :
a. (i) For the cycloid 2=a(6-sin 6), y =a(1—cos 6), radius
‘of curvature =twice the length of the normal.
(ii) THe evolute of the cycloid is an equal cycloid.
(iji) For the cycloid «= a(6+sin 6), y=a(1 — cos 6), y= $0
and s* =Say, s being Measured from the vertex.
(iv) The length of the above cycloid included between
the two cusps is 8a.
(v) Intrinsic equation is s= 4a sin y. ,
Note. The above equation (ii) can also be obtained from the
Fig. (i) geomatrically as follows :
 ON SOME WELL-KNOWN CURVES 289

If (z’, y') be the co-ordinates of P referred to the vertex as the

origin and the tangent at the vertex as the z-axis,
oe’ = LDD=OD—- OL=ar—2=a(r—8)+a sin 6,
y =AD—PL=2a—y=2a—a(1—cos 6)=a(1+4 cos 6).
Hence, writing 6’ (or 6) for r—9, cte.

13°3. Catenary.
The catenary is the curve in which a uniform heavy
string will hang under the action of gravity when suspended
from two points. It is also called the chazneite.
Tts equation, as shown in books on Statics, is
x x
x ¢ =
y=c
=
cosh ie
ne Se
(c+ec Ghe

v0

Cc

oO N xX

C is called the vertex ; OC =c. OX is called the directriz.

The characteristic properties are :
(i) The perpendicular from the foot of the ordinate upon
the tangent at any point is of constant length.
(ii) Radius of curvature at any point=length of the
normal at the point (the centre of curvature and the z-axis
being on the opposite sides of the curve).
Gii) y? =c7+57, s being measured from the vertex C.
(iv) s=c tan y, y=c sec ¥.
(v) z=c log (seo y+ tan y¥).
19
290 INTEGRAL CALCULUS

13°4. Tractrix.
Its equation is
= fata % og Oa“ Nay,
wears

Y
A

Oo T xX

or, z=a(cos ¢ +log tan 41), y=a sin ¢.

Here, OA=a.
The characteristic properties are :
(i) The portion of the tangent intercepted between the
curve and the z-axis, is constant.
(ii) The radius of curvature varies inversely as the
normal (the centre of curvature and the «-axis being on the
opposite sides of the curve).
(iii) The evolute of the tractrix is the catenary
y =a cosh (x/a).

13°5. Astroid.
2 2 2
Its equation is x*+y*=a?%, 3
or, X™a cos*6, y= a sin?6.
Here, OA=OB=OA'=OB' =a.
The whole figure lies completely within a circle of radius
a and centre O. The points A, A’, B, B’ are called cusps.
It is a special type of a four-cusped hypo-cycloid.
[ See § 78°6 ]
 ON SOME WELL-KNOWN CURVES 291

The characteristic property of this curve is that the

tangent at any point to the curve intercepted between.
the axes is of constant length.

The perimeter of the astroid «° + y* =a" is Ga.

13°6. Four-cusped Hypo-cycloid.
: ; x 3 y)'=
Its equation is (=) +(z 1,

or, X=a cos*¢?, y=b sin®#,

Here, OA=OA'=a; OB=OB'=b.

2 2
The perimeter of the hypo-cycloid ABA'B’ is qetaeee

The astroid is a speciallcase of this when a=b.

292 INTEGRAL CALCULUS

13°7. Evolutes of Parabola and Ellipse.

(i) The evolute of the parabola y? = 4az is

27ay? = 4(x — 2a)>.
This curve is called a semi-cubical parabola.

Transferring the origin to (2a, 0), its equation assumes

the form y*=kx* where k=4/27a, which is the standard
equation of the semi-cubical parabola with its vertex at the
origin.

Hence, the vertex C of the evolute is (2a, 0).

(ii) The equation of the evolute of the ellipse

a* / a? +y? /b?=1 is
2 2 2
(ax)* + (by)? = (a? — b?)?,
which can be written in the form

(:)'+(5)'=3
oa

where a=(a7—-6?)/a, B=(a? —b?)/bd.

 ON SOME WELL-KNOWN CURVES 9938

2_ 72\2
The area of the evolute is an? es ) :
Y

Lx
2 2
The length of the evolute is a(% - a)

Hence, it is a four-cusped hypo-cycloid.

13°8. Folium of Descartes.
Its equation is x*-+y* = 3axy.
It is symmetrical about the line 7 =~.
Y

The axes of co-ordinates are tangents at the origin, and

there is a loop in the first quadrant.
It has an asymptote x+y+a=O0 and its radii of curva-
ture at origin are each = ja.
294 INTEGRAL CALCULUS

The area included between the curve and its asymptote

=the area of the loop of the curve
= 8,2.
13°9. Logarithmic and Exponential Curves.
v
Y

Oo x

(i) y=log x. (ii) y=e".

(i) « is always positive: y=O when w7=1, and as x
becomes smaller and smaller, 1, being negative, becomes
numerically larger and larger. For x > 0, the curve its
continuots.
(ii) « may be positive or negative but 1 is always positive
and y becomes smaller and smaller, as 2, being negative,
becomes numerically larger and larger. 'he curve is conti-
nuous for all values of a.
13°10. Probability Curve.
The equation of the
probability curve is
y=en*,
The a-axis is an
asymptote.

The area between the

curve and the asymptote is

= 2 jor de :24J/n= Jn.

 ON SOME WELL-KNOWN CURVES 295

13°11. Cissoid of Diocles.

Its cartesian equation is
y* (Qa—-2)=2°.

OA = 2a ; x = 2a is an asymp-
tote.

Its polar equation is

_ 2a sin*@
cos 6

13°12. Strophoid.
The equation of the curve is
atY ax xnd UT,
ap

OA=OB=a.
OCBPO is a loop.
x=q@ is an asymptote.

Qa-@. ., :
The curve y?=2" ata 8 similar, just the reverse of
296 INTEGRAL CALCULUS

strophoid, the loop being on the right side of the

origin and the asymptote on the left
side. Y

13°18. Witch of Agnesi.

The equation of the curve is

ay? = 4a? (Qa- 2).

Here, OA = 2a.

This curve was first discussed

by the Italian lady mathematician
Maria Gactaua Agnesi, Professor of
Mathematics at Bologna.
13°14. Logarithmic (or Equiangular) spiral.
Its equation is r=ae’ °%*( or, r=ae™ ),
where cot a or m is constant.
Characteristic Properties :
(i) The tangent at any point makes a constant angle
with the radius vector, (¢ =a).
(ii) Its pedal, inverse, polar reciprocal and evolute are
all equiangular spirals.

Gii) The radius of curvature subtends a right angle at

the pole.
Note. Because of the property (i), the spiral is called eguiangular.
 ON SOME WELL-KNOWN CURVES 297

13°15. Spiral of Archimedes.

-
enw

lts equation is r=aé.

Its characteristic property is that its polar subnormal
is constant.
13°16. Cardioide.
Its equation is (i) r=a(1-+ cos 6), or, (ii) r=a(1 — cos @).
In (i), 8=0 for A, and 0=x for O.
In (ii), 0=2 for A, and 6=0 for O.

(i) r=a (1+cos 6). (ii) r=a (1—cos 6).

In both cases, the curve is symmetrical about the initial

line, which divides the whole curve into two equal halves,
and for the upper half, @ varies from 0 to 2, and OA= 2a.
298 INTEGRAL CALCULUS

The curve (ii) is really the same as (i) turned through

180°.
The curve passes through the origin, its tangent there
being the initial line, and the tangent af A is perpendicular
to the initial line.
Tho evolute of the cardioide is a cardioide.
The perimeter of the cardioide is 8a.
Note. Becauso of its shape like human heart, it is called a car-
dioide. The cardioide r= a(1-+cos 6) is the pedal of the circle r=2a cos 6
with respect to a point on the circumference of the circle, and inverse
of tho parabola r=a/(1+cos 6).

13°17. Limacon.
The equation of the curve is
r=at+b cos @.
When a > b, we have the outer curve, and when a < b, we
Y have the inner curve
with the loop.

When a=), the curve

reduces to a cardioide.
[ See fig. in § 13°16|

Limacon is the pedal

of a circle with respect
to a point outside the
: circumference of the
¥ circle.

13°18. Lemniscate.
Its equation is r?=.4? cos 20,
or, (2?
+ y*)?
#\%
=a? (2? - y*).
 ON SOME WELL-KNOWN CURVES 299

It consists of two equal loops, each symmetrical ahout

the initial line, which divides each loop into two equal halves,
OA = OA’ =a.
Y

7 A X

r? =q” cos 260

The tangents at the origin are y= +2.
For the upper half of the right-hand loop, @ varies from
0 to tn.
A characteristic property of it is that the product of
the distances of any point on it from (+a/ ,/2, 0) is constant.
The area of the lemniscate is a”.
The lemniscate is the pedal of the rectangular hyperbola
7” cos 20=a7. The curve represented by r* =a" sin 20 is

r?=a? sin 20
also sometimes called lemniscate or rose lemniscate, to distin-
guish it from the first lemniscate, which is sometimes called
Lemniscate of Bernoulli after the name of the mathematician
J. Bernoulli who first studied its properties.
300 INTEGRAL CALCULUS

The curve consists of two equal loops, situated in the

first and third quadrants, and symmetrical about the line
y=. It is the first curve turned through 45°.
The tangents at the origin are the axes of x and y.
The area of the curve is a’.

13°19. Rose-Petals (r=a sin n@, r™a cos né).

The curve represented by r=a sin 36, or, r=a cos 36 is
called a three-leaved rose, each consisting of three equal

B(s)
r=asin 36@ r=a cos 80

r=q sin 26 r=a@ cos 26

 ON SOME WELL-KNOWN CURVES 801

loops. The order in which the loops are described is indica-

ted in the figures by numbers. In each case, O0A=OB=OC
=g,and ZAOB= 2 BOC= /COA=120".
The curve represented by r=a sin 20, or, r=a cos 26 is
called a fowr-leaved rose, each consisting of four equal loops.
In each case, OA =OB=OC=OD=a and ZAOB= BOC
= /COD= ZDOA=90".
The class of curves represented by r=a sin 0, or,
r=a cos n@ where 2 is a positive integer is called rose-petal,
there being 2 or 2x equal loops according as 1 is odd or even,
all being arranged symmetrically about the origin and
lying entirely within a circle whose centre is the pole and
radius a.

13°20. Sine Spiral (r"=a" sin n6 or r"=a" cos né).

The class of curves represented hy (i) 7” =a" sin 28, or,
(ii) +r” =a” cos n0 is called sine spiral and embraces soveral
important and well-known curves as particular cases.
Thus, for the values »= —1, 1, —2, +2, —4 and 4, the
sine spiral is respectively a straight line, a circle, a rectan-
gular hyperbola, a lemniscate, a parabola and a cardioide.
For (i) 6=70; for (ii) b=4n+ 00.
The pedal equation in both the cases is
p= tt 1 /a”
 DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS
CHAPTER XIV
INTRODUCTION AND DEFINITIONS
14°1. Definitions and classification.
A differential equation is an equation involving differen-
tials (or differential coefficients) with or without the variables
from which these differentials (or differential coefficients)
are derived.
The following are examples of differential equations :
BHongt vee ee (1)

(3%)"= an?+ bee as ar (2)

aya ie 2 (3)
(3.2) =a" ee ie a (4)
a"45 (3%)"+2y=0 oe sc6 (5)
2 $2422 0 se se (6)

Ae 5070 ts ae (7)

Differential equations are divided into two classes vzz.,

Ordinary and Partial.

An ordinary differential equation is one in which all

the differentials (or derivatives) involved have reference to
a, single independent variable.
 INTRODUCTION AND DEFINITIONS 303

A partial differential equation is one which contains

partial differentials (or derivatives) and as such involves
two or more independent variables.

Thus in the above set, equations (1), (2), (3), (4) and (5)
are ordinary differential equations and equations (6) and (7)
are partial differential equations.

In order to facilitate discussions, differential equations

are Classified according to order and degree.
The order of a differential equation is the order of the
highest derivative (or differential) in the equation. Thus,
equations (1) and (2) are of the first order, (3) and (5) are of
the second order and (4) is of the third order.

The degree of an algebraic differential equation is the

degree of the derivative (or differential) of the highest order
in the equation, after the equation is freed from radicals
and fractions in its derivatives. Thus, the equations (2) and
(4) are of the second degree.
Note. Strictly speaking, the term ‘degree’ is used with reference
to those differential equations only which can be written as poly-
nomials in tho derivatives.

We shall consider in this treatise only ordinary differen-

tial equations of different orders and degrees.

14°2. Formation of ordinary Differential Equations.

Let f(z, y, c1)=0 eae “+ (1)
be an equation containing x,y and one arbitrary constant ¢.
Differentiating (1), we get
éf , of dy
de _ or foe (9
(2)
804 INTEGRAL CALCULUS

Equation (2) will in general contain c,. If cy be eli-

minated between (1) and (2), we shall get a relation involv-
ing 2, ¥, and at which will evidently be a differential

equation of the first order.

Similarly, if we have arfequation
f(y, C1, ¢g)=0 eve Tn G)
containing two arbitrary constants c, and c,, then by
differentiating this twice, we shall get two equations.
New, between these two equations and the given equation,
in all three equations, if the two arbitrary constants cz
and ¢y be climinated, we shall evidently get a differential
equation of the second order.
In general, if we have an equation
F(a, UV, C1, Cayeee Cn) =O oe wee (4)
containing » arbitrary constants C1, Cg,-.. cn, then by
differentiating this » times, we shall get » equations. Now,
hetween these » equations and the given equation, in all
(1+1) equations, if the » arbitrary constants ¢4, Cq,--. ¢n be
eliminated, we shall evidently get a differential equation
of the 2th order*, for there being » differentiations, the
resulting equation must contain a derivative of the mth
order.
Note. From tho process of forming a differential equation from a
givon primitive, it is clear that since the equation obtained by varying
the arbitrary constants in the primitive represents a certain system
or family of curves, the differential equation (in which the constants
do not appear) expresses some property common to all those curves.
me ee ee eon —— et ee es ee ee

* A relation containing n arbitrary constants may in certain cases

give rise to a differential equation of order less than n.
 INTRODUCTION AND DEFINITIONS 305

We may thus say that a differential equation represents a family of

scurves all satisfying some common property. This cen be considered a8
the geometrical interpretation of the differential equation.

14°38. Solution of a Differential Equation.

Any relation connecting the variables of an equation and
not involving their derivatives, which satisfies the given
differential equation 7.e., from which the given differential
equation can be derived, is calleda solution of the differen-
tial equation. Thus,
y =e" +C, where C is any arbitrary constant,
and y= Ag+B, where A and B are arbitrary constants,
are respectively solutions of the differential equations (1)
and (3) of Art. 141.
From the above, it is clear that a differential equation
may have an unlimited number of solutions, for each of the
different relations obtained by giving particular values to
the arbitrary constant or constants in the solution of the
equations satisfies the equation, and hence, is a solution to
the equation; thus, y=2—- /ll, y=2a-3, y= — $a ete.
are all solutions of the differential equation (3) of Art. 14°1.
The arbitrary constants A, B, C appearing in the solution
are called arbitrary constants of integration.
The solution of a differential equation in which the
number of independent arbitrary constants is equal to the
order of the equation, is called the general or complete
solution (or complete primitive) of the equation.
The solution obtained by giving particular values to
the arbitrary constants of the general solution, is called
a particular solution of the equation.
20
 306 INTEGRAL CALOULUS

Thus, y = 4x + B is the general solution, andy=xz—- /1],

y=22-3, y=- fa are all particular solutions of the
equation (3) of Art, 14°1,
There is another kind of solution called the singular
solution, which will be discussed in a subsequent chapter.
[ See Ari. 16°4 |
By a proper manipulation of the arbitrary constants in
the general solution of a differential equation, the general
solution is very often written in different forms ; it should
be noted however that each of these forms determines the
same relation between the variables. This will be subse-
quently illustrated in the worked out examples.

When an equation is to be solved, it is generally implied

that the complete solution is required.

It sometimes happens that the process of solving a

differential equation leads to integrals which cannot he
evaluated in terms of known elementary functions. In such
a case, the equation is considered as having been solved
when it has been reduced to an expression involving integrals
and it is said that the solution of the equation has been
reduced to quadrature.
Note 1. The arbitrary constants in the solution of a differential
equation are said to be «independent, when it is impossible to deduce
from the solution an equivalent relation containing fewer arbitrary
constants. Thus, the two arbitrary constants A, B in the equation
y= Ae"?® are not indepondont, since the equation can be written as
y= Ae® .e*= Ce*.

