Chapter 2

Boolean Algebra and Logic Gate

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Algebras
• What is an algebra?
• Mathematical system consisting of
• Set of elements
• Set of operators
• Axioms or postulates
• Why is it important?
• Defines rules of “calculations”
• Example: arithmetic on natural numbers
• Set of elements: N = {1,2,3,4,…}
• