A relief valve is a device used to limit the pressure in a system within a specific set level.

The opening of a discharged from commercial or industrial sites. For example, trade waste authorities generally require pH
relief valve is directly proportional to the increase in the vessel pressure. A relief valve opens when the discharge limits to be within 6 to 10. A pH controller consists of a probe to measure the current pH of the
pressure reached the specific set pressure limit, and it is usually operated by an operator. The setpoint of a substance, chemicals to correct the pH via an injection pump, and a controller that calculates the required
relief valve is usually set at 10 percent above the working pressure limit. Relief valves are divided into pop- injection rate and activates the injection system.
type, direct-operated, pilot-operated, and internal relief valves. There are different types of pH control systems: In-line pH control where a probe is inserted in the pipe
A safety valve is a device designed to actuate automatically to release excess pressure. A safety valve opens through which the solution is flowing or in a tank holding the solution. The controller then adds chemicals
almost immediately and fully in order to prevent overpressure condition. The purpose of a safety valve is to directly to the solution via a connection into the pipe. Recirculating pH control where the solution is pumped
protect people, property, and environment. It is used to release excess pressure without operator assistance. from a tank to a measurement system and then returned to the tank. The stream is filtered, measured by the
The setpoint of a safety valve is usually set at 3 percent above the working pressure imit. Safety valves are probe and chemicals are injected in its return path. This method is more accurate because it tests water
divided into a wide range of types based on applications and performance in different areas. currently in circulation, which improves the accuracy of the reading, and has less potential for damage to
What is a safety valve? Safety valves are seen as a last resort safety measure. They are found in power plants, sensitive probes.
petrochemical systems, boilers, and many more. Safety valves are fail-safe devices that automatically stop the pH control application main support: Commonly used chemicals for pH control are Sodium Hydroxide to raise
increase of overpressure beyond a determined limit. If the setpoint is reached the safety valve will fully open the pH of acidic solutions or Hydrochloric acid to drop the pH of alkaline solutions.
until it is below the setpoint again. When and where is pH control used?
What is a relief valve? A relief valve, also known as a pressure relief valve, is a device that lowers the pressure Any commercial or industrial operation where wastewater is generated commonly have a system for
to prevent damage to the system. Their function is to protect pressure sensitive equipment from damage measuring and treating effluent water before it is discharged. pH is just one of the specifications that must be
caused by overpressure. They are critical in a pressure system to ensure that system failures are avoided. To adhered to. Effluent water is subject to strict government agency controls and specifications, and violations
prevent system failure the pressure must be kept below a predetermined design limit. Each relief valve has a can result in fines and prosecution as well as damage to the environment. Depending on the amount of
set point at which it starts to open and starts to prevent overpressure. wastewater generated, the treatment systems can be large and complex or compact and simple. The
Volume Booster : A volume booster is used in a pneumatic control system to relay a low flow signal as one appropriate system must be designed and selected on the basis of how much injection chemical is needed and
with greater flow volume. The common configuration is to provide a 1:1 ratio between the input and output the accuracy required.
pressure, keeping the input and output signals the same pressure. Products are available that deliver different pH Correction System main support: In addition, the pH of the effluent water can have an effect on the
ratios. The general purpose of a volume booster is to provide a relay between a system with low flow volume separation of other pollutants from the water. For example, pH correction is used in water treatment plants
and one with higher volume requirements. A typical example is a pneumatic actuator. The flow available that are removing suspended solids from water. pH controllers are used to correct pH levels to a desired
through the pneumatic signal line may be insufficient to deliver the response rate desired from the pneumatic range to enable coagulants (chemicals that clump together small particle solids that would otherwise pass-
actuator. A volume booster, with control over an independent air supply, solves this challenge with increased through mechanical filtration) to operate efficiently and bring particle solids in suspension together and