Note 2. In the elementary treatise we shall not concorn our-

selves with the question whether a differential equation has & solu-
tion or what are the conditions under which it will have a solution
 INTRODUCTION AND DEFINITIONS 807

of a particular character; in fact we shall assume without proof the

following fundamental theorem of differential equations viz.,
An ordinary differential equation of order n has a solution inwolv-
ing n independent arbitrary constants, and this solution is unique.

14°3(1). Ilustrative Examples.

Ex.1. Find the differential equation of all straight lines passing
through the origin.
Let y= ma aad, =H Ng (1)
be the equation of any straight line passing through the origin.
Differentiating (1), Mom, ne (2)
Eliminating m between (1) and (2), we get
y=u a the required differential equation.

Ex. 2. Find the differential equation from the relation

c=acost+b sin ft,
a and b being arbitrary constants.
Differentiating the given relation twice with respect to 4, wo get
£,=—asint+dcost, and
fg=—a cot t—b sin t= —(a cos t+ sin t)= —a.
2

ws Cgtx=0, «.2., oe +2=0 is the required differential equation.

Ex. 3. Eliminate a and b from y=a tan2+b.

Differentiating the givon relation with respect to z,
a
ae (+27) y,=a.
Differentiating, (1+27) yo+ 2xy,=0.
This is the required eliminant.

EXAMPLES XIV

1. Show that the differential equation of a system of

concentric circles is 2 dx t+ydy=0. Interpret the result
geometrically.
2. Prove that the differential equation of all circles
touching the z-axis at the origin is (c* — y*) dy — Qary dx=0.
808 INTEGRAL CALCULUS

3. (i) Show that the differential equation of all parabolas

(a) having their axes parallel to y-axis is y, =0.
(b) with foci at the origin and axes along the z-axis
is yy," +2ey1-y=0.
(ii) Show that the differential equation of the family of
circles x* + y? + 29x + Ofy +c=0 is (Lt+y17)ys — 3y1yg" =0.
(iii) Show that the differential equation of the family of
cardioides 7 =a(1 + cos 6) is (1+cos 6) dr+r sin 6 dd=0.
4. Show that the differential equation of the system
of rectangular hyperbolas zy=c*? is 2 dyt+y dx=0, and
interpret the result geometrically ; deduce that the tangent
intercepted between the axes is bisected at the point of
contact.
5. Verify that y+a2+1=0 is a solution of the differen-
tial equation (y — x) dy —(y* — 2?) dx =0.

6. Show that V= ‘ +B is a solution of the differen-

tial equation
d*V 2 dV _
0.
dr*® ~~ r ar
7. Find the differential equation from the relation
(i) y=A sinat+B cos e+e sin 2.
(ii) y = Ae™ + Be~*.
(iii) y=A cos +B sin x+C cosh e+D cosh oa,
where JA, B, C, D are arbitrary constants.
8. Eliminate a and d from each of the relations
(i) y=a log a+b. (ii) ay = ae + be~*.
(iii) aw*+by?=1. [C.P. 1945] (iv) r=a+b6 cos 0.
 INTRODUCTION AND DEFINITIONS 809

9. (i) Show that the differential equation, whose generaly

solution is y=cye+c,* is y=ays— da7y5.
(ii) Show that
¥=cos ©, ¥=sin Z, y=C, COSZ, ¥=C, sine
are all solutions of the differential equation
Yoty=0.
[In (4) and (42) ¢1, ey are arbitrary constants |]
10. (i) Show that the differential equations, whose gene-
ral solutions are
(i) y=A sin e+B cos 2,
(ii) y= A sinh +B cosh g,
where A and B are arbitrary constants, are respectively
dy. ot =
d°y tee = :
ee

da?" 4 0 and da? # 0

ANSWERS

1, The radius vector and the tangent at any point ara mutually
perpendicular.
4. Tho radius vector and the tangent at any point are equally
inclined to the z-axis,
7. (i) y+y.=2 cos a. (ii) yy»—y=0. (iii) y, -y=0.
8. (i) cya+y,=0, (ii) wy. +2y, = ay.
(iii) c(yyoty.=yy1- (iv) re=r, cot 8,
 CHAPTER XV

EQUATIONS OF THE FIRST ORDER AND

THE FIRST DEGREE

15°1. A differential equation of the first order and first

degree can be put in the form
M dz+N dy=0,
where both M and N are functions of z and y, or constants
not involving the derivatives. The general solution of an
equation of this type contains only one arbitrary constant.
In this chapter we shall consider only certain special types
of equations of the first degree.

15°2. Separation of the Variables.

If the equation Mdxz+N dy=0 can be put in the form
f,(x) dx+f2{y) dy =0,
then it can be immediately solved by integrating each term
separately. Thus, the solution of the above equation is
S fila) da + J faly) dy=C.
The process of reducing the equation W@ dz+N dy=0 to
the form f1(x) dx+f.(y) dy=0 is called the Separation of
the Variables.
Note. Sometimes transformation to the polar co-ordinates facili-
tates separation of variables. In this connection it is convenient to
remember the following differentials.
If z=rcos 8, y=r sin 6,
(i) «da+ty dy=r dr. (ii) da? + dy? =dr?+r7de?.
(iii) @ dy—y dx=r? de.
( For illustration see Ex. 8(i4) and (ii) of Examples XV(A) J
 FIRST ORDER—FIRST DEGREE 811

Ex.1. Solve (1+y") dz+(1+27) dy=0.

Dividing by (1+#?)(1+
7), we get

- dz a ady =
1+2? = l+y? e
integrating, tan~'s+tan“!y=C. see (1)
Note. Writing the arbitrary constant C in the form tan“‘a, the
above solution can be written as tan~'x+tan“'y=tan-'a,

or, tan -1 2t4H

ee = tan-'a,” or, x+y=a
oe r = (1—«y).
aa. aaes (2)

Both forms of solution, (1) and (2), are perfectly general; and any
one of these can bo considered as the complete solution of tho given
equation. [See Art. 148 ]
Ex. 2. Solve x(y?-+-1) dety(x?+1) dy=0.
Dividing both sides by (x7+1)(y?+1), we have

22+ 1 dat ae 1 dy=0.

integrating, we have
$ log (2? +1)+4 log (y7+1)=C.
Writing 4 log A in the place of C, the alove solution can be written
in the form
(vc? + 1)(y?+1)=A.
Note. In order to express the solution in a neat form, we have
taken $1log A (A being a constant) in the place of the arbitrary
constant C.

Ex. 8. Solve (c+y)? =a. [ C. P. 1986 ]

ae fees . ay_dv_
Put e+y=v, i.€., y=u-e .”. dso ds 1.

.°. the equation reduces to

dv dw a? a?+v?
v 2 (22
—
1)= a",
a
OF, aes
1+ —
-; =
y?
- -_—6

a 2
“. dee an “3 dv= (1- x0) dv.
$12 INTEGRAL CALCULUS

i. 8 : = a dv
-". integrating, {a2-| du-a = ae
a?+y*

or, n+C=0~a? = tan “1° =a+y—a tan

a a

y=a tan-! Sa 4 C, is the reqd. solution.

Ex. 4. Find the foci of the curve which satisfies the differential
equation (1+?) dx—ay dy=0 and passes through the point (1, 0).
Separating tho variables of the equation, we have

dx_ydy _4
ce ity? °
.. intograting, log 2—% log (1+47)=log C,

or, log - Jity

ae -= log C. ..: 2=Cl+y?.
= ba?

This is the equation of any curvo satisfying the qgiven differontial

equation. If the curve passes through (1, 0), we have 1=C,

.. the equation of the required curvo is 27—-y?=1.

It is a rectangular hyperbola, and its foci are evidently (+ ./2, 0).

Ex. 5. Show that all curves for which the length of the normal is
equal to the radius vector are either circles or rectangular hyperbvolas.
Since the length of the normal=yJ/i+y,? and the radius vector
= Jz3+ y?,
o. y(l+y,)=27 +97, or, 979,72 =a7 oF, yy, = £2.
avi47,
dp + “. -
a@daty dy=0.

.. integrating, 27+4?=a?, a? being the arbitrary constant of

integration.
Thus, the curves are'either circles or rectangular hyperbolas.

Ex. 6. Show that by sudstituting axr+by+c=z, in the equation

tH= flaz+ by +c) the variables can be separated.

ee = o dy _d2
 FIRST ORDER--FIRST DEGREE 313

dy 1 (42-a).
dx 6 \dz
Hence the given cquation transforms into

>(§2-4)=10),
4.€ ps ts
9 aFof(z) O™
Thus, the variables are separated.

EXAMPLES XV(A)

Solve the following differential equations (Mx. 1-10) :—

» dy_ 2? t+at+1. y 2 GY.
1. (i) ed (ii) x dnt Yo).

wy dy, yly— 1)_

Gi) daz*
w(a—1)~
2.G) y de+(1+2"7) tan7*2 dy =0.
(ii) e®-% date’ dy=0.
3. (i) w /1—y? dxty J/i-az® dy=0.
(ii) w? (y—1) da ty? (2-1) dy=0.
dy yo tytl_
4.
dee +a+1 :
. dy 1-y?_ ay du _ x(1 +47).
5. (i) Bea 2: (ii) dx y({l1+2")

6. (i) sec*z tan y dx+sec*y tan 2 dy=0.

(ii) 2 cos*y dx —y cos*x dy =0.
..\ log (sec 2 +tan z) , _ log (sec y + tan ¥)
(iii) COS & de cos ¥ dy.
7. (2? — yx") dyt(y?+ay") dz =0.
314 INTEGRAL CALCULUS

8. (i) y de-a dy=ay da.

(ii) 2*(@ da + y dy) + 2y (a dy -— y dx) =0.
CEYYs =,/ 1- a <9 *)
(iii) ZY¥1-y 2 +y"

9. (i) Bric (i) GU

= JiyHe.
10. (i) sin7? én. =r+y. (ii) log (4 = ax + by.
11. Find the particular solution of
cos y dx +(1 + 2e-*) sin y dy =0,
when 2=0, y= 42.
12. Hfnd the equation of the curve for which
(i) the cartesian subtangent is constant,
(ii) the cartesian subnormal is constant, [ C. P. 1924]
(iii) the polar subtangent is constant, [P. P. 1933 ]
(iv) the polar subnormal is constant. [ P. P. 1931]
13. Show that the curve for which the normal at every
point passes through a fixed point is a circle.
14. Show that the curve for which the radius of curva-
ture at every point is constant is a circle.
15. Show that the curve for which the tangent at every
point makes a constant angle with the radius vector is
an equi-angular spiral.
16. Show that the curve in which the angle between the
tangent and the radius vector at every point is one-half of
the vectorial angle, is a cardioide. [C. P. 1981]
17. Show that the ci. eve in which the angle between the
tangent and the radius vector at every point is one-third
 FIRST ORDER—FIRST DEGREE 315

of the inclination of the tangent to the initial line, is

a cardioide.
18. Show that the curve in which the portion of the
tangené included between the co-ordinate axes is bisected by
the point of contact is a rectangular hyperbola.

ANSWERS
1. (i) $e? —y*) +3 (w? -9’?)+a—y=C. (ii) y=1+Cerl,
(iii) ay=cle—1)(y—1). 2. (i) y tan“'2#=C.
(ii) e?* +e =C, 3. (i) J1—a2?+ Vi-y?=C.
(ii) (a+ 1)? +(y+1)?+2 log (2—1)(y—-1) =C.
4. QrytaetytCietyt+ i=l. 5. (i) sin7'x#+sin7'y=C,
(ii) L+y?=C(1+27). (iii) (22 -1)—see' a+ J(y?-1)=C.
6. (i) tan a tan y=C.,
(ii) z tan a—log sec x=y tan y—log sec 7+C.
(iii) (log (seo a+ tan x)]? —[log (sec y+ tan y)]’ =C.

9. log a oO NG. 8. (i) ye*=Car. (i) (vw? + y?)(a4+2)? =Car’.

zy
(iii) 2? +y?=sin?a, where a=tan-"(y/z)+C.
9. (i) eY= ke*+ Ce-*. (ii) Vy—atlog (Vy—a—I)=40+C.
10. (i) tan (e+ y)—seo (2 t+y)=C+a. (ii) ae™”
+ be** = C.
11. (e7+2) seo y=3 /2, 12. (i) y=Ce7!*,
(ii) y? =2ax+C. (iii) +(C—6)=a. (iv) r=ad+C.

165°3. Homogeneous Equations.

If M and N of the equation M dz +N dy=O0 are both of
the same degree in x and y, and are homogeneous, the
equation is said to be homogeneous. Such an equation can
be put in the form

dy. f(¥).
316 INTEGRAL CALCULUS

Every homogeneous equation of the above type can

be easily solved by putting y=vx where v is a function of 2,
ay adv
and consequently ae +2 ae wherehy it reduces to the
adv : aa dv, ; ;
form vt+z de flv) i.e., 2 flv)-0® which the variables
are separated.
Ex. Solve (x7+y?) dx—2zry dy=0. { C. P. 1921, '87
The equation can be written as

dy ty?
dx xy

Putting y=vz, so that OY ns eae we have

; , da: dz ;
Gv ety?g? 1407
ULE dx Awa? Dv

2 ag Le 2 He
de Qp oe an
dz an _
2 iny? dv=6.

integrating, log x+log (1—¥v")=log C.

a(l—v7)=C.
Re-substituting y/a for v and simplifying, we get the solution
ev? —y27=Cr.

15°4. A special Form.

The equation of the form
dy _asxtbiytc, (2 x ba
| o (1)
dx aexthbeytce \az be
can. be easily solved by putting c=a2’+h, and y=y’+k,
where A and k are constants, so that da =dz’ and dy=dy’,
and choosing h, k in such a way that
Qi:htbyk+e,=0 \ eee (2)
and d,ht+bgkt+c, =0.
 FIRST ORDER—FIRST DEGREE 317

For, now the equation reduces to the form

dy! aia +biy'
dz’ aya’ they’
which is homogeneous in 2’ and 7’ and hence solvable by
the method of the previous article.
Note. The above method obviously fails, if a,Jag=b,/b.; for in
this case , and & cannot be determined from cquation (2).
Let the equation be
dy _a.x+biy+c, (a?) (3)
dx anx+beyt+Ce2 \a, dy

Let Groin 1, *, A@g=a,;m, bg=b ym,

a, by ™
where 27 18 @ non-zero constant.

Assuming this to bo the casr, Ict the common value of these

ratios bo denoted by 1/nz, so that a,=a,m and bs=b mm.
The equation (3) becomes
dy aethyte, |
au m(a,e+b,4)+c,

Now, putting a,2+6,y=4, the variablis can be casily separated and

henco tho equation can be solved. [Sco Wz. 2, helow. ]

Note. If in the equation (1), a,.=—b,, then the cquation can

be solved more easily by grouping the torms suitably.
[See Framples NV(C), Bx. 1 (iv) J

Ex.1. Solve ae { C. P. 1934}

Putting z=a2'’+h, y=y'+hk, so that dz=dx’, dy=dy', we have,

dif_ 62’ — 24° + 6h
—2k —-T,
da’ Qu+ 84 +2h+ 3k—-6
Putting 6h—-2k—-7=0, and 2h+3k—-6=0,
and solving these two equations, we have h=%, k=1.

..: ; becomes dy’

the equation dau’_ 2a
6x +—2y"
By"
818 INTEGRAL CALCULUS

Since the equation is now homogeneous, putting 4'=vx2' and henco,

dy’_,
dg Ute 47
da’ , reduccs to
the equation

dz’ —si 6Gu+4

o @ Bu hava dv, which on integration gives,

—log Az’ =$ log (8v?

+ 4v —6).

*, (Ag’)~2 =(80? + 40- 6)3.

Now, restoring the valucs of « and v, where a’ =a2—-? and

? ¢ a

v= a Aly 1), we get the solution in the form

2 2%n-3
3y7 + 4ry — 62? —12y+142=C.

dy Ox-2y—-
Ex. 2. Solve pe =a.
v4

Since here a,/a,=),/b,, .°. putting 82—y=v, we get

dy_ adv
3— aa ae and hence the given equation gives

dv ee 20-7 Ut)
da ott v4

vt+4 14
da= 19 dv=(1- 6) dv.
x2+C=—15 log (v+19).
On restoring the value of v, we get the solution in the form
Qa—y—15 log (8x -—y+19)=C.

Ex. 3. Show thatin an equation of the form

yf,(xy) dx+xf,(xy) dy=0
the variables can be separated by the substitution zy =.

