s Determination of resistance percm of} Dat: a given wire Aim : | To determine resistance per cm of a given wire by plotting a graph of potential difference versus current, Apparatus and Material Required: A wire of unknown resistance (~ 10 9), battery eliminator or an accumulator (0 to 3 V) or two dry cells (1.5 V each), voltmeter (0 ~ 5 V) milisammeter (0 — 500 mA), theostat, plug Key, connecting wires and a piece of sand paper. Principle: According to the Ohm's law, the current flowing through a conductor is directly proportional to the potential difference across its ends, provided the physical conditions, (temperature,| dimension, pressure, etc.) of the conductor remains the same. If | be the current flowing through a ‘conductor and V be the potential difference across its ends, then according to ohm’s Law, Val and hence V=RI where, R is the constant of proportionality. It is known as resistance of the conductor. 1) To establish the current — voltage relationship, it is to be shown that the ratio Vil remain constant for a given resistance. Therefore, a graph between the potential difference (V) and the current (I) must be straight line. v 2) The constant ratio gives unknown value of resistance, (% n) Circuit Diagram : Unknown resistance 5 wie JET hela li dane SP seh © scanned with OKEN Scanner, a i] . Fj rrange the Apparatus an rial required in the same ™: nner as given in the arran, seh x Ss 9 and Material required |! ; ions, if any, sand paper to remove the insula ire with Clean the ends of the connecting wire wi Lei cording to the circuit diagram. While tai Make neat, clean and tight connections ac connections ensure that +ve marked terminals of voltmeter and ammeter are joined towards thy +ve terminal of the battery. ‘ Determine the least count of voltmeter and ammeter, and also note the zero error, if any, Insert the key K, slide the theostat contact and see that ammeter and voltmeter are workin, propery, Adjust the sliding contact of the theostat such that a measurable current passes through the resistance coil or the resistance wire. Note down the value of potential difference V from voltmeter Shit the theostat contact slightly so that both ammeter and voltmeter show full divisions readings and not in fraction: Record the readings of the voltmeter and ammeter. Take at least five sets of independent observations s Cut the resistance wire at the points where it leaves the terminals, stretch it and find its length by the metre scale. Record your observations, Observation : Voltmeter reading V | Ammeter reading | (volt) (A) ‘SL.No. Mean value of resistance, R = Page-2- © scanned with OKEN ScannerResult : 1) The potential difference across the given wire varies linearly with the Gurrent 2' The resistance per unit length of the wire = > 3 Prec * sions: 4) The voltmeter should be connected in parallel and the ammeter in series with the should be ensured that current enters at the positive terminal and leaves terminal. ii) The key should be inserted only while taking observations, as excessive flow of ¢ unnecessary heating of the wire. 4il) Zero error in measuring instruments (voltmeter, ammeter, metre scale) m cognizance of and should be eliminated in case of am:neter and voltmeter by adj Pointer with the help of the screw provided at the base of the needle, using 2 screwd: ources of error : i) The wire used may not be uniform area of cross-section. ii) The length of the resistance wire measured should be between one terminal of voltm other. The lengths of ends wound around the terminais of voltmeter, if included, wo: error in measured length. @ scanned with OKEN ScannerSpecificResistance of a given wire using Metre Bridge ays To determine the resistance of a given wire using metre bridge and hence determing 4, resistivity (specific resistance) of the material of the wire. : Apparatus and Material Required: Metre bridge, a wire about 1 m long (of material whose specific resistance is to ty determined), a resistance box, a theostat, galvanometer, a jockey, one-way kay, a cell orbatten eliminator, thick connecting wires, sand