flow volume at the same pressure as the control signal. Volume boosters are simple in operation. The input enable efficient removal from water. Besides the management of effluent water, pH can also be an important
signal applies force to one side of a diaphragm, the output pressure to the other. An imbalance between the parameter to control during some process operations. For example, fermentation usually occurs in an acidic
two applied pressures will cause the diaphragm to move, changing the position of the valve and the outlet pH range. Drinking water must be controlled within a range of 6.5 to 8.5. Public swimming pools need pH
pressure until the two forces are again in balance. Little maintenance is required when the units are properly control to ensure the water is not harmful to swimmers. A pH close to 7.4 is ideal to prevent irritation to the
installed, and supply air is of good quality. skin. If the pH is too high, the water can also become cloudy giving the appearance of being dirty. pH control is
Principle of Operation: Because of the bypass restriction, large input signal changes register on the booster therefore relevant in a large number of industries and applications.
input diaphragm sooner than in the actuator. A large, sudden change in input signal causes a pressure Applications for pH Control: In terms of effluent pH control, some of the specific industry applications are as
differential to exist between the input signal and the output of the booster. When this occurs, the diaphragms follows:
move to open either the supply port or the exhaust port, whichever action is required to reduce the Mining operations which generate acidic water that must be safely disposed of. Car Wash and Vehicle wash-
differential. The port remains open until the difference between the booster input and output pressures down operations, where chemicals are used in the washing fluid and oil may be washed off the car engines
returns to within the dead band limit of the booster. With the bypass restriction adjusted for stable operation, into the sewer.
a signal with small magnitude and rate changes passes through the bypass restriction and into the actuator Workshops where chemicals, lubricating oils, greases etc. used in maintenance tasks can be washed into the
without initiating booster operation. Both supply and exhaust ports remain closed, preventing unnecessary air wastewater Industrial sites where site specific contaminants must be controlled and mitigated through sewer
consumption and possible saturation of positioner relays. control systems Service stations where cars may leak oil or spills may occur during refuelling. Quarantine wash
Advantages : Quick response with increased actuator stroking speeds. Maintains correct actuator positioning bays where unknown contaminants may affect wastewater quality.
at high stroking speeds. Adjustable bypass valve provides good operational sensitivity. High stability which Pure dead-time processes are rare. Usually, an industrial process will exhibit at least some degree of lag time
allows normal slow actuator response to slow signal changes. Capable of using high pressure plant air supply. in addition to dead time. As strange as it may sound, this is a fortunate for the purpose of feedback control.
Different Booster sizes available to suit wide range of actuator sizes. Main internal air supply valve with soft The presence of lag(s) in a process guarantees a degradation of loop gain with frequency increase, which may
seat inserts for tight shut off. help avoid oscillation. The greater the ratio between dead time and lag time in a loop, the more unstable it
pH Process: pH is a measurement of the alkalinity or acidity of a substance. A pH level of 7 is neutral (e.g. tends to be.
water), while a pH above 7 is an alkaline substance and a pH below 7 is acidic. pH control is the process of What is a Control Loop?
adding an alkaline or acidic substance to a liquid in order to bring the measured pH within a desired range. For Control loop systems monitor and regulate the devices, instrumentation, and machines used in industrial or
example, most water authority regulators have specifications for the pH range of wastewater that is manufacturing processes. The system operates hardware components and software control functions
necessary to measure and adjust the variables that affect each process. Consider control loop systems as a Tension Control Indicators: Recorder:- Recorders are devices that log data acquisition. They are used to
process management tool designed to maintain the process variable at a desired set point each step of the record measurement data over a given time period. When integrated into industrial control systems the
way. Process variables are a set of programmable parameters that monitor and control a process to ensure device measures the history of processes and can be submitted for regulatory oversight or monitoring.
that the output is maintained within a given limit or quantity. Control loop components and instrumentation Controller : Controllers are integral components in process control systems. The device is responsible for the
first measure the variable, respond to it, and then control the variable to maintain it within a set limit. performance and function of the control system that works to maintain the value of the process variable at