Since, zy=v, y= ; and d(cy)=du ¢e., y dxt+a dy=dv

@ We ee
and dy= & ie, 2 dy=dvu- 7 dx.

*,fale) da+fa(v){de- | da}=0.

 FIRST ORDER—FIRST DEGREE 819

_ fa(v) dv 4
=(.
vifile) fal” 2
Thus, the variables are separated.
[ See Ex. 14, 15, 16 of Examples XV(B)
We can as well form an equation in v and y, by taking zy=»,

z= : and da=42—
owedy,

[ For illustration see Alternative proof of Ex. 5 of Art..15°5. J

EXAMPLES XV(B)

Solve :—

1. (i) nyo = OY. (ii) aeiipte

26) tema) Gahay

3. (a? +y") dy=ay dx. [C. P. 1925, '30]

cowry a Meters
5. (i) (32 sinh(y/x) + 5y eosh(y/x)) dx — 5x cosh(y/x) dy =0.
(ii) (1 + 8c?) da + 3e*™ (1— a/y) dy =0.
6. (a? — Qry) dy +(x? — 8xy + 2y*) dx =0.
7. uy? dat(a* +ay) dy=0.
8. (i) v= 2 + tan” (ii) dy_3a t+2y,
dx %- By
9. (62—-—5y +4) dyt+(y— 22-1) dx =0.
10. (2-—3y +4) dy+(7y— 5x) dx =0.
11. (Qa -2y+5) dy—(z2-y +8) dx =0.
12. (2+y+1) de—(Qx+2y+1) dy=0.
18. y (Qayt+1) data (1+ 2ry
t+ay") dy=0.
 320 INTEGRAL CALCULUS

14, 2*y® dxt+3x7y dyt 2y dx=0.

15. (1+2y cos zy) dx +a? cos xy dy=0.
16. Show that (4a+3y+1) da+(32+2y+1) dy=0 re-
presents hyperbolas having as asymptotes
et+y=0, Qa+y+1=0.

ANSWERS

1, (i) y=at Ce*ly-*), (ii) Qa —y= Cry.

2. (i) y2e"
= Cx. (ii) y2=Cer* lv,
3. y= Cer lay", 4. (i) y74+2ry-2?=C. (ii) ay= Cel*,
5. (i) 2 =C sinh *(y/x). (ii) w+ 3ye™4=C., 6. y=a log (C2-*).

% xy? =C(et+2y). 8. (i) c=C sin e.

(ii) 3 log (x7+42)=4 tant? +C.

9. (57-22 —3)* = C(4y— t2—3), 10. (8y—5x+10)? = Cly—x+1).

Wi. 9—a2+C=log (x—y +2). 12. 6y—3g¢ =log (82+ 8y+2)+C.
13. Qa7y? log y—4uy—1=Ca?y?. 14. a(ry —2)* =C(xy—1)5,
15. xe = —¢,
15°5. Exact Equations.
The differential equation M dz+N dy=0, where both M
and N are functions of x and y, is said to be exact when
there is a function w of 2, y, such that M da +N dy =du, 1.e.,
when M dx+N dy becomes a perfect differential.
Now, we know from Differential Calculus that Mdx + Ndy
-
should be a perfect differential if oF -o. Hence, the
condition that Mdx+Ndy=0 should be an exact differential
cM _ON,
* equation, is
jy = 6x
 FIRST ORDER—HIGHER DEGREE 837

Note. It is beyond the scope of the present treatise to enter into

the details of the theory of singular solutions.

Ex.1. Solve y=pa+p—p’. [ C. P. 1986]

Differentiating both sides with respect to a,
dp da 1
P=Pt G+
an 2? ae
as (a +1—2p)=0.

cither ap _0 tC. D=C =» (1)

ag
or, w+1-2p=0, ic., p=¥ (a+1). see (2)

Eliminating p between (1) and the given cquation, we get

y= Cx+C—C? as the complete solution
and eliminating » betweon (2) and the given equation, we get
y=h (et lc+3 (e+1)—F (et+-1)? =F (zx +1)’,
i.¢., 4y=(x2+1)*, as the singular solution.

Note. It can easily be verified that the family of straight lines

reprosented by the complete solution touches the parabola represented
by the singular solution.

Ex, 2. Solve y=(1+p)xr+ap?.

Differentiating with respect to z, we have
ip
spas (1+ p)+ (@4-Sony)2a) dzles
p=

dp Fae== — ap.
dx

This is a linear equation in wand p. [ See Art. 15°6 ]

multiplying both sides by e!4P i.¢., e?, we get

e? ete. a= —2ap.e?,

or, 7 (ze?)= — 2ap .e?.

22
388 INTEGRAL CALCULUS

*. integrating, ze? = —Qafpe’dp+C= —Qae” (p—1) +0,

or, «=2a(1—p)+Ce-?.
y = 2a—ap"+(1+>p) Ce-? from the given equation.
The p-eliminant of these two constitutes the solution.

EXAMPLES XVI
Solve the following and find the singular solutions of
Ex. 5 to 8 only :—
1. (i) p?+p-6=0. (ii) p? + Iep — 8x7 =0.
2. (i) p?-—p(e* +e°7) +1=0.
(ii) p?y—p (ay +1)+2=0, (iii) p(p? +ay)=p7 (e+).
3. (i) p?-(atd)p+ab=0. (ii) p(p +2) =y(a+ y).
4. (i) ayp? — (x2? — y?)p - ry =0.
(ii) p® — p(a* tay +y?) + a7y + xy? =0.
(iii) p>? -@? +ay + y?) p24 (Py +a7y? + cy®) p— xy?
=0.
5. (i) y=paet+a/p. (ii) y= pat Ja*p? +b.
(iii) y=partp”.
6. (i) y=prtap (1 — p). (ii) py =p? (a@—b)
+a.
7. (ce-a)p?+(u-y)p-
y=0.
8 (yt+1)p—a2p? +2=0.
9. (i) p?x2—-p?y-1=0. (ii) y=yp? +2pr. (C. P. 1948]
10. sin ¥ cos pz —cos ¥ sin px - p=0.
11. (i) e=4pt+4p?. (ii) p?- Ip +1=0.
12. (i) e&¥-— p? -p=0. (ii) y=p cos p—sin p.
13. G) y=p?x tp. Gi) y=(p+p*)a+p?.
14. (i) 2+yp=ap*. (ii) y=Qpet+p?.
15. p®—p(y+3)+2=0.
16. y=Ap* + Bp’.
 FIRST ORDER—HIGHER DEGREE 389

ANSWERS

1. (i) (y+32—0)(y—2x2 —c)=0. (ii) (Qy +32? — c)(Qy—

x? —c) =0.
2. (i) (y—e*—c)(y +e7*7—c)=0. (ii) (Qy—a2? —c)(Qx— y?—c)= 0.
(iii) (y—¢)(2y—2z? —e)(y—ce*)=0 8. (i) (y—ax—e)ly—bz—c)
=0.
(ii) (y—ce*)(y+a—ce-* -1)=0. 4. (i) (a — c)(x? —y? —c)=0.
(ii) (Q2y —a? — c)(y — ce*)(y +a —1—ce-7)=0.

(ili) (~*— By + e)(ot? + cy) (xy

+ cy +1) =0.

5. (i) yout as y? =4az. (ii) y=cat J(a2c? +d"); e+e.

(iii) y=ecrteo"™ 3s ny" +a%n—1)"-!=0.

6. (i) y=cx+tac(1—c) ; (x-+a)?
= 4ay.
(ii) cy=c?(a@—b) +a; y? =4ale2—4).
7. (2—a) c?+(x-—y) c—y=0; (x+y)? =4ay.
8 (yt+1)c—e2x+2=0; (y+1)?+8x=0.
9. (i) c*’a—c?y—1=0. (ii) y? =2cx+c?. 10. y=cxr+sin7?e.
11. (i) c=4p+4p* } (ii) e=4(pt+p-*), }
y=2p?+3p*+e y=tp?—s
log pte
12. (i) e=2 tan-!p—p7'-+e } (ii) a=e+cos p }
4 =log (y*-+ p). y=p cos »y—sinp
13. (i) y=p%2+p (ii) y=(p+p?) o+p-"
re _ tee?
(»—-1) ~ ye

14. (i) z+yp=ap?

a(1+ pt =p [eta log {p+(1 + p)34].
(ii) (824+ 2x05 +c)? — 4(u?2 + y)* =0.

15. 3(1— p?)t+ ¢ pt =¢, with the given relation.

16. y= Ap*+ Bp?
a= 3Ap7+2Bp+c.
 CHAPTER XVII

LINEAR EQUATIONS WITH CONSTANT

COEFFICIENTS

17°1. Equations of the Second Order.

We shall first consider linear differential equations with
constant coefficients of the second order, since they occur
very frequently in many branches of applied mathematics.
The typical form of such equation is
2
c+, oY+ Pay =X, (1)
or, symbolically, (D?+P,D+P2.2) y =X,
where P,, P, are constants and X is a function of x only
or a constant. Two forms of this equation usually present
themselves, namely when the right-hand member is zero,
and when the right-hand member is a function of 7. We
shall first consider the first form and then the second.

17°2. Equations with right-hand member zero.

Let the equation be

TYsp,4aot Pay =0. (9)

As a trial solution™ of (2), let us take y=e™. Then
if we put y=e™" in the left side of (2), it must satisfy the
equation ; 2.¢., we must have,
(nm? +P m+ Pa.) ee" =0,
or, since eo” # 0, m?+ Pimt+P, =0. “++ (3)
“Thistrial solution is suggested by ‘the solution of the first order
Mnear equation y, +Py=0, which is of the same form.
 LINEAR EQUATIONS 341

The equation (3) is called the Auxiliary equation of (2).

Let m1, 2 be the two roots of the equation (3).
Then, y=e mM. x and y=e'2* x are obviously solutions
3

of (2). Also, it can be easily verified by direct substitution

that y=C,e™”, y=Cze™** and y=Cye™'* +Cae™"” satisfy
the equation (2), and as such, are solutions of (2),
We shall now consider the nature of the general solution
of the equation (2) according as the roots of the auxiliary
equation (3) are (i) real and distinct, (ii) real and equal
and (iii) ¢maginary.
(i) Auxiliary equation having real and distinct roots.

If m, and mz are real and distinct, then y7=C,e™"2"+

Cye™2” is the general solution, since it satisfies the equation,
and contains two independent arbitrary constants equal in
number to the order of the equation.
(ii) Auxiliary equation having two equal roots.

If the auxiliary equation has two equal roots, the method

of the preceding paragraph does not lead to the general
solution. For, if m.=m2=a say, then tho solution of the
preceding paragraph assumes the form
y =(Czi+ Ce) e*” =Ce*”, when CO, +C, =C
which is not the general solution, since it involves only
one independent constant and the equation is of the second
order.
A method will now be devised for finding the general
solution in the case under discussion. Since the auxiliary
solution (3) has two equal roots each being equal to a, it
follows that the differential equation (2) assumes the form
2
4- 2a! +a%y=0.
$42 INTEGRAL CALCULUS

Let y = e*”v, where v is a function of x, be a trial solution

of this equation. Substituting this value of y in the left
side of the above equation, we have

et” a"?=0, 1.0., a2=0, since e*” » 0.

Now, integrating this twice, we get v=C, + Caz.

Hence, the solution of (2) in this case is
y =(C, + Cex) e®*.
This is the general solution of (2), since it satisfies (2),
and contains two independent arbitrary constants.

(ili) Auxiliary equation having a pair of complex roots.

If m.=at7p and m,=a-—if, then the genoral solution

of (2) is
y= C eat tA + Cnet 8,

The above solution, by adjusting the arbitrary constants

ean be put in a more convenient form not involving imagin-
ary expressions ; thus we have
y = 0% [Cy0'F* + Ce F7]
=e" (0, (cos Ba +i sin Br) +Ce (cos Bx -% sin 2)!
=e? [(C,+Ce2) cos Ba t+ 1(C1— Ce) sin fr]
=e [A cos Ba
+B sin pal,
where 4=C,+C, and P=i(C,-—Cz) are the arbitrary
constants which may be given any real values we like.
Again, by adjusting the arbitrary constants 4 and B
suitably, 7.2, by putting C cos « for 4 and —C sin « for B,
the general solution can also be written in the form
y = Ce™ cos (p+ 8),
where C and ¢ are the two arbitrary constants.
 IINEAR EQUATIONS 843

Ex. 1. a?
Solve att aa!+ 9y=0.

Let y=e™* be a solution of the above equation ;

then e™ (o77+8m+2)=0, .°. m?+38m+2=0, sinco e™ x 0.
es (m+1)(m+2)=0, “. m=—1, or, —2.
the genoral solution is y=C,e7*7+C,e7?

Ex. 2. Solve a
da® CL
2a ota 4 =0.

Let y=e™ be a solution of the above equation ;

then e™* (m?—2am+a?)=0, or, m?—-2am+a7=0, since e”* pf 0,
1 (m—a)? =0.

Sinco the auxiliary equation has repeated roots here,

the general solution is y=(C,+C,a) e™*.

Ex. 3. Solve (D?+2D+5) y=0.

: ~ 2 Gy, ody
The cquation is, Ae ates + oy=0.

Let y=e” bea solation of the oqnation ;

then c™™ (i? + 2m +4
5)=0. J. m' +2m+5=0 since e™ = 0,
m= —1$ 24 |
*, the general solution is y= C,¢'~'# 74+ Cyclo
t734%
which, as shown in Art. 17°2(iii) can be put in the form
y=e-" (A cos 2x+ B sin 22).

EXAMPLES XVII(A)

Solve :—
a” y ay
1. ie tbe + 4y=0.

any _ dy
2. da 1 oe +12=0.
844 INTEGRAL CALCULUS

3. a4-3 +9y=0, [ 0. P. 1930]

4. 44+(a+ taby=0. [0. P. 1937]

5. (i) gt 3 ey 0. (i) © 4a ey=
=(.
[ CO.P. 1940}
6. yo—-4y,+4y=0. [C. P. 1989]
7. (i) (D? + D)y =0. (ii) (D? +6D
+ 25)y =0.
8. (D?-2mD +m? +n?) y=0.
9. (i) (D? -4D +18) y=0. (ii) (D? ~~?) y=0.

10. (i)@oa244% 4138-0. Gi) (D+3)"y=0.

11. Solve in the particular cases :—

(i) ae yy du _ 2y=0; dy _
when #=0, y=3 and dz
dx* dz

(ii) igh
#90 ; when x=0, y=43; when x= 3a, y= 0.

a" _ gi& ee da:

Gayeae er3 + Aa = 0: when ¢=0, x= Zand 3, =

(iv) a? + n®e=0 ; when £=0, a 0 and #=a.

12. Find the curve for which the curvature 1s zero at

every point.

13. Show that if (4.+g0=0, and if @-aand 4 =0,

2

when ¢=0, then =a cos {¢ ./(g/Z)}.

 LINEAR EQUATIONS 345

14. Show that the solution of

d’r dx
pt ee = 0
‘dt® ar
is =e-4*t (A cos nti +B sin né) if hk? < 4y,
and 27 = u—+tk?.

ANSWERS

1. y=c,e7"+e,e7**, 2 pecye*7™+e,e''. 3. y=c,e74 Cye?

4. y=c,e"" +e,e7"". 5. (i) y=cye’ tence. (ii) y=(A+ Bren’.
6. y=e? (A+ Br). 7. (i) y= At Be.
(ii) y=e7** (A cos 4a+ B win 4:7),
8. y=e™ (4 cos nx+B sin nz).
9, (i) ye?” (A cos 32+ B sin Sz). (ii) y= Ae" + Beo™.
10. (i) s=e7** (A cot 3£+ B sin 32). (ii) y= e7°* (A+ Ba).
11. (i) y=2e*% +6727. (ii) y=4 cos x. (iii) w= 4e*— Qe?"
(iv) w=a co3 nb. 12. A straight line.

17°3. Right-hand member a function of x.

Wo shall now consider the solution of the general form

1¥+p,8+Piy= X. re (1)

If y=d(r) be the general solution

of

va: P+ Pay= 0
a. vse (2)

and y= (7) be any particular solution of (1), then

y= ¢ (x) +(x) is the general solution of (1).
This result can be established by direct substitution.
346 INTEGRAL CALCULUS

Thus, substituting y=¢(x)+y (x) in the left side of (1),

we have

and dd ay
{a°$ +P de Pag} + {4at Psa, + Pay}
The first group of terms is zero, since y¥=¢ (a) is a solu-
tion of (2), and the second group of terms is equal to X,
since y =y (x) is a solution of (1).
Hence, y=¢(x)+¥y (x) is a solution of (1), and it is the
general solution, since the number of independent arbitrary
constants in it is two, 4(x) being the general solution of (2).
Thus, we see that the process of solving equation (1)
is naturally divided into two parts; the first is to find the
general solution of (2), say ¢ (Ci, Ca, xv), and the next is to
find any particular solution of (1), say y (x) not containing
any arbitrary constant. Then
y=¢(C1, Co, ) +9 (x)
will be the general solution of (1).