paper, screw gauge. Principle : A metre bridge works on the principle of Wheatstone's bridge. Theory : i) The unknown resistance X is given by, x weet xR where R is known resistance placed in the left gap and unknown resistance X in the ight gap of metre bridge. ! cm is the length of metre bridge wire from zero end up to balance point. ii) Specific resistande (p) of the material of the given wire is given by, p : where, L is the length and D is the diameter of the given wire. Cireuit Diagram :* Known resistance Unknown resistance ‘ ; aa xfsieaes k Galvanometor 60_70 90 90 100 Leciancho col (Batioy etminalor) Pee Pagi © scanned with OKEN Scanner| Procedure: | * Arrange the Apparatus and Material required as shown in the diagram, * Connect the resistance wire whose resistance is to be determined in the right gap between C and B, Take care that no part of the wire forms a loop. * Connect resistance box of low range in the left hand gap between A and B ‘+ Make all the other connections as shown in the circuit diagram, ‘+ Take out some resistance (say 2 ohm) from the resistance box, plug the key K {| + Touch the jockey gently first at left end and then at right end of the bridge wire. Note the deflections in the galvanometer. If the galvanometer shows deflections in opposite directions, the connections are correct. If the deflection is one side only then there is some fault in the circuit. Check or take help of your teacher and rectify the fault. Move (slide) the jockey gently along the wire from left to right till galvanometer give zero deflection. The point where the jockey is touching the wire is null point D. * Choose an appropriate value of R from the resistance box such that there is no deflection in the galvanometer when the jockey is nearly in the middle of the wire (i.e., between 45 cm to §5 cm). * Note position of point D (with the help of a set square) to know balancing length, in steps. * Take at least four sets of observations in the same way by changing the value of R * Record your observations. For specific Resistance * — Cut the resistance wire at the points where it leaves the terminals, starch it and find its length by using a metre scale * Measure the diameter of the wire at least at four places, in two mutually perpendicular directions at each place with the help of screw gauge. * Record your observations as given in tables. Page-5- © scanned with OKEN ScannerObservation : Length of given wire, L = cm : | Balancing length Balancing length oa] EB (before interchanging) (after interchanging) S| R Oa ex cor ‘Unknown cat Das Bor Unknown | Re Blom] 6 — | Gao Ema & | Gx a0 oe (om) (om) | X=RE | (cm) (cm) X=R t (ohm) (ohm) : al | 2 | [2 | <] s. | I : Mean Diameter (0) of the wire Least count of the screw gauge: Pitch of screwgauge =~ Total no. of divisions on the circular scale Pitch -. LC of the given screw gauge = $8080 * ‘No.of divisionson thecoula seal — = Zero correction mm HSR =" ] Observed Reading = | Correct Reading = No. nm) (aisions) (HSC x LC) PSR +HSR OR+ZC ; (mm) (mm) (mm) © scanned with OKEN Scanner9) The value of unknown resistance, x = ohm 4i) The specific resistance of the material of the given wire = ‘ohm =m iii) Percentage error PM avroentatt Lids 9 Allthe connections and plugs should be tight. i) Jockey should be moved gentry over the metre bridge wire. it) The plug in the key (K) should be inserted only atthe time of taking observations. i) Null points should be in the middle of ‘the wire (30 cm to 70 cm) The metre bridge wire may not be of uniform area of cross-section, | ii) Effect of end resistance due to copper strips, connecting ‘Screws, may affect the measurement. ‘@) The length L of the wire should not include the lengths below the terminals when placed in gap ! EorF. | ‘v) The resistances of end pieces / metal strips may not be negligible. The error introduced by it can be reduced by interchanging the known and unknown resistances in gaps E and F. ») The length measurements | and |' may have error if the metre bridge wire is not taut and along the scale in the metre bridge. ¥) Galvanometer