Control Loop Systems set point.
There are two common control loop systems used in industrial processes. They are the open loop system and Web Tension Controllers: Actuator:- An actuator is a component of a machine that is part of the correcting
the closed loop system. The systems are distinguished by the control actions. element responsible for moving and controlling a mechanism or system when it receives a control signal. The
Open-Loop Systems actuator converts a signal’s energy into mechanical motion, such as opening a valve.
Open Loop Tension Control Charting Grand Composite Curve
In open-loop control system, control actions are independent of the desired output, meaning that the output A grand composite curve (GCC) is a tool to estimate the heat transfer and required temperatures for heat
is not measured or fed back to the input for comparison. Once an input command is applied to a controller it transfer between flue gas and water. The mass flow of both the flue gas and the water are required along with
produces an actuating signal. This controlling signal is given as an input to a process which is to be controlled the enthalpies of water at different states. The flue gas is assumed to have a constant heat capacity of
and thus produces a desired output. Essentially, without a feedback system in place, open loop systems 1.05kJkg−1K−1. The GCC is then constructed with help of heat balances. For more details about the construction
operate without any checks and balances and are expected to follow its input command regardless of the final of a GCC.
result. Control
In a tension control open-loop system there are three primary elements: the controller, the torque device The theory necessary for control of processes with large time constants and significant time delay is
(brake, clutch, or drive), and the feedback sensor. The feedback sensor commonly is focused on providing presented in this section. In Figure 3.3.1 a basic presentation of how control of a process is done with help of
diameter feedback and the process is controlled proportionally to the diameter signal (as opposed to feedback. The controller C(s) controls the process P(s). The output y from the process is measured and
continuous measurement based on direct web feedback like in closed loop systems). As the sensor measures feedback to the controller. There are other methods to control processes, but this is the most common
the changes in diameter and relays this signal to the controller, the controller proportionally regulates the structure used in process industry [3].
torque of the brake, clutch, or drive to maintain tension.
Closed Loop Systems
Closed Loop Tension Control Chart
In a closed loop control system, the control action from the controller is entirely dependent on the desired
output. It is fed back through to the input to control the action of the desired output. Closed loop systems Fig. Flowchart of control with help of feedback: r is the desired value of y, e is the error from y to r, C(s) is the controller, u is the
measure, monitor, and control the process through feedback to compare the actual output with the desired control signal, P(s) is the process to control and y is the measured value from the process.
output. In doing so it greatly reduces error and brings about the desired output or response. For discrete controllers the sampling interval is decided trough the timescale of the process, but in general,
In a tension control closed-loop system there are four primary elements: the controller, the torque device discrete controller with a sampling interval faster than 200ms can be assumed to have the same properties as
(brake, clutch, or drive), the tension measurement device, and the measurement signal. The controller a continuous controller. This can be assumed for most of the controllers available today [15]. If not, the design
receives direct material measurement feedback from the load cell or dancer arm. As tension changes, it of the controller requires information about the discrete behaviour of the controller and the process.
produces an electrical signal that the controller interprets in relation to set tension. The controller then Process Model
regulars the torque of the torque output device to maintain the desired setpoint. For a simple process with real poles the process often has one dominating pole. When this occur a transfer
Control Loop Components function model can then often be predicted using experimental data to determine a first order model with
Primary Sensor: Depending on the process, primary sensors are a major component of control loop time delay
processes. Sensors supply signals proportional to process variables, such as diameter, dancer position, speed,
(3.3.1)
etc., and measure any change required for a control loop. This information is tied back into the controller to
The constants can be determined with help of a step response experiment around the operating point. The
produce finer levels of control.
process gain K is determined from the change in y divided by the change of u. The time constant T is the time