The expression (C,, Ca, 2) is called tho Complementary

function and y (2), i.e., any particular solution of (1) is called
the Particular Integral of the equation (1).

17°4. Symbolical Operators.

We have already shown in art. 17°2 how to obtain the
Complementary function; now we shall consider how to
obtain the Particular integral. In order to discuss methods
of finding a particular integral, it would be convenient
to introduce certain syrmbolical operators and their pro-
perties.
 LINEAR EQUATIONS 847

With the usual notation of Differential Calculus

ad a? .
dz’ dz’ %e- will be denoted by the symbols D, D*, ete.

Also 5 (or, D~*), cS (or, D~*), etc. will be used to denote

the inverse operators, 2.e., the operators which integrate
a function with respect to 7, once, twice, etc. Let us write
the equation

TU +P, +Py =X, (1)

in its symbolic form
(D?+P,D+ Paly=X, s+ (Q)
or, more briefly as f(D)y =X. “+ (3)

The expression ae) X will be used to denote a function

of not involving arbitrary constants, such that the result

of operating upon it with f(D) is X, and as such ai and

J(D) denote two inverse operators.

Thus, the function oan X ¢s clearly a Particular Integral

of the equation f(D)y =X.

As a particular case when f(D)=D, Ax will denote

a function of 2, obtained by integrating X once with respect
to x, which does not contain any arbitrary constant of

integration; similarly aX will denote a function of 2,

obtained by integrating X twice with respect to z, and not

348 INTEGRAL CALCULUS

containing any arbitrary constant of integration. For

example,

p*
1 ‘tps,
52 + pet
1 st 90% s, > pl
1 = fs . pel
1 - gt
1,2-

Important Results on Symbolical Operation.

If F (D) be any rational integral function of D,

ie. if F(D)=D"+a,D"'4+-++an-,D+aa, then

(i) F(D) e** = F (a) e**.

(ii) F'(D) e**V=c"*F (D+a) V, V being function of a.

cit) (Dm {Im (OE (gay {in (aot)

By actual differontiation, we can easily verify the above results.

17°5. Methods of finding Particular Integrals.

We shall discuss here the methods of obtaining parti-

cular integrals, z.¢., the methods of evaluating aa V, when

X has special forms.*

(a) X=x™) m being a positive anteger.

Expand sa i.e., {f(D)}-* in ascending powers of D and

operate on 2” with the result. It is clear that in the ex-
pansion, no terms beyond the one containing D”™ need be
retained, since D™*1z"" = 0),
Note. The justification of the above method lies in tho fact that
the function of z which we s' «ll get by operating on 2” by the series

* For proof see Authors’ Differential Calculus.

 LINEAR EQUATIONS 349

of powors of D obtained by expanding {f(D)-*}, whon operated upon

by f(D); will give 2”. For example,
1 ;
prey t= (Lt D?)- 124 =(1- D724 D! —-.-)at mat — 1927 +94,

Now, (D?+1)(x4 — 12a:7+ 24) -= 197? —24 +44 — 1997 +24=24,

(6) X=e V, where V is a function of x, or a constant.

Tf V, is a function of 2, we have from Art. 17°4(ii),

f(D)e*V, =e" (D+a) Vi =e" FV, say,

sothat, f(Dta)V,=V, ie, Vi re 1

1
Thus, g<re8* V= 08% V , = 08
iw iD-+a)*

Again, noticing that f(D +a)k’ where i’ is a constant

is evidently a constant=k say, and proceeding exactly as
above we can show that
1
we k=O wera =ke"tp+a) ©
pax

(ec) X=e8*. where ais any constant.

If fla)#0,f(D)Sah =p(y Lo =
[ From drt. /7°4(i)]

= oe ==a" provided f(a) ~ 0.

If f(a)=0, then (D— a) is a factor of f(D).

either, {(D)=(D— a) ¢(D), where d(a) ¥ 0 -- (i)
or else, =(D-a)?. oe e+ (ii)
850 INTEGRAL CALOULUS

(i) sake gaz beatles tee 1 FO Sailenee

f(D) D-a ¢D) (D-a)¢(a) ¢(a)D-a
ew 1.
¢(a) D 1 [ by (b) ]
_ re
(a)

(ii) al pax =; J 2@ az. ,ax | ‘L[ by (b) ]= ott

f(D) (D- a) D* 2
(d) X=sin (ax+b) or cos (ax+b).

If f(D) contains only even powers of D, let us denote it

by 4(D*). Then if ¢(-— a”) mee we get by Art. 17°4(iii),

| sin'(ax +b) =
1 -sin (ax-+b), if ¢(—a?)0.
°° ¢(D*) o(—a*)

Similarly, sD cos (ax+b)= aoa cos (ax +b), if ¢(—a’?)0.

If ¢(-—a?)=0, or if f(D) contains both the first and the

second powers of D, the method of procedure that is to be
adopted in such cases is illustrated in Hx. 5 and Ex. 6
of § 17°6 below.
(ec) X=x™ gin (ax-+b) or x™ cos (ax+b).
(f) X=xV, where V is any function of x

1 valy-at.rmliv-:
t={| *~aoy © faaay
V-
In evaluating particular integrals of this type it is
convenient to replace sin (ar+b) and cos (az+b) by their
exponential values and then proceed as in case (0).
Note. It should be noted that when X is the sum or difference
of two or more functions of x, say X=X eon - the parti-

cular integral = 9(5 (Xt Xa. :Xsh==gip)*it fi Xe ior

ee ne ee Le
ee cr en a a ie ee eee ee ee eee

* For proof, see the Appendix.

 LINEAR EQUATIONS 851

17°5 (1). Alternative method of finding i} X.

When the auxiliary equation has real and distinct roots,

corresponding to each such root m, there will be a partial

fraction of the form nos where A is & known constant

and hence

Abi A can be written in the form

Ay = Ae a
+ + wesens
D-m, D- 411 4

each term of which can be evaluated by the method shown

below.

Now, D-m~
Si 1 =
Dent
1 me INS
XVT =e pine p°
1 “nt
Xx.yr

o—a X=e™ \em Xdx. vee “+ (1)

This method is illustrated in Hz. 8 of Art. 17'6.

17°6. Illustrative Examples.

Ex.1. Solve (D?+4)y=2’. [C. P. 1935 }

Here, tho auxiliary equation m?+4=0 has roots m= +24

the complementary function= A cos 27+-B sin 22.

Particular Integral = pis z= 4(1 meDe) x?

= A(144D%)7? 2?
=3(1-2D*+ pyD* —---) 2? = 3(x? — 3).
the required general solution is
y=A cos 22+B sin 22+43(z? —4).
352 INTEGRAL CALCULUS

Ex. 2. Solve (D—3)? y=2e**.

Here, the auxiliary equation (m—3)?=0 has roots 3, 3.
O. F.= (A+ Bar) e**.

PR, L=
520th
(p23) 2¢
fac,~ 2e"*
(4-8)?
= %e
9242 °

the genoral solution is y= (4+ Bz) e**+2e**.

Ex. 8. Solve (D—2)? y=6c?*.

ELere, the auxiliary equation (7—2)?=0 has roots 2, 2.
C.F. = (A+ Bz) c?*.
1
P, T= pays 6e** = 6e? ac“a1 1=6¢?*.da:7
=32? e?7,ar
9

.". the general solution is y=(A + Bz) e?7+ 3x? e?’,

Ex. 4. Solve ad'y t Y= C08 Qa.

dust { C. P. 1937 ]

The equation van be written as (D?+1) y=cos 22,

The auxiliary equation m?-+-1=0 has roois +4.
C. F.=A cos z+ sin a.
1 cos 27 1
P. T= = pay 008 3 Ip22= == _
ga, 4 =— 3 COS 2x.

the general solution is y=A cos r+ B sin x—} cos 2x.

Ex. 5. Solve (D?4-1) y=cos m.

As in Ix. 4, C. F.=A cos a+B sin az.
But the method of obtaining particular integral employed in ix, 4
fuils here. Wo may however substitute the exponential value of cos x
and proceed. Alternatively we may procced as follows :

Let Y=ee
j524.1 cos and 4 = ee
F471 8in 2,

. bap = 1 z — ms ps Bee
Pa Y+id=pa,, (co ts sin a)= 55] °

= ett Jd See 1
(D¥a74+1 17" gp+D*!
 LINEAR EQUATIONS 853

=o 63 ( 3) te oF
=e oD \1 F953) “278 a pt
= ¢!* ao 5 (cos 2-+4 sin 2).

equating the real part, Y=4e sin o.

.". the general solution is y= 4 cos 7+B sin r+ sin 2.

d*y
Ex. 6. Solve Fee 2 dy =
gt Sy
= 10 sin. a
The equation can be written as (D?—2D+5) y=10 sin x.
The auxiliary equation m? —2m+5=0 has roots 14 21.
~. O, F.=e7 (A cos 22+B sin 2z).
1 (D7 +5)+2D
P. T= na_op+5 10 sin c= (Dt + 5)? — 4D" 10 sin x

_ D7+2D+5 10 sin x= (D?+2D+5) sin 2

~ (—17+5)?+4
=4% (—sin z+2 cos 2+5 sin x) =2 sin e+cos 2.
.. the gencral solution is y=e* (4 cos 22+B sin 227)+2 sin 2+cos x.

Ex. 7. Solve (D? -—4D+4) y=a* e”*.

The auxiliary equation m? —42+4=0 has roots 2, 2.
OG. F. =(Ax-+ 3B) e?”.

1 —--
Pi ds = Dp —-4p44" 1
3 °g77= = (p—2)4 7 3,22
¢

=e?"
1
p22 =e
x 3®
20

.'. the general solution is y=(4a+B) e*7+'ye?72°.

Ex. 8. Evaluate eh
Dis Sey
3ad+2 é
xz

’ 1 e
Given SE Pr een (D+ 1) (D+2) € : ese wes (1)

-[5t oe i s e
D+1 D+2

238
854 INTEGRAL CALCULUS

a. ez 1 ., ez

41° ~p+a°
=ert e®e° da—e-™* \77 6 dx wee (2)
gery

Let 1,=\ ee dz and 1,=| eo dz.

Put e’=z. .. @ dv=da.

n=\ e' dz=e'=e"

,=| ze" ds=se'—| e* dz=

ze" — e =e" (s-1)=e" (e*— 1).

from (2), the given expression

ax a7* gf — 9-9
¥gt” (e*—1)
&
=e"*" 6,

17°7. Two special types of Second order equations.

(ay dx?
£¥ =4x),
Integrating both sides with respect to 2, we have

a =f f(z) dx +A=¢(r)+A say.

Integrating again,
y=f d(x) dx+ Av+ B=y(r)+
Art B say.

Note. As @ generalisation of the above methoj, we can solve the

n fn
equation seat) and in particular t= 0, by successive integration.

(B) ry =f(y).
 LINEAR EQUATIONS 355
Multiplying both sides by 2dy/dz, we get

9 WY opty)%,
d 2

oe {ay Oi
Now, integrating both sides with respect to 7, we have

dy\" dy 2
de Fly), det C,= 2 | flv) dy +s.
Let 2f fly) dy=4(y).

Sat t NO)
+Cy.
ad pe

dz =
Ge ak dy ’ whence integrating
vdly)t+ Cy
r= +(y, C1) +Co (say).

17°7 (1). Illustrative Examples.

Ex. 1. Solve a" 008 ng.

Integrating both sides with respoct to r, we have

dy i sin na+A,
de

Integrating again, y= — =, cos na+ Art B,

which is the gencral solution.

Ex. 2. Solve ay
dx? at

Multiplying both sides by 2 a we get

du d?y_ a au, d (2)*- 1 dy

2 da dx? To da fs de dx 2 y* dz
856 INTEGRAL CALCULUS

Now integrating both sides with respect to x, we have

dy\? _ 1
(3) aa \ 5 dyt+C,

Ss __2aStas =O,—- - Cry" aes

—a

y* y?

dy. 4 NC.y*—a©ey \ ydy

dp ty dant \ iia
ae a= NCiy?—atCa,
i

ss a—-C,=45 NC,y?—a
1

“. 6,7 (e—C,)? =C,y? -a.

This is the general solution.

Note. An alternative method of a for solution of the

equations of the above type, 2.¢., of thetype 4 Ho
= (y) is indicated below.

dy d?y _dp_dp dy_ pi,

pus dx? dx? daz dy dz P ay’

:
“oD dp
a_ 7 or, =gy73 dy,
pdp=ay"*

integrating, 4p)? = —dgay7?+ ae

: ay\?
p’, Ube (3) = Cc, —,

Now, the rest is the same as before.

2
Ex. 8. Solve 2? F474
da
nty=0,
Put a=e’, so that z=logz;

then Gr ot ma,

dy _dy da__ dy d*y_d («2) a = ( d*y “!)

de dz ds zon and 4a go (ae) dat \@dn* tax) @
‘ a*a*y Wt = a*yZe
8.65 Do Ato ie ——de?
 LINEAR EQUATIONS 857

.. the given equation reduces to

d*y
ds4 +n7y=0.

Multiplying by 9a and integrating with respect to z,

dt,
da " +n°
| y?
oa 9g? (say).
=constant=27q?

or, +
dy
“he a_,,2 = dz.
a y

integrating, F cos Z =nate

e s =i 4

whence, y=a cos (n3a+e), or, y=a cos (x log a+e) is the required solu-
tion, a and ¢ being arbitrary constants of integration.

17°7 (2). Equations of the types

(A) FF(S% sees ey, x)a9:

(B) F (Fs, ne ay,y) =0.

(A) These equations do not contain y directly. The

é
substitution is 7 (derivative of tho lowest order) =g.

(B) These equations do not contain a directly. The

sinadeedna de dy _
substitution 1s Ane Dp.

d*y. pie 54°.? 929°49(d* etc.

dy” P dy
Then dx” Pay ’ dx®

17°7 (3). Illustrative Examples.

d?y a’ d7y\2
Ex. 1. Solve on fe?- (£4) +1=0,
358 INTEGRAL CALCULUS

ay ig. ay
uk dz? 1+ ** qza~ Gz’

the given equation becomes

on 1 g-9?+1=0,

sey aq= or, log (¢?—1)=log c,2.

oe q?-1=¢,2.

d 4.0.5
a°y
dct J(1+¢,2),

dy 2 8
da" Be, (l+c,2)* 2
+e,,

2 2 :

4
= Be (ieee) Bee eee.
L

s
ee 15¢, 2997= 4(L+c,x)*+c,2+e,.

Ex. 2. Solve y i i (s%)*+{(4") (2) }=

dy . ad’y dp
Put dx Le oe dx? = Vay

the equation transforms into

da ei a 2 3

up Ge? + Lp?» (3") } 7

p=qyt(l— a), where q =o.

This is Clairauts’ form.

ove p= Ay+(1- A)? = Ay +k say where k= (1— A),

ay
‘ c= Ay+ k

ree c+B= |}log (dy+h)=-) log {Ay +(1— 42)4h.

 LINEAR EQUATIONS 359

EXAMPLES XVII(B)

Solve the following equations :—

1. (i) 5aat fun +3, Gi) Oey

(ii any y dy
2. (i) :vy of —6y=«e.
i dn” de
3. (i) :+~— = 25e?*, (ii) (D? + 9)y = 9e**.

4. (i) § —a*y =e (i)OY-ya er

(iii)ey iis
+ By= 26°. LC. P. 1989 |

5. (i) - — 4) y=sin Qe. (ij) (D7 +4) y = sin Qe.

Ale :
6. (i) ate sin g, (ii) a
wet dyna GOS &.
2.

(iii) ety = cos 7a. (iv) ae

git ae gin",

7. (i) (D? -1) y=-2e*”. (ii) (D? - 9) y=e** cos Z,

8. (i) (D2 +2D +2) y=2e™”. (ii) (D? -—1) y=e* sin 42.
(iii) (D2 +1) y=sin a sin 22.
(iv) (D? - D- 2) y=sin 2. (v) (D- 2)? y=a%e**

9.() O44 ae +e”,

(ii)©av_ 1 + k*y = e*
ee

(ii) ‘ a}a +y =e.