pointer is expected to be at zero when no current flows through it, However, many times itis observed that itis not 50. In such cases, pointer has to be adjusted to zero by gently moving the screw below the scale with the help of screw driver, must be obtained tapping the jockey on the wire, Othenvise null point Page -7- © scanned with OKEN ScannerCombination (series) of resistances [tate using a Metre Bridge Aim : To verify the laws of combination (series) of resistances using # motte bridge Apparatus and Material Required: ‘A metre bridge, a sensitive galvanomoter, two different resistances (carbon oF wire 2. 3. 4. : Ss. Result: i) i D graph indicates that as the angle incidence (i) increases, the angle of deviation (0) f: decreases, attains a minimum value (Dq) and then starts increasing for further increase in ang of incidence. ii) Angle of minimum deviation, Dn =. iii) Refractive index of the material of the prism, Precautions : . i) Alpins should be fixed vertically to the plane of paper. i) Distance PQ and RS should be about 10 cm in order to locate incident and emergent rays wi greater accuracy. iii) Same angle of prism should be used for all observations. iv) Position of the prism should not be disturbed for a given set of observations. Sources of Error: i) Ifthe three angles of refraction between adjacent pairs of faces are not equal, thenA+5#i+é ii) There may be an error in measuring the values of the angles. era reer acre tte eeaeC mye = oa = tecatecvea reaesea reece reeanieTeaE © scanned with OKEN ScannerWW characteristic curves (Fs onward & .rse bias) for a P- Junction Diode Aim : “To draw the |-V characteristic curvo of a p-n junction in forward bias and reverse bias. Apparatus and Material Required: conductor) diode, a 3 volt battery, a 50 volt battery, a high resistancs A p-n junction (semi — volt voltmeter, one 0 - 100 mA ammeter, one 0 ~ 10; theostat, one 0-3 volt volimeter, one 0-50 WA ammeter, one way key, connecting wires and pieces of sand paper. Procedure: For forward - blas i) Make circuit diagram as shown in diagram i) Make all connections neat, clean and tight. iiiy Note least count and zero error of voltmeter (V) and milli ~ ammeter (mA). jv) Bring moving contact of potential divider (theostat) near negative end and insert the key K Voltmeter V and mill-ammeter mA will give zero reading. ») Move the contact a little towards positive end to apply a forward bias voltage (Vr) of 0.1 V. Current remains zero. vi) Increase the forward — bias voltage upto 0.3 V for Ge diode. Current remains zero, (it is due to junction potential barrier of 0.3 V). vii) Increase Vr to 0.4V. Milli - ammeter records a small current. viii)Increase Vr in steps of 0.2 V and note the corresponding current. Curretn increases first slowly and then rapidly, til Ve becomes 0.7V. ix) Make Vr = 0.72 V. The current increases suddenly. This represents “forward breakdown” stage. x) If the Ve increases beyond “forward breakdown" stage, the forward current does not change much. Now take out the key at once. xx) Record your observations as given ahead, Page - 42- © scanned with OKEN ScannerForward — bias voltage and forward current For reverse - blas | si) Make circuit diagram as shown in diagram, sii) Make all connections noat, cloan and tight i») Note least count and zoro error of voltmotor (V) and micro — ammotor (yA). 3) Bring moving contact of potential divider (thoostat) near postive end and insort the koy &. Voltmeter V and micro-ammotor 1A will givo zoro roading. rv) Move the contact towards negative end to apply a rovorso ~ bias voltago (Va) of 0.6 V, a feobly reverse current starts flowing, ani) Increase Vp in steps of 0.2 V. Current incroasos first slowly and thon rapidly till Va bocornes 20 V. Note the current, aviii)Make Vq = 25 V. The current increases suddonly this reprosonts “raverse breakdown” stage. Note the current and take out the key at once, : xix) Record your observations as given ahead. Ve te (vy) (mA) Pago -43- © scanned with OKEN ScannerReverse - bias voltage and reverse current Ve In ™ (nA) patabicth teat thi