Web Tension Control Sensors: Load Cell:- Load Cells used with moving webs are devices that measure the
the process takes to reach 63% of its final y value minus the time delay. The time delay τd is the time it takes
force applied by the material as a result of micro-deflections of the idler roller they are attached to, caused
for the process to respond to an input step change [3]. The time delay is expressed as:
from tension tightening or loosening as the material travels through the process. This measurement is in the
Pd(s) = e−sτd
form of an electrical signal (often millivolts) that is sent to the controller for interpretation and utilization in
Because of the exponential factor, numerical problems sometimes occur. To make a polynomial expression an
regulating torque to maintain set tension.
infinite number of poles is required to describe the time delay. One method is to use the Pad´e approximation
Web Tension Load Cells: Converter:- Converters are electro-mechanical devices used for converting electrical
energy from the controller to the energy type required to control the torque device. They can be used to (3.3.2)
convert electrical energy into a pneumatic output, such as an IP Converter, or electrical energy into a DC For n = 2 the Pad´e approximation gives the following time delay transfer function [3]:
Voltage for control of motors and magnetic particle torque devices, such as an E/V Converter.
IP Converters & Voltage Converters: Indicator:- Indicators are devices that provide a readable indication of an
instrument signal in automation and industrial instrumentation systems.
CONTROL How much noise is it in the process.
If a transfer function model is known, an extensive analysis can be done to determine the PI and PID control
The n = 2 results in a transfer function where the real phase of the time delay deviate a maximum of 1◦ down
parameters. If no model is available and the process is stable (real poles), a simple model can be derived to
at phase of −100◦. The expansion criterion is decided by analysing the total transfer function for the process.
estimate these properties. The recommended method is to use margin-based PI or PID tuning methods to
It is of importance to have a good approximation until the total phase shift of the controller together with the
determine the parameters of the controller. Z-N and κ180 tuning methods are not recommended when a process
process is −180◦, but in general most processes can be approximated with a second order approximation [3].
model is known.
When time analysis is performed, the Pad´e approximation is not enough due to a jump to 1 (second order
To tune a process quickly with help of experimental data the lambda tuning method can be used. The method
approximation) at a step response along with oscillating behaviour during the time delay. To decrease these
problems, further dynamics in the approximation is included in form of a time constant of the same magnitude results in a slow controller, which is stable and is easily tuned and a step response is the only required data. It
as the time delay: is a trial-and-error method where one parameter is changed and is therefore a very fast tuning method. It
produces low overshoot/undershoots due to the slow response and are very robust against noise. If the
(3.3.3) response from a PI controller is too slow the recommended method is to make a relay experiment and then
This also makes the approximation more exact at higher frequencies and if the process model only has one use the κ180 method to determine a good PID controller. It will produce an overshoot/undershoot, which is
pole, overshoot/undershoot would never occur theoretically [3]. Therefore, the extra pole from the time delay hard to reduce without slowing down the response. The influence of measurement noise affects the PID
increases the dynamics in the model. controllers more than a PI controller. This problem can be reduced by measurement filtering, but that will also
The final transfer function model used to describe a process with large time constants and significant time reduce the response of the controller. The Z-N tuning method is not recommended due to oscillations in the
delay is on the form: control signal.
If no overshoot/undershoot is desired a slow tuned PI controller will work fine. If the response should also be
(3.3.4) fast, a Smith prediction controller is necessary. The design of the Smith prediction controller requires detailed
3.3.2 PI(D) Controller and accurate process model. If the process model is mismatched, it can result in similar results as a standard
The most common controller in process industry is the PI(D) controller. The different parts of the controller
PID controller. To have a fast response a Smith prediction PID controller is necessary. However, this controller
have different purposes:
is vulnerable for measurement noise and model mismatch. The best implementation for a fast and stable
The P-part is the proportional part of the controller also called gain. Increasing the P-part results in a faster
Smith prediction control is with a PI controller with a simple filter on the measurement value.