Ot
a”
(iv dat
ee
cosh 2. w) dat
oy U= re™ sin x.
860 INTEGRAL CALCULUS

10 ° ee
daz? olUV Y y=] og Z. ({Put w="]
ub ee

41. (@?D*+e2D+1)y=sin log 2?. [ Put a=)

12. (i) Show that the general solution of the equation for
S. H. M. viz.,
2

f= ~ nz, is x= A cos (nt +2).

(ii) Evaluate ne cos bx

and hence show that
az
Se™ cos br dx= a b (a cos bx +b sin bz).

18. eoin the particular cases :—

dy
%pty =gsin 27 ; when 7=0, y=0 and =().

(ii) yg
— Sy. +6y
= 2e” ; when ce=0, y=1 and yi= 1.
(iii) (D?7-4D+4y=2? ; when c=0, y= and Dy=1.
(iv) (D? -—1)y =2; given Dy =3, when y=1 ; and 2=2,
when y= — 1.
Solve :-—

14. (i) 244=1. (4i) cma.

2

15. (i) yg cos*z=1. (ii) y?v_ =a.

16. on tan y sec’y, given y =0, when y=0.

17. () $ny (i)

i
Fa + a0.
2
18. (i) - sin 2. (ii) Te. "
 LINEAR EQUATIONS 361

ef.
20. Suter
21. (1+a*)yo+2ey,=2.

a Stee
24. Yo — (yx)? =0.

29. yVa + (ys)? =2.

a*y = d*y =0.

26. dx* dzx?*

ANSWERS

1. (i) y= 4 cos 24+ B sin 2a+3(22+8).

(ii) y= A cos +B sin 2+(z° —6z).
2. (i) y= Ae“ ?*+ B+ gx5—4a2
+h. (ii) y= A4e7*+ Be~**-—A(a+
4).
3. (i) y=(C, + Cyx)e3*
+ e?7. (ii) y= A cos 82+B sin 8n+4e%*.

4. (i) y=C,e**+ C,07*"+ a et, (ii) y= Ae? + e-* + Je*?,

(iii) y= Ce" + C,e°*+2e**,
5. (i) y= de?*+ Be-?*—4 sin 2x.
(ii) y= A cos 22+B sin 22—4e cos Bz.
6. (i) y=A cos 7 +B sin w—$x cos 2.
(ii) y= C, cos 22+C, sin 2n+$x cos 2+2 sin a.
(iii) y= A cos e+ B sin 2+4—% cos 2x.
(iv) y=A cos 27+B sin 22+
ba — xyz cos 20—y'gz? sin 2x.
362 INTEGRAL CALCULUS

2. (i) y= Oe" + Cae7*

+ ge"? (382-4).
(ii) y= C,e°* + C,e7**+ pye** (6 sin 2—cos 2).

8. (i) y=e~* (A cos 2+ B sin 2+2).

(ii) y= Ae*
+ Be~* — y,e” (sin $2+4 cos 42).
(iii) y= A cos 2+-B sin 2+42 sin a+ yy cos 8x.
(iv) y= Ae~*
+ Re?* +515 (Los 22-3 sin 2x).
(v) y=e7" (A+ Bot pya*).

9. (i) y=e77 (C, + Crat+ha?)+te*. (ii) y= (A+ Bajet* +e” (L—k)-*.

(iii) y= (A+ Bat 4x7) e”, (iv) y= Ac*+ Ber? +4e sinh oa.

(v) y= Ae*+ Deo? — 35{(1024-2) cos 2+ (5a—14) sin a}.

10. y=(A+B log x) a+log 2+2.

41. y=A cos log e+ B sin log x —4 sin log x.

13. (i) y=$ sin e—§ sin Qz. (ii) y=e*.

(iii) y=hxe7" +4207+$2498. (iv) y4+-2==e77?,

14, (i) y=ax log e+ Act B. (ii) y=(x—2) ce?+ An +B.

15. (i) y=Jog sec r+ Avt+B. (ii) C, 24? =at+(C gt£C,72)7.

16. (sin y+ Ce*)(sin y+ Ce~*)=0.

47. (i) 8r=2 (Ny—-20, y+ C,)2+C,.

(i) JG. F- Gq los (Cy + VIFCa) =a0, 2x4 C,.
18. (i) y=C,+C,2+(6—27) sin x —
4a cos a.
(ii) e=fe7'+C,t+C,. 19. (i) y= 4 Ari+B.
{ii) a log (y+ B)=2+C. 20. y=C,+0, e7* +he.

21. y=log (1+22)+4 tan-'g+B, 22, y=e4 natB cose,

28. e* (C,-—e) =C,. 24. &(C,2+C,)=1.
25. 2 wn + Cet C2. 26. y=C er + C,e-*+C,at+ Cy.
 LINEAR EQUATIONS 368

17°8. Equation of the nth order.

The linear differential equation of the »th order with

constant coefficients is

d"y cy dy
ax" <5. + Praag +P,y =X = (1)

or, symbolically (D"+P,D°7'+P2.D°°2+:--+Pa)y=X (2)

or more briefly f(D)y =X, oe + (3)
where P,, Pe,...... Py are constants, and Y is a function
of x only, or a constant.

The method adopted in the case of the solution of the

second order equation admits of easy extension to the above
ease. Thus, the gencral solution of (1) consists of two parts
(i) the Complementary Function and (ii) the Particular
Integral, the complementary function being the general
solution of
t(D)y=0 ete dee (4)

and the particular integral being the valne of a A.

Assuming as before y=e"” as a trial solution of (4),

we shall find that y =e” will be a solution of (4),
if f(m)=0, 7.6., if m+ Pym 2 +++ Pan=0. + (6)
Equation (5) is then the auxiliary equation of (4).
If the auxiliary equation (5) has ” real and distinct roots
VEZ., Mt, Mogyeeeees mn, then the complete solution of (4) is
yr C,e™.” + Coes” there + Cne™”™.

If the auxiliary equation has a multiple real root of order

r, and if this root be a, then f(D) contains (D-a)” as a
864 INTEGRAL CALCULUS

factor, and the corresponding part of the complementary

function will be the solution of (D—a)”"y=0.
Assuming, as before, 7 = e?”v,
(D-a)"y=(D-— a)"e?7v = e™ Dv

and the solution of D’v=0, is by successive integration

v=(Cot+ Cie t+ Con? t+ +++ +Cr_127"~*),
whence, y=(Cot+Cyrt+Cyxr* +--+ Cp_y27~ *)e%
is the corresponding part of the complementary function.

If the auxiliary equation has complex roots a+iB, the

corresponding part of the solution is, as before
y =e" (A cos fat+B sin Ba),
and zf a+7B are double roots of the auxiliary equation, the
corresponding part of the solution will be
e** [(A, + Aga) cos 62 +(B, + Baz) sin ge).
The method of obtaining the particular integral of (1}
when X has those special forms [ See Art. 17'5 ] is essentially
the same as shown in the case of the second order equations.

17°9. INustrative Examples.

Ex.1. Solve (D°'+38D?+3D+41)y=e7".

Here the auxiliary equation is m*+3m7+3m+1=0 of which the

roots are —1, -~1, -1. .°. O.F.=e7* (Cot+Cr+ Cy27).

P I ——2 1 ‘ert= 1 e-”

ro" (Ds +38D2+3D+1) (D+1)°

=6 ste yr ize oe 1=e"*- 5.

the general solution is y=e7* (Co+ C+ Cu" + g2°*).

 LINEAR EQUATIONS 365

Ex. 2. Solve (D4+2D*+8D*+2D+1)y=<e".

The equation can be written as

(D?+ D+1)"y=«e".

Here, the auxiliary oquation is (m?+m+1)?=0, it has double

complex roots, —4+44 /3, —$1474 ./3.

C.F. is e~
2 [((4,+ A,2x) cos (4 /32)+(B, + Baz) sin (4 /32)]).

1
Pile. sae
(D? + D+1)? ee 4(D+1)*+(D+1)+1}?
: a

= 6" (DIF ae gene :[a+ pee spy) 2

= 6". §.{1+ D(1+$D} 2x =e". L—-2D+ ee tebe
== $e"
(2 —2).

the general solution is

e~#* ((4,+A,2) cos (§ V3x)-+(B,+Byx) sin (§ /32))+ he"(e—9).

Ex. 3. Solve a*4 —2)dz!

d*y {ty=sin (2243).
dx*

The equation can be written as

(D‘ —1)"y=sin (22+).

The auxiliary cquation is (m*—1)?=0; its roots are 1,1, —1, —1,
t, 4, 2, —% Hence,

C. F. is e7 (A,+ Aaa) +e"? (B,

+ By 2)
+(0,+C,2x) cos 2+(D,+D,2) sin z. s+ (1)

PA, “Ny sin (22+ Saiyan ipssin (22-+3)

aa sin (22+-3). sss (2)

Adding (1) and (2), we get the general solution.

866 INTEGRAL CALCULUS

EXAMPLES XVII(C)

Solve :—

1.6) E4-y=0. [op 1946) (i) HYyao,

2. (i) TY 347 4 9y=0, [C. P. 1940]

(ii) 5ass q{- oft=o,

(iii) 4cV4. gly gtda*f+ 8S + ay =0.

2 ie .
(iv) +1)*(D? +1)y=0.
3. (i) $va -y=2° get (Gi) ax
“ aes Y

4. (i) (D® - Djy=e* +e”.

(3) (D* —1)y =sin (387 +1).

d°y dey dg,

5. da® 473 +57 2y =0.

6. (D° + D* —-D-—1)y=sin*z.
fe "U4. ; oie

dz dax* tye

8. dy
in? 2_ydy +4y=e* mr
sin 5

9. (D°-3D2+4D-2)y =e" + cos x.

10. (D*-4D°+3D?+4D-4)y=e?
11. (D*+1)y=2 cos*se—-—1+67*.
12. (D*+2D"*+1)y=cos z.
18. (D-1)?(D2 +1)?y =e" +sin*4de.
 LINEAR EQUATIONS 367

d*y a*y |.dy oz

14. dn? —27t du @ +a.

15. €Vy. 5oY + 4y = 360 sin Ln cos”9

ANSWERS

1. (i) y= Ac? +e75* (B sin 4 /3x+C cos 3/8).

(ii) y= Ae*+ Be-* + C cos 2+D sin 2.
2. (i) y=e* (A+
Ba) +Ce-™, (ii) y= A+ Be?*+ Ce-*,
(iii) y=e7* [((4+ Bx) cos 2+(C+ Dr) sin vr}.
(iv) y=e-* (4+ Bot Cz2)+D cos zt+E sin x.
aG
- (i) y= Ae*+e 7 (B sin $./32+C ons § /3r)—22 +2? -6.
(ii) y= A+ But Co-*+ Pya* —}n° +27.
- (i) y= A+ Be?+ Ce-7 + dz (e7 +7").

(ii) y=e te (4 cos 3 o+B sin a)+ Ce*

+35 cos (32+ 1) = 50 sin (8z+ 1).

- y=(A,+Aon) oe?+A,07*
. y=C ,e7+(C,+C.2) e+ ae sin 2r++5 cos Qx- 4.

y=e?* (C,+C,7)+C,077
+fee.
. y=C e777 +07 (C, cos a +C, sin x) —- Pye" (4 cos 2 —38 sin a).
SConrnna
. ye" (C1 4+C, cos 2+, sin x) +2e7 +75 (cos 2+8 Sin z).
10. y=(C,+C,2) e?%+ Ose7 + Cem" + $0267”.
11. y=e-** (C, cosazt+C, sin az]+e™* [Cs cos az+C, sin az]
+4 (cos a+e7") where a= 1} ./2.
12, y =(C,+C,2) sin 2+(C,+C,2) cos x—42? cos x.
13. y=(C,+Ca2) ce?+(C3+C2x) cos 7+ (C,+ Coz) sin x
+ he7n7+4 — yz? sin a.
14. y=(C,+Coz) e* +C,+he2*
+427 + Qn.
15. y=C, cosx+C, sin c+C, cos 22+, sin Ix+sin 42+ sin Bz.
368 INTEGRAL CALCULUS

17°10. Homogeneous Linear Equation.

An equation of the form
a”y 7 g”t
z dx” +Pia
bt a ae. i i
dx™=3 +
—— =e 8@s oe

+ Py-10 ay + Pay =X ese (1)

or, symbolically, (2” D" + Pyx™"* D®™1 +--+:

+ Pa_D+t+ Pa) y= xX, eas (2)

where P,, Po...... Py are constants and X is a function

of 2 alone, is called a homogeneous linear equation.

The substitution
z=e", i.e, 2=log a,
will transform the above equation into an equation with
constant coefficients, which has already been discussed in
Art. 17°8. Here the independent variable will be z.

dy dy dz_1 dy a us
Now, aw dzdx «x dz (3)

dty (? ”_idy,id*y1
dx? da\e dz) «*dz xdz* «a
cy
a - 4H) we (4)

=
Similarly, dn®
dey _ 4(e4- d*ysea)
de? oade!g+2 dz aes (5)

Let us write 6 for é : with this notation, (8), (4), (5) can
be written as

dy _ OU
oa es ca (6)
 LINEAR EQUATIONS 869

a d*y
ant =§(6-l)y eee +» (7)

3g04 Th O- 1X6- Q)y

r ob svi wat (8)

x" FE 5 (5-~1)(6—2)--(6—-nt+i)y - (9)

Note. This is sometimes called Cauchy equation.

17°11. Equation reducible to the Homogeneous Linear

form.
An equation of the form

(ax +b)” 57<a + Pi(ax

+b)"~* oteas
+ Py: (ar + wiot Pay=X-: (10)

where P,, Po, ... Pn are constants and X is a function of x

alone can be reduced to a linear equation with constant
coefficients by the substitution axrt+b=z.
Note. This is somctimes called Legendre equation.

17°12. Illustrative Examples.

d*y 4 d*4 On dy
Ex. 1. Solre 2°
dx? * ax? t™ az -—Qy=2?
Put w=e* i¢., 2=log a.
Then by Art. 17°10, the cquation transforms into
[3 (6—1)(5— 2)—8 (8-1)
+25-2) y=e7* we (1)

where b= or, (5-1)?

(8+ 2) y=e?

the roots of auxiliary equation are 1,1, —2.

The O. F. is y=(C,+C,3) e°+C,e7 7".

And P.I. is Gz Gaye *“=4de™,

24
870 INTEGRAL CALCULUS

.. the general solution of (1) is

y=(C,+Cz2) e+ C,e-
7"+4e7*,
Hence, the general solution of the given equation is
y=(C,+C, log x) 2+ C27? +42”.
Ex.2. Solve (x1?D7+2zD) y=-e".
Put w=e’ i.e., 2=log x.
by Art. 17°20, the equation transforms into
{8 (S5—1)+23}y=e% eo «+s (1)
where = or, (87+8) y=? e-

the roots of the suxiliary equation are 0, —1,

the C. BF. is y= CO, 4+-C,c7’.
et 1 2 e8
Pp. Les (941)° é

-(t- 1 ) bs
a opie” ©
ae a ee — 1 z yt
3 Sac
-\ eve” dz—e * \ e " dz{ By Art. 175'(1))

Put ec’=y.
P. =e —e-? {((c?—1) ce =e" e® [ See Ex. 8, of Art. 17°6 }
the gencral solution of (1) is
y= C,4+-Cyen* +e" e.
Honce the general solution of the given equation is
yHC + Cyn +am ee”.

EXAMPLES XVII(D)

Solve the following equations :—

2
1. «2? ¢4- 4a ay+ 6y =x.
2. (#7D*+a2D—1) y=sin (log x)+- cos (log 2).
 LINEAR EQUATIONS 871

x
2 on
a*yat dy
bao. +4y=
=

anealiade |
2? a'y Qn 2 a® y — Dy ayy =
dx? * da? ™ dg ©
(2° D*> +2£D-1y=x?
Lr
a
dx* ve Yr.

(a*D* + i + a +37rD +1) y=0.

4 d?y 3 ary ~ O922 ay =
2 dx + 3a: dx? a dz + 2ay= log@.

ANSWERS
y=C 224+ Cox? + ha.

y=
C ,2+C.2%°'—4§ sin (log x)-+|5 2 sin (log 2) —cos (log «x)}.

- y=(C,+C, log x) a ?+ah21.