bri Bikstbtis Prpebei ltt be {ravens ba ehame Gr Alineron acbe= Ee eee ; i) Junction resistance for forward — bias = ii) Junction resistance for reverse — bias = Precautions : i) Allconnections should be neat, clean and tight. } ii) Key should be sued in circuit and opened when the circuit is not being used. iii) Forward — bias voltage beyond breakdown should not be appliod. iv) Reverse — bias voltage beyond breakdown should not be applied, Sources of Error : i) The junction diode supplied may be faulty. ii) Error may be due to carelessness of the student. iii) The terminals of batter may not be connected properly. © scanned with OKEN ScannerCAG) To measure resistance, voltage (AC / DC), current (AC) and check continuity of a given circuit using multimeter. Aim: Apparatus and Material required: There carbon resistors, one standard resistance coil, a battery eliminator with tapping (2V, 4V and 6V), a step down transformer (6 — 0 - 6 V) with two tappings (2V and 4V) a resistor of 100 ‘ohm, a plug key and multimeter. Theory = Multimeter: It is a single measuring device acting as an Ammeter, a Voltmeter and an Ohmmeter. For this reason, itis also called AVO meter. It can measure alternating as well as, direct current and alternating as well as direct voltage in addition to resistance. For this purpose, its panelis divided into five different sections. There are many ranges in each section so that it can measure from micro (10*) to mega (10°) units. Rotation of a knob changes the section and the range in one section. > Rotation of knob for change in ammeter range brings shunt resistances of different values in circuit in parallel with the coil. > Rotation of knob for change in voltmeter range brings series resistances of different values in circuit in series with the coil. Rotation of knob for change in ohmmeter range brings different resistances in circuit in v series with the multimeter cell. 4) Carbon resistors are frequently used in electrical and electronic circuits and their values vary over very wide range. A colour code is used to indicate the value of the resistance. 2) A carbon resistance has four different concentric coloured rings or bands on its surface. The first three bands a, b and c determines the value of the resistance and the fourth band d give the percentage of accuracy called tolerance. The resistance of carbon resistor, R = (ab x 10° + T%) 3) To read the value of carbon resistance, the following sentence is of great helpful B B RO Y Great Britain very Good wife ° 1234 5 6 7 8 9 Page - 47 - © scanned with OKEN ScannerThe bold face letter B, B, R, 0, Y, G, B, V and W, in above sentence correspond to | colours Black, Brown, Red, Orange, Yellow, Green, Blue, Violet, Grey and white respectiy for @ and b, while for the third ¢, they correspond to the multipliers 10°, 10', 10, 10° 104, 4 10°, 10°, 10° and 10° respectively. 4) The following table provides the colour code for the carbon resistors : I Letter Colour | igure | Multiplier Colour Tolerance | (helpful to memory) ab (©) (for the fourth band) T | 8 Black [0 10° Gold 5% 5 Brown | 1 10° Silver 10% | R Red | 2 10? No colour 20% | ° Orange | 3 10° | Y Yellow | 4 10° | c Green |5 10° | 8 Bue |6 10. | v Violet. | 7 10° | c Grey |8 10° w White | 9 10° Gold 10° Silver 10? Procedure: A I ete so a CoRR ee Red Black kK if 7 ‘Salocor sich ese anes on Solocionswitchvon L445 JS seni a (b) Measuri a ‘ct : (a) Measuring resistance (b) ‘uring D.C. voltage (©) Measuring A.c, voltage (@) Checking contnty © scanned with OKEN Scanner(a) Resistance 9 Mark the given carbon resistors as Ri, Ry, R Re, Ry ii) Note t he colour of first, second,, third and fourth ting for each resistor iii) Plug in the probes i oe ¢ Of the multimeter in appropriate terminals. Select the appropriate range, short en IK : : ee S Of Probes and adjust zero. Turn the terminal marked ‘Adjust’ such that the needle of the meter shows full scale deflection and reads zero ohm :) *) oon he win, = - i — Insert Tesistor R; to be measured in between the read the deflection of the pointer on the range slected. y) Repeat