system response and increased compensation of process disturbances but to the cost of increased control
activity and reduced stability margins. The I-part is the integral effect of the controller. Increasing the I-part ABSORPTIONS: The removal of one or more component from the mixture of gases by using a suitable
results in a faster response at low frequencies along with decreased stability margins. It is necessary to use
solvent is second major operation of Chemical Engineering that is based on mass transfer. In gas absorption,
integral action to prevent those static errors remain. The D-part gives the derivative effect of the controller.
soluble vapours are more or less absorbed in the solvent from its mixture with inert gas. The purpose of such
Increasing the D-part may result in better stability margins and faster reduction of overshoots/undershoots,
gas scrubbing operations may be any of the following.: a) For Separation of component having the economic
but it also results in higher high frequency gain along with increased control activity. If measurement noise is
value. b) As a stage in the preparation of some compound. c) For removing of undesired component.
present in the process, the D-part can make the control signal jumpy and the D-part is therefore often filtered
Types Of Absorption: Physical absorption, Chemical Absorption.
[3].
Physical Absorption: In physical absorption mass transfer take place purely by diffusion and physical
The theoretical continuous PID controller can be written as:
absorption is governed by the physical equilibria.
(3.3.5)
Chemical Absorption In this type of absorption as soon as a particular component comes in contact with
t
Kp Z de(t) the absorbing liquid a chemical reaction take place. Then, by reducing the concentration of component in the
u( t)= K p e(t) + e(s)ds + K p Td
Ti dt
| {z } | {z } | {z }
liquid phase, which enhances the rate of diffusion.
PID Types Of Absorbers
where u(t) is the control signal out from the controller, e(t) is the error between reference and measurement, There are two major types of absorbers which are mainly used for absorption purposes: Packed column, Plate
Kp is the gain constant, Ti is the integral time constant and Td is the derivative time constant. The PID column
controller is usually implemented in discrete time. If the sampling interval is low enough it can still be Comparison Between Packed And Plate
designed in continuous time, because of the simpler analysis of the controller [15]. This results in the PID COLUMN
controller in continuous parallel form with filter on the derivative part to reduce impacts from measurement  The packed column provides continuous contact between vapors and liquid phases while the plate
noise:
column brings the two phases into contact on stage wise basis.
(3.3.6)  Scale: For column diameter of less than approximately 8 ft, it is more usual to employ packed towers
where Tf is the derivative filter time. For a block presentation describing the different parts of the PID because of high fabrication cost of small trays. But if the column is very large then the liquid
controller.
distribution is problem and large volume of packing, and its weight is problem.
Overall Comparison of Controllers
The design of an optimal controller for a fluid/thermal process with large time constants and significant time  Pressure Drop: Pressure drop in packed column is less than the plate column. In plate column there is
delay depends mainly on three things: additional friction generated as the vapor passes through the liquid on each tray. If there are large
How fast response should the controller have to reference changes and load disturbances.
How necessary is it to reduce overshoots/undershoots in reference changes and load disturbances.
 number of Plates in the tower, this pressure drop may be quite high, and the use of packed column could the ceramic material of packing because in our system oxygen and water are present and they can cause
affect considerable saving. corrosion and ceramic material will prevent corrosion.
Size of the Packing: Now we will find the maximum size of intalox saddle which would be used for this
 Liquid Hold Up: Because of the liquid on each plate there may be a Urge quantity of the liquid in plate particular dia of the column. Although the efficiency of higher for small packing, it is generally accepted that it
column, whereas in a packed tower the liquid flows as a thin film over the packing. is economical to use these small sizes in an attempt to improve the performance of a column. It is preferable
 Size And Cost: For diameters of less than 3 ft. packed tower require lower fabrication and material to use the largest recommended size of a particular type of packing and to increase the packed height to
compensate for small loss of efficiency.
costs than plate tower with regard to height, a packed column is usually shorter than the equivalent Multistage
plate column. A multistage system refers to a system consisting of multiple components, stations or stages required to
finish the final product or service. Multistage systems are very common in practice and include a variety of
Packing