- y= O,07'+
C0? +40? log w—4x-' logx
y=C eo? +C ya-'+C,.
y={C,+C, log 2+C, (log z)?}a2+27.
7#={C,+C, log +C, (log x)?} x+-dz (log x)*.
y= C,(a+2)?4+ C,(2+2)*+% (82+ 4).
y=(C,+C, log x) cos (log z)+(C,+C, log z) sin (log :x).
- y=(C,4+C, log 2) a+C.2-7+427§ log x.
 CHAPTER XVIII
APPLICATIONS

18°1. We have already considered in the preceding

chapters some applications of differential equations to geo-
metrical problems. Here we shall have some other applica-
tions of differential equations.

18°2. Orthogonal Trajectories.

Tf every member of a family of curves cuts the members
of a given family at right angles, each family is said to be
a set of orthoyonal trajectories of the other.

(A) Rectangular Co-ordinates.

Suppose we have one-parameter family of curves

(x, v, ¢)=0, ate: (1)
c being the variable parameter.

Let us first form the differential equation of the family

by differentiation of (1) with respect to # and by elimina-
tion of c [See Art. 14°2| and let the differential equation be

sendo = @
If the two curves cut at right angles, and if », »’ be
the angles which the tangents to the given curve and the
trajectory at the common point of intersection, (say 2, ¥),
make with the z-axis, we have y~y'=4n, and therefore,
tan p= —cct y’. Since tan yah it follows that the
 APPLICATIONS 378

differential equation of the system of trajectories is obtained

by substituting _1/4ay,
—1[ey 1.0, _dx, dy.2 (2).
7 for te

Thus, the differential equation of the system of orthogonal

trajectories is

san -B)-0.
Integrating (3) we shall get the equation in the ordinary
form.
(B) Polar Co-ordinates.

Suppose the equation of a given one-parameter family

of curves be

f(r, 0, c)=0 vee (1)

and the corresponding differential equation, obtained by
eliminating the arbitrary parameter ec, he

i 7 (r,6, a) =0.
ar = eee
(2)
‘

If ¢, ¢’ denote the angles which the tangents to the

given curve and the trajectory at the common point of
intersection, (say 7, 6), make with the radius vector to the
common point, we have as before tan d= — cot ¢’.

Since tan d=r ae it follows that the differential equa-

tion of the system of orthogonal trajectories is obtained by
@ ;
substituting — --1a for ro 4.é., —-7° “ for a”
in (2).

Hence, the differential equation of the required system of

orthogonal trajectories is
F(r,6, =r? Plmo, (3)
 374 INTEGRAL CALCULUS

Integrating (3) we shall get the equation in the ordinary

form.
Ex. 1. Find the orthogonal trajectories of the rectanqular hyper-
bolas zy=a?.
Differentiating zy=a? with respect to 2, wo havo the diffcrontial
equation of the family of curves

Wl 4 Y= 0
oat i sa (1)

and hence for the orthogonal trajectorios, the differentia] equation is

da tye=0, or,
~ ay Z
«dx-—y dy=0.

Integrating this, we have, x?—y?=c’, the required equation of

the orthogonal trajectorios. It represents a system of rectangular
hyporbolas.

Ex. 2. Find the orthogonal trajectories of the cardioides

r=a (1—cos 6).
Since, r=a(1—cos @), .*. logr=log a+-log (1—cos 8).

Differentiating with respect to 6, we get the differential equation of

the family of curves
ldr_ sin@
7 d8 1-cos@

*, the differential equation of the system of orthogonal trajcctories is

1-(-7‘ a) _- 5in 6
r dr} 1—cos@

or, 4 128988 ag 20,

or, Oy ne. 9 adé@=0.

*, integrating, log-i = 5% =logc;

4.0. r=c (1+cos 6),

represents tho required orthogonal trajectories.
 APPLICATIONS 375

Ex. 3. Find the orthogonal trajectories of the system of curves

r"=a" cos nd.
Since r"=a" cos né, .*. 1 log r= log a-+log cos 8.
Differentiating with respect to @, (and thereby climinating a), we
get the differential cquation of tho fumily of curves
1 dr 52 nO
r dé COs 120
the differential cqnation of the system of orthogonal trajec-
torics is
1 (-» a) - _sin 28.
rT ar cos 76

dr sinné ,,_
r cos 20 d6=0.

integrating, log r— 2 log sin 20 = log c

; r
1.¢., log yuloge
(sin 116)"
r™==¢" gin 10,

18°3. Velocity and acceleration of a moving particle.

If a particle be moving along a straight line, and if
at any instant ¢, the position P of the particle be given by
the distance s measured along the path from a suitable fixed
point A on it, then v denoting the velocity, and f the acce-
leration of the particle at the instant, we have
v= rate of displace:nent
=rate of change of s with respect fo time

_dsdt
and, f=rate of change of velocity with respect to time
dv ds
~ dt dt?
 876 INTEGRAL CALCULUS

If instead of moving in a straight line, the particle be

moving in any manner ina plane, the position of the
particle at any instant ¢ being given by the cartesian co-
ordinates x, ¥, referred to a fixed set of axes, the components
of velocity and acceleration parallel to these axes will
similarly be given by

Vz =rate of displacement parallel to x-axis = o

vy =rate of displacement parallel to y-axis = ow

fa=rate of change, of vz=_asit \to)

de ae
di?

:
Jy =rate of change of pe
v,= tN (7) 74.
dt) > de?

The applications of these results are illustrated in the

following examples.
Ex.1. A particle starting with velocily u, moves in a straight
line woth a uniform acceleration f. Find the velocity and distance
travelled in any time.
s denoting the distance travelled by the particle in time #, the
a
acceleration of the particle is given by the oxpression on and so in
a
this case, cant: .. integrating, Bait 4, where A is the inte-

gration constant, Now, as is the expression for the velocity v of the

particle at time ¢, and when /=0, «e., at start, v=u. .°. w= 0+ A.

Henco, v= Ba st+ Ue vee “++ (1)

Integrating (i), s=3/t? +uti+B,

where the integration constant B is found in this particular case from
the fact that s=O when d= 90, .°. B=0.
Hence, s=$fPt+tut=wut+sft’.
 APPLICATIONS 377

Ex, 2. A particle is projected with a velocity u at an angle a to the

horizon. Find the path.

Taking the starting point as the origin, and taking tho axes of
co-ordinates horizontal and vertical respectively, if z, y denote the
co-ordinates of the particlo at any time ¢, since there is no force and
therefore no acceleration in the horizontal direction, and since the
vertical acceleration is always the same=g downwards, we have in
this case

d*t 9 ay _
dee ayo
Hence, integrating,

apn A
dx _
an
dy _ we
ot + B,
=| eee
(i)
;

But oa represent the horizontal and the vertical component

of velocity respectively, and these, at start when ¢=0, are given by
w~coS a and uw sin a.

w cos a= A, usin a=O+ B,

whereby the integration constants are obtained.

Thus, (i) gives

dz dt eina=
ayn cO3 a, aen sin a-~gt.

Integrating again, 2=ut cos a+C

y=utsin a— dgi?+D.

Now, since z= y=0 when ¢=0, we get from akove, C= D=0.

Henca, g2=ut cos a

g=ut sin a—dge?.
Eliminating ¢, the path of the particle is given by

y= ton a~ 89 5costa
a

which is evidently a parabola.

378 INTEGRAL CALCULUS

18°4. Miscellaneous Applications.

The examples below will illustrate some other appli-

cations of differential equations.

Ex.1. The population of a country increases ai the rate pro-

portional to the number of inhabitants. If the population doubles in
30 years, in how many years will it treble ?

Let 2 be tho population in ¢ years,

es. den et
da 5
... solving,
4s
«=Ce"’.AL
jai

Let r=z7o, when £=0; Os. C=to% o. wage",

When x2=2r9, £=30; Ce Beemer. so Vee":

When @= 32, let t=T , ove B29 =a 08" : 2 eee:

-. 30k=log,2 . OF log. 3_ 48
and Hl'=loge33 ** 80 Ioge 2 80 MANY:
.. 2=30 $5 =48 vears approximatoly.

Ex. 2. After how many years will Rs. 100, placed at the rate of
5% continuously compounded, amount lo Its. 1000 ?

Let @ be the amount in Z years,

ie HOMIOC anh ee eae aie

oe di 100% = ** say, where k= 9

solving, c= Ce**.

When ¢=0, 2=100; ., C=100. . c=1000"",

When a= 1000, let {= 7. .*, 1000 100e*T . et T 310,

.. kT=log, 10= 2°30 nearly. ... T= iin 2°30= 20 x 2°30 = 46 nearly.

.. the reqd. time is 46 years nearly.

 APPLICATIONS 379

EXAMPLES XVIII

Find the orthogonal trajectories of the following families

of curves :—

1. Gi) y=. (ii) y=az".

(iii) vw? + y% = ay. (iv) y? = daz.

(v) ay? =x, (vi) 27 + Qy? =a.

(vii) x v4 ye = a (viii) a? ty? +a7=1+4+2aan.

(ix) r=«a cos 0. (x) 7° =a" cos 20.

(xi) + (1 + cos 0)= 2. (xii) 7” sin n0= a".

2. (i) Show that the orthogonal trajectorics of a system

of concurrent straight lines form a system of concentric
circles, and conversely.

(ii) Show that the orthogonal trajectories of the

system of co-axial circles

n= +y*+rt+c=0
form another system of co-axial circles

m* ty? +9nuy—c=0,
where 2 and “« are parameters and c¢ is a given constant.

(iii) Show that the orthogonal trajectories of the

system of circles touching a given straight line at a given
point, form another system of circles which pass through
the given point and whose centres lie on the given line.
[ Take the point of concurrence as the origin. }
380 INTEGRAL CALCULUS

3. (a) Show that every member of the first set of curves

cuts orthogonally every member of the second
Gy) & ae taetl (i) pi tutt =0
dx iety +1 at giteetl1

(b) Show that

(i) the family of parabolas y?=4a (x+a) is self-
orthogonal.

(ii) the family of panier conics

ne?
)
a?24 ta+A =1 (4 being the parameter
is self-orthogonal.

4. (i) Find the curve in which the radius of curvature is

proportional to the arc measured from a fixed point, and
identify it.

(ii) Find the curve for which the tangent at any point
cuts off from the co-ordinate axes intercepts whose sum is
constant and identify it.

5. Find the cartesian equation of 2 curve for which the

tangent is of constant length.

6. A particle is said to execute a Simple Harmonic

Motion when it moves on a straight line, with its accelera-
tion always directed towards a fixed point on the line and
proportional to the distance from it in any position. If it
starts from rest at a distance a from the fixed point, find
its velocity in any position, and the time for that position.
Deduce that the motion is oscillatory, and find the periodic
time.
 APPLICATIONS 881

7. A particle falls towards the earth, starting from rest

at a height h above the surface. If the attraction of the
earth varies inversely as the square of the distance from
its centre, find the velocity of the particle on reaching the
earth’s surface, given a the radius of the earth, and g the
value of the acceleration due to gravity at the surface of
the earth.
8. <A particle falls in a vertical line under gravity
(supposed constant), and the force of air resistance to its
motion is proportional to its velocity. Show that its velo-
city cannot exceed a particular limit.
9. <A particle moves in an ellipse with an acceleration
directed towards its centre. Show that the acceleration is
proportional to its distance from the centre.
10. In a certain culture, the number of bacteria is
increasing at a rate proportional to the number present. If
the number doubles in 3 hours, how many may be expected
at the end of 12 hours ?
11. After how many years will a sum of money, placed
at the rate of 595 continuously compounded, double itself ?
12. Radium disappears at a rate proportional to the
amount present. If 5% of the original amount disappears
in 50 years, how much will remain at the end of 100 years ?
13. <A tank consists of 50 litres of fresh water. Two
litres of brine each containing 5 gms. of dissolved salt are
run into the tank per minute; the mixture is kept uniform
by stirring, and runs out at the rate of one litre per minute,
If m gms. of salt are present in the tank after ¢ minutes,
express 7 in terms of é and find the amount of salt present
after 10 minutes.
382 INTEGRAL CALCULUS

14. The electric current I through a coil of resistance R

and inductance LZ satisfies the equation RI+ Lo= V;

where V is the potential difference between the two ends

of the coil. <A potential difference V=a sin wé is applied to
the coil from time ¢=0 to the time t=2/, whero a, » are
positive constants. The current is zero at 4=0 and V is zero
after t=2/w; find the current at any time both before and
after t=2/w.
15. A horizontal beam of length 2/ ft., carrying a uniform
load of w lhs. per foot of length, is freely supported at both
ends, satisfying the differential equation

7 i a"a= tux" — wiz,

y being the es at a distance x from one end. If y=0
at 2=0, and 7¥,=0 at r=1, find the deflection at any point ;
also find the maximum deflection.
16. A horizontal beam of length / simply supported at its
end subject only to its own weight satisfies the equation
4, ay
=w,
El da*
where #, I, w are constants. Given y,.=y=0 at 2=0
and at 7=1, express the deflection ¥ in terms of 2.
17. A harmonic oscillator consists of an inductance Ji,
a condenser of capacitance C and an e.m.f. J7. Find the
charge g and the current 1 when H=Z, cos wt and initial
conditions are q=qdp and i=io at t=0, 2, q satisfying the
equations
a G47 = = He cos wt, i= dq
dt? * LC
1
What happens if 1 Qe
TOL : 9
 APPLICATIONS 383

ANSWERS

1. (i) 2? +y? =a’. (ii) 2? + ny? =c?. (iii) 22+

y? =2%n,
(iv) Qa?+y?=c7, — (v) Qn? +3y?=c?, (vi) y=cx?.
4 4 4
(vii) a3 —y=c3,

(viii) y J(1—y")--2 .'(L—a2?)+sin7'y—sin-'2=c.

(ix) r=c sin 6, (x) r? =c? sin 20,

(xi) r (1—cos 6)=2ce. (xii) x” cos nd =.

4, (i) Equi-angular spiral. (ii) Parabola.

4?)—log (a+ Ja* —y")},

+ha {log (a-- ./a*—
6. a= Jay"
if y=a, when 2=0.

6 v= / pa? — 2’), t= a cos7* ‘ > when pw is the acceleration at

: ‘ 7 or
a unit distance. Period he
ih

7. A/ aan 10. 16 times the original number.

ath

11. 14 years nearly. 12. £84 of the original amount,

13. oO. 5é (1435

50 +e )gm g.; 9 9133 670s.
gms

ttt
14. For i < m T= pat R? [2sin ww, (coswt-—e / )|

I Rr _Rt
5.
and fort > 97 sed cecen
Biot eaetp
nas (1+«OL Je L,

— eG ¢ —_ Z’ 3 & a owl"

16. y= . 7(2'-20e* +1%xJ.

° 2481
384 INTEGRAL CALCULUS

17. a=( go~

EC
2874) 008
© 7G t+ /LC
=> os 1
%> 6in Jzc'

+ se cos wt.

4=
%q COS Pe i ate (..-3-%
BeG‘G)sin = P4
J/~c” JLC\" 1-» VLC
“7: oe sin wt.

If w=- Pe 4.¢., frequency of e.m.f.=natural frequency oscilla-

JLC
tion 4.¢., resonance will take place and the circuit will be destroyed.
Bofore destroying
Eo
q=ee «,in wit oF £ sin wt

4=1, cos wl—q, w sin wb (; Sin wl-4-¢ cos wt):

 CHAPTER XIX
THE METHOD OF ISOCLINES

19°1. It is only in a Limited number of cases that

a differential equation may be solved analytically by the
preceding methods, and in many practical cases where the
solution of a differential equation is needed under given
initial conditions, and the above methods fail, a graphical
method, the method of isoclines is sometimes adopted. We
proceed to explain below this method in case of simple
differential equations of the first order.

Let us consider an equation of the type

iY= fle, y). vs “Gi

As already explained before, the general solution of
this equation involves one arbitrary constant of integration,
and hence represents a family of curves, and in general,
one member of the family passes through a given
point (7, ¥).
Gait cas ae ay ;
Now, if in (i) we replace de by , we get an equation

f(a, =m, which for any particular numerical value of

m represents a curve, ab every point of which the value

of ee i.e., the slope of the tangent line to the family of

curves represented by the general solution of (i) is the

same as that numerical value of m. This curve f(a, y)=m
is called an isoclinal or isocline. For different numerical
values of m we get different isoclinals, which may be
graphically constructed on a graph paper. Through differ-
ent points on any one isocline, short parallel lines are
drawn having their common slope equal to the particular
value of m for that isocline. Similar short parallel lines
are drawn through points on other isoclinals. If the
25
886 INTEGRAL CALCULUS

number of isoclines drawn be large, so that they are

sufficiently close to one another, the short lines will ulti-
mately join up and appear to form a series of curves
which represent the family of curves giving the general
solution of (i) and a particular member of the family
passing through a given point represents the particular
solution wanted. All necessary informations regarding the
particular solution may now be obtained from the graph.
As an example, let us consider the differential equation
Mg —y?, The isoclinals are given by m=2-y* or

y* =x—m, a series of equal paraholas shifted left or right

y’

from y?=2, (whicl: corresponds to m=0) as shown in

the figure. The dotted curves represent graphically the
solutions of the differential equation.
 APPENDIX
SECTION A
A NOTE-ON DEFINITE INTEGRALS
1. Definition.
We have two methods of defining definite integrals : one
based on the noézon of limits, the other based on the notion
of bounds.

The first method based on the notion of limits is given

in Note 2, Art. 62.

The second method based on the notion of bounds

is given below.

Let the interval (a, 5) he divided in any manner into

a number (say ) of sub-intervals by taking intermediate
points
Q2=X%o <@14 << Mq...... << tn-1
< an=h.

Let Mf, and m; he the upper and lower bounds of f(z)

in the r-th sub-interval (zr_1, 2) and let 6, denote the
length of this sub-interval. The lower bound (denoted by J)
of the aggregate of the sums S=XM,édr (obtained by
considering all possible modes of sub-division), is called
b
the Upper Integral and is denoted by : f(x) dz, and the upper
bound (denoted by j) of the aggregate of the sums s= Tmréd,y
b
is called the! Lower Integral and is denoted by {:I(x) de.

When the lower and upper integrals are equal, 7.e., when 7 = J,
388 INTEGRAL CALCULUS

then f(z) is said to be integrable and the common value

is said to be the integral of f(z) in (a, b) and is denoted
iis |.fle) de.
Tt can be shown by what is known as Darbous’s theorem
that both the definitions are equivalent when f(x) is
integrable.
Note. The integral defined above when it oxists, is called a
Riemann integral, as it was first obtained by the great mathematician
Riemann,

2. Necessary and sufficient condition for inte-

grability.
We give below without proof the necessary and sufficient
condition for the integrability of a bounded function f(z).
If there he at least one pair of sums S, s for f(x) for
a sub-division of the interval (a, b) such that
S-s<e,
where ¢ is any arbitrarily small positive number, then f(z)
is integrable.
Note. It can be easily shown that the sum or difference of two or
more functions integrable in (a, }) is also integrable in (d, a).

3. Integrable functions.
(i) Functions continuous in a closed interval (a, 6) are
integrable in that interval.
(ii) Functions with only a finite number of finite
discontinuities in a closed interval (a, b) are integrable in
that interval.
(iii) Functions menotonic and bounded in an interval
(a, d) are integrable in that interval.
 A NOTE ON DEFINITE INTEGRALS 389

4. Important Theorems.
I. If f(a) is integrable in the closed interval (a, 6) and if
fla) > 0 for all in (a, B), then |° Ha) dx > 0 (b> a).
Since, f(z)> 0 in (a, 4), it follows that in the interval
(zy_1, tr) the lower bound m, > O and therefore
s= umrby = 0

gy, which is the upper bound of the set of numbers

s,
2 0.
b
Since, f(z) is integrable, i-| fla) dr
a

b
and hence | flr) dx > 0.
a

Alternatively.
Since, f(x) is integrable in (a, 6),
b
ie \ f(x) da=Lt Sf (te) dr.
Since, f(z) > 0 in (a, d), J“. f(t) > 0 in (a, 0).
Lit zf(t,) Or = 0 in (a, b).

b
oe {:f(x) dx > 0 in (a, d).

Note. It can be shown similarly, that if f(z) < 0 in (a, 5), then
\;F(x) du < 0.
a

Il. If f(z) and g(x) are integrable in (a, b) and f(x) > g(a)
b b
in (a, 5), then | f(x) dz > | g(a) dx (b > a).

Consider the function (2) = f(x) — g(a).

890 INTEGRAL CALCULUS

Then (2) is integrable in (a, b) and yz) > 0 in (a, 8).

by (i), i.vla) de > 0 in (a, 8)
b
1.6., i {f(x) - g(x)} dx > 0 in (a, b)
b b
4.€., i.f(a) dx > | g(a) dex.

III. If M and m are the upper and lower bounds of

the integrable function f(x) in (a, db), b > a, then
b
m(b-a)< | S(x) dx < M(b-a).
a

Since, m < f(z) < M in (a, d),

{f(x)— mi > 0 in Ga, d),
i. {7(2)— mide > 0.
b b
| f(x) dx > m{ dx, i.e., 2 m(b-a).
a a

Similarly, since, J2—- f(x) > 0, we can show

b
M(b-a) > | f(x) da.
Hence the result.
This is known as the first Mean Value Theorem of
Integral Calculus.
Cor. The above theorem can bo written in the form

\’f(z) dx=(b—a) », whuom< ue M;

and if further f(x) is continuous in (a, b) then f(x) attains the value
» for some value ¢ of x such thatla < § < b*, and so,
\)103) dx=(b—a) 1().
“See Authors’ Differential Calculus.
 A NOTE ON DEFINITE INTEGRALS 391

IV. If f(x) and g(x) are integrable in (a, b) and if g(a)

maintains the same sign throughout (a, b), then
d b
|@ F(a) g(a) dx= “|: g(x) dx, wherem < uw < M,
m and M being the lower and upper bounds of f(x) in (a, b).
Let us assume for the sake of definiteness that g(x) is
always positive in (a, d).
Now, m < f(x) < M in (a, b).
Since, g(x) is positive
my(x) < f(x) g(a) < Mo(x),
f(a) y(x)— mola) > 0,
> 0.
\;{f(a) glx) - mo(x)} dx
:g(x) da
|fe) ir) dx > m |
0,
and f(x) g(r)-— Mg(z) <

{ x ) g( a) - M o l a } da < 0
j
4.0, |:f(a) g(a) dn < M [:y(r) de.

“om | g(a) dx <| “

f(a)a) dr < M |:g(x) da,
b b
[°#e) g(a) da= Hf g(x) dx, where m< uw < M.

Cor. If further f(x) is continuous, then f(x) attains the value »

for some value [of x wheorea < (<b, ae., f(S)=n.
°°. when f(x) is continuons,

\:f(x) g(x) dx=f (§) {:g(x) dx.

 394 INTEGRAL CALCULUS

Note. This is the generalised form of the First Mean Value Theo-
rem. The theorem III can be obtained from this by putting g(a)=1.

V. If f(t) is bounded and integrable in the closed interval

(a, b) and if F(e)-|* #(7) dt where a is any point in (a, b),

a

then

(2) F(x) is a continuous function of x in (a, b).

(2) If f(x) is continuous throughout (a, b) then the deri-
vative of F(x) exists at every point of (a, b) and =f(z).
(3) If flax) is continuous throughout (a, b) and if (x) be
a function of x such that 6'(x)=f(x) throuyhout (a, b), then

wla)=|* 0) dt=ae)~ 40)

(1) Let us consider a point 2+/ in the neighbourhood
of z in (a, D).
rth
Then Flath)= | f(t) dt.

ath 4
F(a + hh) - F(x) = | f(t) dt- | f(t) dt
eth
= \ f(t) dt = uh,

by Cor. of (III) where uw lics between the upper and lower

bounds of f(t) in the interval (7, 2+). Since f(z) is integra-
ble, m and Jf are finite and so is yu.

Lt {Flet+h)- F(a} =Lt ph=0.

A>0 h->0

Li Fath=F(a).
az0 :

F(a) is a continuous function of z in (a, ).

 4A NOTE ON DEFINITE INTEGRALS $93

(2) We have F(a +h)— F(a) -|— f(t) dt

=hf(Q), where <i (ath

since f(t) is continuous, [ See Cor. of (IIT) ]
F(x +h P(e) _ F(Q), for h # 0.

When h - 0, ¢ > w and f(() > /(2), since f(z) is continuous.

Lt F(z +h)- F(c) exists, and = f(z),
A>0 h

t.e., EF’ (x) =f(z).

(8) Since f(x) is continuous throughout (a, 5), as proved
above,
I’(@=f(r), te, F'(r)=$(2).
= F"(7)- ¢' (x) =0.
Let v(x) = F(a) — (2).
a y’ (x) =0 everywhere in (a, 6).
Hence, (rz)
= F(x)— d(x) =a constant c, in (a, x) -*- (i)
[ See Diff. Calculus, Art. 67, Ea. 1. ]

When z=a, F(a) -|:f(t) dt=0.

Since from (i), F(a)—¢(a)=c, .. -d(a)=e.

Consequently from (i), F(x) = ¢(2) + ¢ = d(x) - A(a),

7.¢., | Ht) dt = d(x) - d(a).

In particular,

\5£@ at=9(0)—9@).
Note. The relation given in (8) is known asthe Fundamental theo-
rem of Integral Calculus. { For an alternative proof, Sea Art. 6°4. }
 394 INTEGRAL CALCULUS

5. Change of variable in an integral.

>
To change the variable in the integral {(f(t) (dx) by the
substitution 2 = ¢4(t), it is necessary that
(i) d(¢) possesses a derivative at every point of the
interval a < ¢ < B, where ¢ (a)=a and ¢(f)=3, and (i) #0
for any value ¢ in (a, f).
(ii) f [6(é)] and ¢'(t) are bounded and integrable in (a, 8).
When the above conditions hold good, then and then only
we have

[21@) ae= |"rool so ae.

Illustration :
+1 dx
Tet r=\ -1 1+"

Putting 2=tan 0, we get r= ue dO

= hr.

Putting 2= 1], we get

od dt _
r=-\" | 1-te 41,

The reason for the discrepancy lies in tho fact that Mt does not
possess a derivative at ¢=0, an interior point of (—1, 1); in fact the
function itself is undefined when /=0.
6. Primitives and Integrals.
Tt ¢' (2) =f (x), then d(x) is the primitive of f(a). The
integral of f (x) on the other hand is Lt Sf({,)dy, or symboli-
"”—>0o

b
cally| t (x) dx, 7.¢., the analytical substitute for an area
a

‘in case f(z) has a continuous graph.

The distinction between the two is that while integrals
can be calculated, primitives cannot be calculated.
 A NOTE ON DEFINITE INTEGRALS 895

The question as to whether a primitive exists, and the

question of the existence of an integral of f(z) in (a, d), are
entirely independent questions. It is only in the case of
continuous functions that they are the same.
Indefinite integrals can properly be described as the
Calculus of primitives.

The connection between primitives and integrals is

represented by the Fundamental theorem of Integral
Calculus viz.,

|.F' («) de=F()-¥ (a).

Illustration :
. - 1 1 1
(i) f (x) =a.sin pare cos = (2 #0)

=0(2=0).
d
Here, de {3
gq” 2 7,2
gi =F(2) for x * 0 and =0 for z=0, so that
1
primitive exists but i f(x) dx does not oxist.

1
(ii) f(z) =0 (2 # 0), =1(a2=0):; here in (0, 1), | f () deexists,
and =0, but no primitive exists.

7. Illustrative Examples.
1 1 dx
Ex. 1. Show that 9 ~ \ Jh—-n +25 < 6 ‘

Wehave, 4 > 4—(z?—2) in (0, 1),

or, NE > /(4—@7 +07).
. 1 1
sa U€ey 2 < Jt—n* ba?”

11
~ dat, : ie. =1 <0 ( az
—eerre
\ g der men oS Ny ates
896 INTEGRAL CALCULUS

Again, 4-2? < 4—27+25 in (0, 1).

ee ee,
* 4-29" /4—a? +0"
: ‘i dz >{- da
" Jo J/4—27° Jo /4—27+2°
*s [sin-* $a] |4.é., sin! 1
20°"
sane z>{i
6°
oe __,
Jo /4—a2+25
Hence the result.

Ex. 2. If \’f(x) dx exists, show that

a

IS?ree) ae]cf? 1fe)|ae.

We have [f(51)5. +f(la)5a +--+ +f(En)5x]
AFG LET LF] ad] 15a) |+ + LFEe)| 150
te, LEAS) < ZFC) 18-|
*. BtlepG)il<e Le |fE)115-1-
a IV”
a
sa) da, |< \"
a
f(x)
|dx.

Otherwese :

Since \.f(z) dx exists, .*. yr flx)| da exists.

Wehbave — |f(x)|< s@) < If)!

= YP ppenlan < J"
a
sey an < J iperiae
a a

tiles |\f(x) dz < \" f(x)

|da.
 SEOTION B
A NOTE ON LOGARITHMIC & EXPONENTIAL
FUNCTIONS

1. Introduction.
The fundamental concepts of Calculus furnish a more
adequate theory of the logarithmic and exponential functions
than the methods adopted in elementary books. There
exponential function is first introduced, and then logarithm
is defined as the inverse function; but in the treatment of
these functions by the principles of Calculus, logarithm is
first defined by means of a definite integral, and then ex-
ponential function is introduced as the inverse of logarithm.
From the stand-point of these new definitions, certain
important inequalities and limits can be obtained more
easily and satisfactorily.
2. Logarithmic Function.
The natural logarithm log a is defined as
x dt
log x .’ ee -- (1)
where x is any positive number, 7.¢., 2 > 0.
Thus log 2 denotes the area under the curve y=1/é from
t=1 to t=.
From the definition it follows that log 1=0, and
{°.' 1/é is continuous for t > 0], from the fundamental
theorem of Integral Calculus it follows that log a is
a continuous function and has a derivative given by

- (log x) = :. ss (2)
Since the derivative is always positive, log 2 increases
steadily with z (i.¢., log & is a monotone increasing function).
898 INTEGRAL CALOULUS

Putting ¢=1/u in the integral for z, we get

@ dt Ve du 1
log x \r4 -{' a — log 7. : (3)

Putting ¢=yu [ y=a fixed number > 0] in the integral

for log (xy), we get
dt(= du_|{* du ly dy
log Gy) 1
|e
t Wy %
|1 & 1 &
:
=log x— log (1/y)=logrtlogy. --- (4)
In this way, other well-known properties of logarithms
can be developed.
Since log 2 is a continuous monotone function of 2,
having the value 0 for x=1, and tending to infinity as x
increases, there must be some number greater than 1, such
that for this value of x we have log z=1, and this number
is called e. Thus e is defined by the equation

log e= 1, #.e., ed, oe s+» (5)

§. Exponential Function.
If y=log x, then we write r=e" +: --- (6)
and in this way the exponential e% is defined for all real
values of y. In particular e°=1, since log1=0. As y is
a continuous function of z, x is a continuous function of y.
x =e", so that y=log z, and so
dy _1. - dv_,/dy_ oy
dx a’ "* dy i oe
-, 5Gevav
ib, (e¥) =e. sas si (7)

More generally, - (e*-}= ae¥

a” (a > 0) is defined as 6” !° 2, go that log a® =z log a.
 LOGARITHMIC AND EXPONENTIAL FUNCTIONS 899

Thus, 107 = gt log 10,

The inverse function of a” is called the logarithm to the
base a.
Thus, if c=a", y=log, @.
4. Some Inequalities and Limits.
(i) To prove 2<e <3.
2
For Vig <<: we a < lft <1.

2 2
se \ o < Viat,4.é., <1, 46, < a ae bo <e
1 é
(Pat (Sau,(Pdet du +f? du
1é 1 é Qt 02-2 0 2+w
_,(1 de \;du \¢dt,
n4[) es .¢., > 1, te, >
04 1t’
8>e,

(xz) To prove i+s < log (1+2z) < a (xz > 0).

= \ a at,
+
From definition, log (1+)
‘i<i<1ltm .. ea, < it <1.
1 l+w Itz di i+z
ies a<\" Y | dl,
: 1
ils 4 < log (1+) <2.

(1%) To prove Lt =log (1+a)=1,

From (ii),
ios of ite) <1, and since 1/(1+z) and 1 both
tend to 1 as x-> 0, tho reqd. limit=1.

(iv)
. To prove Be
Lt a” ag A = log a.

Since the derivative of a* is a” log a, and that for z=0 is loga,

it follows from the definition of the derivative for z=0, that
a®—a°, a*—1
eo hem Thy a log a.
 400 INTEGRAL CALCULUS

Putting x for h, the required result follows.

When a=e, we get Dt et 1,
% Sa

z>0 &

(v) To prove Lt
"m->0O
{1+ nators

Since, : Jog (1+-at)= —-- x >

it follows that the derivative of
1+at
log (1+at) for {=0 is x lence, from the definition of the derivative
for x=0, we got

h>0 h
Putting = 1/f, we see that
Lit
eee § log (1+ ,*: tela
Rae TA log ({1+ teye z.
rae

Since the exponential function is continuous, it follows

Lt
f
( f- ) =e",
g--00 c :

If we suppose {> through positive integral values only, the

required result follows.
n

Putting c=1, we got Df (1+ :) =e,

N-—>Oo "

(vi) To prove ae m: a(nx—1)=log «

. thé n oe ae = .

Since the derivative of e%=e", and that foc y=0 is 1, we have from
the definition of the derivative for y=0,
h o
Li OF Lit eat
Ro Be ok
Putting 2/n for h where 2 is any arbitrary number, and n ranges
ovor the sequence of positive integers, we get,
m e/a_
Lit {ne-= tea, Wry oe n (Ve° -1)=z.
71-00

Putting z=log a, so that e’=a, the required result follows.

(vii) To prove meee 1.2 20, when a > 0.

If ¢>1 and @> 0, ‘etc fh

x : _ Zs B&B *
loga= |< yi tB-2 dt, 4.¢0., < oI, os e.. for ¢ > 1.
 LOGARITHMIC AND EXPONENTIAL FUNCTIONS 401

Suppose a > B.

0<
loge
a <
. of2 1
4.€e., < a:
1 fora’ > 1.

But (1/2274) 0, as @—> 0c, since, a > £.

Hence the result.
Note. Replacing a by n where 1 is a positive integer,
Lt 108% <9, when a > 0 (n—> through positive integral
n>OO

values).
ia To prove Lt
(viii) va.
ue 0, for all values of n, however : great
qreat.

From (vii), 274 log «0, when 2 > ~, for 8 > 0.

Putting a=1/8 in tho loft side, and raising it to the power a, we get
x7 (log z)*> 0, as 7 > ©9~. Now putting =e", so that log r=y,
the required result follows.

SECTION ©
ALTERNATIVE PROOFS OF SOME THEOREMS

1. Alternative proof of Art. 9°3.

Let AB be the curve, OA and OB be the radii vectores
corresponding to 0=a and 6= 8.

oO

Divide B-a into » parts, each equal to and draw the

26
402 INTEGRAL CALCULUS

corresponding radii vectores. Let P and Q be the points

on the curve corresponding to @=atrh and @=at(rt+1)h
and let us suppose @ goes on increasing from a to f. With
centre O and radii OP, O@ respectively draw arcs PN, QM
as in the figure. Then the area OPQ lies in magnitude
between
40P?.h and 40Q?.h
ie, between $[f{fatrh}]*h and $ [f{at+(r +1) h}]?A.
Hence, adding up all the areas like OPQ, it is clear that
the area AOB lies between

4°S"[flat rhf}*h and 4°. (/la+(r+1) Hh,

Now, let n > ©, so that h-0; then as the limit of each
of the above two sums is

a |"son ae,
B

it follows that the area AOB is also equal to the definite

integral.

2. Alternative proof of Art. 11°1.

(i) Volume of a solid of revolution.
Y

LM.

Let a curve CD whose equation is y=/(x), be rotated

about the z-axis so as to form a solid of revolution. To find
 ALTERNATIVE PROOFS OF SOME THEOREMS 403

the volume of the solid generated by the revolution, about

the z-axis, of the area ABDC, bounded by the curve y = f(z),
the ordinates at A and B and the -axis, let @ and b be
the abscissm of C and D.

Divide AB into » equal parts, each equal to /, and draw

ordinates at the points of division. Let the ordinates at
e=atrh and g=at(r+1)h be PL and QM, and let us
suppose ¥ goes on increasing as 2 increases from a to b.

Draw PN perpendicular on QM, and QR perpendicular

on LI’ produced. Then the volume of the solid generated
by the revolution of the area LDMQP lies in magnitude
between the volumes generated by the rectangles L MNP
and DMQR,

i.e., between af ffa+t+erht]*h and x[f{a+(r+1) h})*A.

Hence, adding up the volumes generated by all areas
like LMQP, it is clear that the required volume lies in
magnitude between

23 [LS fa + rh}]?h and neLffa + (r+ 1)h})Ph.

Now, let 1, so that A —-0; then as the limit of

each of the above two sums is
b b
«| [f(r)]? dex, i.e., x y? da,
a a

it follows that the required volume is also equal to this

definite integral.

(i1) Surface-area of a solid of revolution.

Let the length of the arc from C up to any point P(a, y)
be s and suppose that surface-area of the solid generated
404 INTEGRAL CALCULUS

by the revolution of the arc CD about the x-axis is required.

As in the case of the volume, divide AB into n equal
‘parts, each equal to h, and erect ordinates at the points of
-division. Let the ordinates at z=at+rh and s=at(rt+1)h
be PL and QM, and let the are PQ be equal to 7. The
surface-area of the solid generated by the revolution of
LMQP about the z-axis lies in magnitude between the
curved surface of two right circular cylinders, each of
thickness 1, one of radius PL and the other of radius QM,
1.6., between
Qnf {a+ rh} 1 and Qanf fa t+(r +1)hhl.
Hence, adding up all surface-areas generated by element-
ary areas like PQ, it is clear that the required surface-area
lies in magnitude between
n-~1 n-1

On Ze Fieve ana nD, ifiat (r+ 1)nth.

r= =

Now, let n>, so that h—0; then ; tending to

the limit of each of the above two sums is
b ds : b
on tf(a)He az, 2.€.; Qn | y ds.
a Zz a

Hence, the required surface-area is also equal to this

definite integral.
3. Alternative proof of Ex. 3, Art. 9°3.
Show that the area between the folium of Descartes and
ats asymptote is equal to the area of its loop, each being
equal to $a*.
The equation of the folium is 2°+y* =3azy.
Turn the axes through jr ; that is substitute
2-9) J2 and (n+y)/ J2
for x and y respectively. Thon the given equation transforms into
 ALTERNATIVE PROOFS OF SOME THEOREMS 405
13¢—
y"se :Oe
c+ax where e=—, a
/2

oe UF ?« /(*;2):
Here, c+2=0, 1.¢.. x= —c is the equation of the asymptote {JN
OA=8c, OD=c.
.". the required area o between the Folium and the asymptote
=2 Lt 0
or9 e 0 8c—z )
i>c 3 uae /3 tec \., en/ (Si =
=. Bf i: __ 2 (8e —a) if
‘ ~-t A(x+¢)(3c—2)

:
Let
_{ 2x(3c—2)
ro) Eee. a dz
= =2%c? Ja ae
2 cos 6)(1+cos
di
6) dé,

=z
on putting r=c—2c cos 6, so that cos a= °F7]
[

= — Qc? \(cos 8+ cos 20) dé

= —%c? (sin 0+4% sin 24)
; - 1 _,c7e
= —Q? {sin(cos-* “act 9 sin( 2 cos7} 3)}
2 2 6
o= 7g — 2c ae sin (cos r¢ Fe -1¢7@
5) + sin( 2 cos 2c 0
)-.
= 9a? 2 [on putting cma a |
= $a?.
406 INTEGRAL CALCULUS

Again Z, the area of the loop OPAQ

= 2 area of the ae OPA
__w(8e—2)
"e ie y dse= NB
“5So N(x +¢)(3c — 2)
Putting as before =c—2c cos 6,
~ 4,20
=
3
[sin( cos
2c? [sin( cos™25:3)
5 +4 sin(2 COs Aes
do Vo

_4c°
="73 3
22V3_ 4a
§a° = |i
jon putting c== 1a a |

4. Proof of the result of Art. 17°5(f).

When X=axV, where V ts any function of x,

them, iy
py eV elegy pw}?FpF
1 1
YB Hp) FO)
We have, D(izV)=rDV+V
D*(xrV) = D(rDV)+DV=r7D°V+2DV
and similarly, D"(rV)=2D"V+nb" 'V
=ep"v+( p"|V. (1)
Hence, /(D)a2V=2 f(D) 1+ f(D) : wes (4)
Now, put /(D) V=V, ; hence T= ay
(2) aia

104 8 gp) Pam fay e¥a pf ny ue

: is pes ie cls 8 uot id og 1 3

Transposing, we get
2 haem bg 1lioy
toy 7971 jay) ZH
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 SECTION D
A NOTE ON INTEGRATING FACTORS

1. Rules for determining Integrating Factors.

Let the differential equation be
M dat+N dy=0. ware aes (1)

The condition that it should be exact, is

OM =
ON eee eee )
Oy or (2)
OM ON
Oy om”
Rule (1). Tt N
is a function of x only,

say f(a), then

eff(z) ae will be an inteyrating factor of (1).
If Wda+N dy=0, be an eract equation when multiplied
by ef(=) dx then, we must have
os(MeSf(2) dz) os 2.(NeSf(2) az)

1.0, OM
By esjtredae ON tpndz 4 Noeffle)
Ve elflx) ffx)ddz f()

OM
_ON
21.0, oy fa = f(z).

@N aM
Rule (TI). Tf oo ty f(y), (a function of y alone)

efS(v) dv is an integrating factor.

408 INTEGRAL CALCULUS

Proof is similar to that given above.

Rule (III). If M and N are both homogeneous func-

tions in x, y of degree » (say), then
1
Ma +Ny 1(Mat+Ny ~ 0)

is an integrating factor of the equation (1).

acta)-Bac
We can easily show that

Oy\Mat+ Ny] 0x \Mat+Ny

if we remember that M and N are homogeneous functions

of degree » and hence pig yMin M

Ox oy

and 7 ON 4 y ON a.
Ox oy

ee M N .
If Mz+Nu=0, then oe and the equation

reduces to

y da-xz dy=0

which can be easily solved.

Rule (IV). If the equation (1) is of the form

y flay) de +a glay) dy =0

then »( Me-Ny #0)

Maz —a

is an integrating factor of (1).

 A NOTE ON INTEGRATING FACTORS 409

We can easily show that

a. uMx)" 2 (AN \,
dy \Ma — Ox \Mz — Ny
| y fly)
eu) |= eelev eeu).
6 Sy Lay Tey) gay) flay) — glxy)}
provided we rememher 1 E(y) = 2 4oF (xy).

If however Ma- Ny=0, then No . and the equation

reduces to
edyty dxr=0

which can be easily solved.

2. Hlustrative Examples.
Ex. 1. Solve: (Q2?-+y7+2) dze+axy dy=0.

Here oy=2y; Fa y. .°. the equation is not exact,

dM oN
Oy ~ Ox
Ox 2-H 1
BOW: “Nay x

by Rule (I), 1. Beselt Fa lr tH a,

Multiplying both sides of the given equation by z, we have
(20° + ry? +27) dut+z?y dy=0,
or, 2° dxe+a27 det+xy (y data dy)=0,
or, 22° dzrt+2” drtxy d (zy) =0,
or, 22° dz+a? dxt+edz=0, where 2=z2zy.
4 8 a
integrating, qt at =C,

.*. reqd. solution is 321 +22°+3e7y?=c,

410 INTEGRAL CALCULUS

Ex. 2. Solve: (2° +y°) dzx—ay? dy=0.

Here, ve 3y? ; oN —y",. .*. the equation is not exact.

Now, gacetlls atime oe i ese

Ma+Ny a*+ay>—ay*® a*

The equation is homogeneous.

by Rule (I11), a is an integrating factor.

Multiplying both sides of the given cquation by a we have

8 2
(: +2) dx — 4, dy =0.
ce © x

This is exact.

Now,
y r
|a ae =
\(1 + |dx=log
y° =
x oe
31 x
y"

\wa, ayds 5We,74

by Art. 15°5,wt the solution is

3

log x— yiee, 4.0., y°=3z" log z+cxr*.

cs
 INDEX

Acceleration, 876 Centroid, 273

Appendix, 387 circular are, 274
Applications, 372 parabolic lamina, 275
Area botween two curves quadrant of an ellipse, 276
cartesian, 211 solid hemisphere, 277
polar, 217 Chainetto, 269
Areas of closed curves, 227 Change of variables, 14, 355
Areas of plane curves tissoid, 295
cartesian, 205 Clairaut’s equation, 335
polar, 216, 363 Complementary function, 318, 331
Area of Complcte primitive, 805
cardioide, 217 Condition for integrability, 388
cissoid, 222 Constant of integration, 3
cycloid, 209 Convorgent integral, 133
ellipse, 207, 213 Cycloid
folium of Descartes, 219 vertex downwards, 287
parabola, 208 vertex upwards, 286
Joop, cartesian eqn., 210
loop, rolar cqn., 218 Darhoux’s theorem, 388
Astroid, 290 Definite integrals, 2, 91, 93, 102, 349
Auxiliary cquation, 341 as the limit of a sum, {1
equal reots, 341 general properties, 117
pair of complex rcots, 342 geometrical interpretation, 99
real and distinct roots, 341 lower limit, 3, 92
upper limit, 3, 92
Differential equations,
Bernoulli’s equation, 327 definitions, 302
Beta function, 178, 182 degree, 303
Binomial differentials, 179 exact, 320
By parts integration, 38 first degree, 310
first order, 310
Cardioide, 297 formation, 303
Catenary, 289 geometrical interpretation, 305
412 INTEGRAL CALCULUS

homogeneous, 315 Homogeneous equation, 315

nth order, 368 special form, 316
order, 303 Hyperbolic function, 25, 66
ordinary, 802 Hypo cycloid, 291
partial, 302
resolvable into factors, 332
second order, 340 Improper integrals, 132
solution, 805 convergent, divergent
solvable for 2, y, 333 oscillatory, 133
Delta function, 134 Inoqualities and limits, 361
Divergent integral, 133 Interior limit, 92
Infinite range, 132
Integrability, 388
Elementary rules of Integration, 4
necessary and sufficient
Equations of second order, 340
condition, 388
special type, 325
Integrable function, 350
Equiangular spiral, 296
Integrating factors, 321, 328
Eulerian integral, 173
Integrals
Evolutes, parakola, 292
definite, 3, 92, 93, 102, 349
Exact equation, 320
Kulerian, 173
Exponential curves, 294
improper, 132
Exponential function, 360
indefinite, 1, 2
infinite, 132
First mean value theorem Riemann, 388
of integral calculus, 390, 392 Integration, 2
First principle, 93
28 the limit of a sum, 91
Folium of Descartes’, 293
by parts, 38
Fundamental integrals, 6
from first principle, 93
Fundamental theorem, 1, 101, 355
of infinite series, 140
of power series, 140
Gamma function, 183 of rational fraction, 78
Geometrical interpretation Intrinsic equation of
definite integral, 99 cardioide, 253
differential eqn., 305 catenary, 252
General laws of integration, 5 cycloid, 252
General solution, 305 Intrinsic equation to a curve from
Generalised definition, 93 cartesian eqn., 249
 INDEX 413

pedal eqn., 251 Orthogonal trajectories, 872

polar eqn., 250 cartesian equ., 372
Isocline, 347 polar eqn., 373

Length of arc of
Pappus’ theorem, 267
cardioide, 245 Parabolic rule, 232
cycloid, 243
Particular integrals, 346, 347, 363
evoluto, 247 methods, 320
loop, 243 Perfect differential, 320
parabola, 242 Primitives and integrals, 356
Length of plano curve from Principal value, 134, 187
cartesian, 240 Probability curves, 294
parametric, 241
pedal, 246 Radius of gyration, 279
polar, 244 Rational fractions, 78
Lemniscate, 299 Rectification, 240
Limits, 92, 361 Reduction formula, 125, 163
ILimacon, 298 double parameter, 171
Line integral, 229 single parameter, 164
Linear equation, 209, 340 special devices, 177
Logarithmic curve, 294 Riemann integra], 386
Logarithmic spiral, 265 Rose petal, 300
Lower integral, 387

Series represented by definite

Method of substitution, integral, 107
definite integral, 104 Separation of variables, 310
indefinite integral, 14 Sign of an area, 225
Miscellaneous application, 341 Simpson rule, 229
Moment of inertia, 273 Sine spiral, 301
circular plate, 281 Singular solution, 306, 335, 336
elliptic lamina, 281 Solids of revolution, 259, 264
rectangular lamina, 280 volume, 260, 264
sphere, 282 Some well-known curves, 265
thin uniform rod, 279 Special trigonometric function, 57 -
Spiral of Archimedes, 297
On some well-known curves, 286 Standard integrals, 24, 41, 43, 59
"pate
414 INTEGRAL CALCULUS

Strophoid, 304 Upper integral, 349

Superior limit, 92 Upper limit, 3, 92
Surface-area, 239, 365
Summation of series, 107 Velocity, 376
Symbolical operation, 248 Volumes, 259, 364
Symbolical operators, 347 Volume and surface-area
cardioide, 264
cycloid, 263
parabola, 261, 262
Tractrix, 290
Trial solution, 340 Witch of Agnesi, 296
 INTEGRAL CALCULUS
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DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS
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