the step 4 for other resistors Rz and Ry each time selecting the appropriate range and testing the zero. vi) Now convert using the colour code table, the values of resistors in ohms and write their values with tolerance. b) D.C. Voltage 9 Select a D.C source of potential difference, 6 V battery eliminator or a battery. i) Plug the probes black in com and red in +. iii) Select D.C. Volt, by turning the selector switch to range 10 V D.C. volts. ix) Touch and press other ends of probes such that red is on battery terminal marked + and black on — [Fig. (b)] and not the reading. ¥) Insert red probe in terminals marked 4V, 2V in succession and note readings. c) AC. volts i) Tum the selector A.C. (200 volt). ii) Touch and press the prObes other ends to two terminals of A.C. source of potential drop and note the reading. ii) Use red probe in terminals 4V and 2V in succession and record the reading d) Continuity of given circuit i) Set the selector switch to ohm, range MQ. uch and press the probes at A and B, full scale deflection in ‘ck in succession the continuity between terminals B and C between terminals connected with the terminals of the battery. ) T \dicates continuity. i) Tol iii) Similarly che Never place the probes ends In digital electronic multimeter for contin ponents tested. and terminals C and D. when uity test rotor is set to mark 0 and a buzzer sounds probes are connected to ends of com! © scanned with OKEN ScannerObservation : a) For Measurement of Resistance : “Value and | ivaiva by : ] i tolerance from | multimeter % | ‘hed Colour and codes of Rings colour code Difference | |_(9) (Q) | R: [Orange] Red | Brown] Silver | 32x 10'+ 10% 330 +10.0 | | R: Brown | Black | Orange} NoRing | 10x 10° 20% 32kQ 410.0 Rs Red | Violet | Brown Gold 27x 10' + 5% 280 -10.0 l +) Measurement of voltage : Voltage measured Dit AC.orD.C.| Obs. | Voltage between : ifference volts | S.No. | terminals V, (Volt) | °Y D emtt ¥. V = Vp (volt) 1. 220 225 5 AC 2. 240 "238 2 3 430 427 3 A 32 02 De 2. 53 03 3. 7A o4 Inference : ) The measured value by multimeter match with decoded values of resistors. 1 AC and D.C. voltages marked on voltage sources match with voltage measured by multimeter. Precaution: 9 Instruction for handling the multimeter should be gone through thoroughly as it is a very hand) instrument and is likely to get damaged if carelessly or ignorantly used. ‘) Select the appropriage parameter current, voltage or resistance to the measured and setit on appropriate range, © scanned with OKEN Scanner|| aim: To assemble a hou: : Sehold circuit comprising three bulbs, three (on / off) switches, a fuse and "2 power source, apparatus and Material required: . Electricity supplied to us for domestic purposes is 220 v A.C. and 50 Hz. The household Circuit, all appliances are connected in “parallel” with mains. The switches are connected in series with each appliances in live wire. 5 A switches are required for normal appliances like, bulbs, fluorescent tubes fans etc. 15 a sockets and switches are required for heavy load appliances like, refrigerator, air conditioner, geyser, hot plates etc. All appliances must have three wires called live, neutral and the earth. Total power consumption ‘P’ at a time, P=P, +P, +P3+. Where P,, P2, Ps are the powers drawn by appliances. To protect the appliances from damage when unduly high currents are drawn fuse of little | higher rating, 10 to 20% higher than the current normally drawn by all appliances. For further safety, a suitable value MAINS FUSE like rating 32 A is connected in series with supply source. a © scanned with OKEN ScannerProcedure: “@ 4 8S Qe _& Oo @ 2-0 Qs 5 o—@=+-0/ @aac) A.C. ammeter (®) io te 07465 45 ox tures [#12 Bouce ofsuppiy” Ti sce (0100.75 A) owiov a (b) o (a) Circuit diagram, (b) Actual layout. Connect the bulbs B;, Bz and B in series with switches S1, Sz, Ss respectively and conne: each set of B-S in parallel with each other. 9) Connect main supply to a step-down transformer (battery eliminator) to get required voltag: from 0 to 10 V (0, 2, 4, 6, 8 and 10V). 