modern manufacturing and service systems. In most cases, the quality of the final product or service
The packing is the most important component of the system. The packing provides sufficient area for intimate produced by a multistage system is determined by complex interactions among multiple stages—the quality
characteristics at one stage are not only influenced by local variations at that stage, but also by variations
contact between phases. The efficiency of the packing with respect to both HTU and flow capacity determines
propagated from upstream stages. Multistage systems present significant challenges, yet also opportunities
to a significance extent the overall size of the tower. The economics of the installation is therefore tied up for quality engineering research. The purpose of this paper is to provide a brief survey of emerging
with packing choice. The packings are divided into those types which are dumped at random into the tower methodologies for tackling various issues in quality control and improvement for multistage systems including
modelling, analysis, monitoring, diagnosis, control, inspection, and design optimization.
and these which must be stacked by hand. Dumped packing consists of unit 1/4 lo 2 inches in major Certain common characteristics make such systems inherently complex, including the following’
dimension and is used roost in the smaller columns. The units in stacked packing are 2 to about 8 inches in 1. Multiple stages and hybrid structures with mixed sequential or/and parallel configuration
2. Feedback/feedforward loops that arise because outputs from one stage are the inputs to other stages, so the
size; they are used only in the larger towers. outcomes from one stage are not only influenced by local variations at that stage, but also by the variations
The Principal Requirement of a Tower packing are: It must be chemically inert to the fluids in the tower. It propagated from upstream stages, with the final outcome being an accumulation (or stack up) of variations
from all stages.
must be strong without excessive weight. It must contain adequate passages for both streams without 3. Mixed data types and multiscale variables that arise from multiple processes or/and performance variables
excessive liquid hold up or pressure drop. It must provide good contact between liquid and gas. It must be at each stage, which usually have different data types and different scales.
4. Collective and stochastic performance, i.e., the ultimate performance of the overall system depends upon the
reasonable in cost. Thus most packing is made of cheap, inert, fairly light materials such as clay, porcelain, or accumulated performance of individual stages in the system.
graphite. Thin-walled metal rings of steel or aluminium are some limes used. Quality control and improvement for multistage systems: State of the art A basic framework for quality
control research in multistage systems. Most of the recently developed quality control and improvement
Common Packings are: methodologies for multistage systems are built upon some sort of quantitative modelling of the system and
a) Berl Saddle. can be classified into: (i) monitoring and diagnosis; and (ii) quality-oriented design optimization. In the
b) Intalox Saddle. following, we provide a brief review of each of these methodologies. A recent monograph provides detailed
c) Rasching rings. descriptions of existing research on quality control for multistage manufacturing processes
d) Lessing rings.
e) Cross-partition rings.
f) Single spiral ring.
g) Double - Spiral ring.
h) Triple - Spiral ring.
Designing Steps for Absorption Column :-Determining the approximate dia of the column. Selection of
column. Selection of packing and material. Calculating the size of packing. Calculating the actual dia of
column. Calculating the flooding velocity. Finding loading velocity with the knowledge the flooding velocity.
Calculating actual dia of column. Finding the no. of transfer units. Determining the height of packing.
Determining the height of the column. Determining the pressure drop.
Design calculation of absorber: We want to scrub Acetonitrile, HCN and acrylonitrile in the absorption tower
using water stream .this is known as multi component absorption. The solubility data of these components
shows that Acetonitrile and HCN Are infinitely soluble in water while acrylonitrile has limited solubility in
water. Acrylonitrile is least soluble among three components; therefore we base our design of packed bed
absorption tower on the solubility of acrylonitrile in water. The solvent used for this purpose is water.
Selection of Packing: We have selected ceramic Intalox saddle. Intalox saddle and pall rings are most
popular choices. We have selected ceramic intalox saddle because they are most efficient. We have selected
Dynamic Behavior and Stability of Closed-Loop Control Systems.
This combination of the process, the feedback controller, and the instrumentation is referred to as a feedback control
loop or a closed-loop system.
Block Diagram Representation
To illustrate the development of a block diagram, we return to a previous example, the stirred-tank blending process
considered in earlier chapters.