4) Connect the mains fuse M.S. in series with the Power supply (battery eliminator). iii) Connect an A.C. ammeter in series with the B-S set. %) Connect one end of power supply to one end of B-S set ¥») Check the circuit one again to ensure that household circuit is complete. vi) Gradually increase the current to 0.75A, the fuse must burn off at about 0. 6A. © scanned with OKEN ScannerAim: \, To assemble the components of a Given electrical circuit. Apparatus and Material required: voltmeter and an ammeter of appropriate range, a baltery a rheostat, one way key. ‘An unknown resistance or resistance Coil, cohnecting wires, a piece of sand paper. Diagram : Heh ak | a R Procedure: © 4) Connect the components (Resistors, inductors etc.) in series with each other as shown in diagram and then in series with the battery. i) Connect the ammeter in series with the circt fo measure the current. 4) Connect the voltmeter in parallel to the resistor, to measure the potential differences. i») Connect the switch in series with the battery. ») Assembly of the electrical components in electric circuit is complete. Utility: Itis used for measuring an unknown resistance. Page - 53- © scanned with OKEN ScannerACTIVITY 4 i ttery, resistor/rheostay To draw the diagram of a given open circuit comprising at least a battery, if xd in proper order ang! key, ammeter and voltmeter. Mark the components that are not connected in proper Correct the circuit and also the circuit diagram. Apparatus and Material required: A battery eliminator or a battery (0 to GV), rheostat, two resistors, one-way key. D.C ammeter (0 — 3) A and a D.C. Voltmeter (0 - 3)V. Theory: An open circuit is the combination of primary components of electric circuit in a such 2 | manner that on closing the circuit, no current is drawn from the battery. Battery | = K “Hie Rheostat 2 } i { | | If the circuit is not working it can have many causes. Some of them are: i) Broken or fuse wires ii) Loose connections. ili) Exhausted battery iv) Improper connection of components. yh —o)HHHI= 96h = | Rheostat | Resistance Resistance © scanned with OKEN Scanner[ Procedure: Conriecting wire Corrected Circuit diagram "Ammetor Gi) Votmeter © scanned with OKEN Scanner 4i) Voltmeter: It should be Connected in parallel to the resistor istance coll) with the bats iii) Rheostat : It should be connected in series (in place of resistanc ) Dati, eliminator. #9) Resistance Coil: It should be connected in parallel (in place of rheostal). ») One-way key: It should be connected in series to the battery eliminator. vi) Correct circuit diagram: (components connected in proper order) ?recautions: Draw the given open circuit in auxiliary notebook. #) Check which components are connected in proper order and which are not. ii) Take out the key plug before connecting the components. #) Aways connect the voltmeter in parallel across the point for which you need to measure th potential difference. ») Always connect the ammeter in series, © scanned with OKEN ScannerAim : \ To identity a di ¥ 8 diode, an LED, a transistor, an IC,-a resistor and a capacitor from a mixed collection of such items, Apparatus and Material required: Multimeter, Theory: For identification, appearance and working of each item will have to be considered. A diode is a two-terminal device. It conducts when forward biased and does not conduct when reverse biased. It does not emit light while conducting. Hence, it does not glow. ii) ALLeD (light emitting diode) is also a two-terminal device. It also conducts when forward biased and does not conduct when reverse biased. It emits light while conducting. Hence, it glows. iii)-A transistor is-three-—terminal-deviceThe terminals represent-emitter (E),-base {8} and-collector ze) fy) ANIC (integrated circuit) is mullite ) Tone-Geresior)) ¥ A resistor is a two-terminal device. It conducts when either forward biased or reverse biased. jinal-device-in the form of a chip. [See figure (UM 3482 IC (Infact there is no forward or reverse bias for a resistor). It conducts even when operated with AC. Voltage. i) A capacitor is also a tworerminal device. It does not conduct when either forward biased or vi) reverse biased. When a capacitor is connected to a D.C. Source, then multimeter show full Je current initially but it decay to zero quick. I is because that iially a capacitor draw sal charge. Page - 57° © scanned with OKEN Scanner1000 1234 | if f-* I — re (oar) hay ns (ari )— + e I" Papor Eloctrotytic Rings {b) Capacitors (@) Carbon resistor 123456Q8 (ey fhtegrated circuits rocedure: ‘ lf the-item-has four or more terminals and has the form of a.chip, it is an I.C. (integrated circuit). 2)1f the tom has three terminels-itisatransistor. ¢ 3) If the item has two terminals, it may be diode, a LED, a resistor or a capacitor. To differentiate proceed as ahead, Connect the battery eliminator, reversing key, the items to be identified and the mulimeter. Switch on the circuit and carefully observe the movement of the pointer of the multimeter. i) If pointer moves when voltage is applied in one way and does not move when reversed and there is no light emission, the item is a diode, ii) If pointer moves when voltage is applied in one way and does not move when reversed and there is light emission, the item is a LED. il) If pointer moves when voltage is applied in one way and also when reversed, the item is @ resistor. iv) If pointer does not move when voltage is,applied in one way and also when reversed, he item is a capacitor. Page - 58 © scanned with OKEN Scanner(ppservations: . of F [No.of Number of legs | Name of device | N0-°f | Possible current | Name of | oo |. Obs. flow device | : ae ai h (5, | Unidirectional, | Diode A emit no light 2A ree | Tatsiste F3 Unidirectional, LED Jf emits light ¥ fy Capacitor, Diode, LED f Both directions | Resistor Ke 6 Initially high but | C@Pacitor decays to zero Page - 59 - © scanned with OKEN ScannerAim : Vv i To observe refaraction and lateral deviation of a beam of light incident obliquely on 5 lay, slab. Apparatus and Material required: Glass slab,drawing board, white paper sheet, drawing pins, office pins, protractor. Theory : ‘When a ray of light (PQ) incident on the face AB of glass slab, then it bends towards it, normal since refraction takes place from rarer to denser medium. The refracted ray (QR) trays along straight line and incident on face DC of slab and bends away from the normal since refractis takes place from denser to rarer medium. The ray (RS) out through face DC nis called emergen ray. 5 From the following diagram. 1) The incident ray is parallel to the emergent ray ie Zizze 2) The emergent ray is laterally deviated from its original path (incident ray) by a distance d=tsecrsin(i-1). Circuit Diagram : Refraction through a glass slab, © scanned with OKEN Scannerposed: Fix a white paper sheet by drawing pins on a drawing board Take a glass slab and put it symmetrically in the middle of the aper and mark its boundary ABCD. Draw a normal at appoint q on face AB and draw a line PQ making an angle | with the normal, PQ will represent an incident ray. Fix two pins at ponts 1 and 23 on the line PQ at distances 1 cm or more between themselves. See images of these pins through face DC and fix two more pins at points 3 and 4 (1 cm or more part) such that these two pins cover the images of first two pins, all being along a straight line. Remove the glass slab. Draw straight line RS through points 3 and 4 to represent emergent ray. Join QR to represent refracted ray. Draw normal at point R on face DC and measure angle. It comes to be equal to angle i. Produce PQ forward to cut DC at T. Draw TU perpendicular to RS. TU measures lateral displacement d ‘ Now take another set for different angle of incident and measure the lateral displacement. s. Angle of incident (i) | Angle of emergence (e) No. (degree) (degree) Difference (I-e) 1. 30 30 nil 2. 45 45 nil Conclusions : i) Angle of incidence (i) = Angle of emergence (e) ii) The lateral displacement increases with the increase in the thickness of the slab. iii) The lateral displacement increases with the angle of incidence(i) SS eee eee Page - 61 © scanned with OKEN Scanner