Figure. Composition control system for a stirred-tank blending process.

Next, we develop a transfer function for each of the five elements in the feedback control loop. For the sake of
simplicity, flow rate w1 is assumed to be constant, and the system is initially operating at the nominal steady rate.
Process:
The approximate dynamic model of a stirred-tank blending system was developed:

Figure 11.2 Block diagram of the process

Composition Sensor-Transmitter (Analyzer)

We assume that the dynamic behavior of the composition sensor- transmitter can be approximated by a first-order
transfer function:
Solution:- Using the general rule in (11-31), we first reduce the inner loop to a single block as shown in Fig. 11.13. To
solve the servo problem, set D1 = D2 = 0. Because Fig. 11.13 contains a single feedback loop, use (11-31) to obtain Fig.
11.14a. The final block diagram is shown in Fig. 11.14b with Y/Ysp = Km1G5. Substitution for G4 and G5 gives the desired
closed-loop transfer function:

Stability
• Most industrial processes are stable without feedback control. Thus, they are said to be open-loop stable or
self-regulating.
• An open-loop stable process will return to the original steady state after a transient disturbance (one that is not
sustained) occurs.
• By contrast there are a few processes, such as exothermic chemical reactors, that can be open-loop unstable.
The transient responses can be determined in a straightforward manner if the closed-loop transfer functions are Definition of Stability. An unconstrained linear system is said to be stable if the output response is bounded for all
available. bounded inputs. Otherwise it is said to be unstable.
Consider the liquid-level control system shown in Fig. 11.15. The liquid level is measured, and the level transmitter (LT)
output is sent to a feedback controller (LC) that controls liquid level by adjusting volumetric flow rate q2. A second inlet
flow rate q1 is the disturbance variable. Assume:
1. The liquid density r and the cross-sectional area of the tank A are constant.
2. The flow-head relation is linear, q3 = h/R.
3. The level transmitter, I/P transducer, and control valve have negligible dynamics.
4. An electronic controller with input and output in % is used (full scale=100%)

Comparing Eqs. 11-81 and 11-82 indicates that the poles are also the roots of the following equation, which is referred
to as the characteristic equation of the closed-loop system:
1+ GOL = 0 (11-83)
General Stability Criterion. The feedback control system in Fig.
11.8 is stable if and only if all roots of the characteristic equation are negative or have negative real parts. Otherwise,
the system is unstable.
Example 11.8
Consider a process, Gp = 0.2/-s + 1), and thus is open-loop unstable. If Gv = Gm = 1, determine whether a proportional
controller can stabilize the closed-loop system.

Figure 11.25 Stability regions in the complex plane for roots of the charact- eristic equation.
 1+ Kcm -17ω2 = 0
8ω -10ω3 = ω(8 -10ω2 ) = 0 Therefore,
ω2 = 0.8 Þ ω = ±0.894 , Kcm = 12.6

• The root locus diagram in Fig. 11.27 shows how the three roots of this characteristic equation vary with Kc.

• When Kc = 0, the roots are merely the poles of the open-loop transfer function, -1, -2, and -3.

Routh Stability Criterion:

A necessary and sufficient condition for all roots of the characteristic equation in Eq. 11-93 to have negative real parts is
that all of the elements in the left column of the Routh array are positive.
Ex.-Find the values of controller gain Kc that make the feedback control system of Eq. 11.4 stable.
Solution
From Eq. 11-76, the characteristic equation is
10s3 +17s2 + 8s +1+ Kc = 0 (11-99)
All coefficients are positive provided that 1 + Kc > 0 or Kc < -1. The Routh array is

To have a stable system, each element in the left column of the Routh array must be positive. Element b1 will be
positive if Kc < 7.41/0.588 = 12.6. Similarly, c1 will be positive if Kc > -1. Thus, we conclude that the system will be stable if
-1 < Kc < 12.6
Direct Substitution Method
• The imaginary axis divides the complex plane into stable and unstable regions for the roots of characteristic
equation, as indicated in Fig. 11.26.
• On the imaginary axis, the real part of s is zero, and thus we can write s=jw. Substituting s=jw into the
characteristic equation allows us to find a stability limit such as the maximum value of Kc.
• As the gain Kc is increased, the roots of the characteristic equation cross the imaginary axis when Kc = Kcm.

Ex.- Use the direct substitution method to determine Kcm for the system with the characteristic equation given by Eq.
11-99.
Solution: Substitute s =jω and Kc = Kcm
-10 jω3 -17ω2 + 8 jω +1+ Kcm = 0
Or (1+ Kcm -17ω2 )+ j (8ω -10ω3 ) = 0
Equation is satisfied if both the real and imaginary parts are identically zero: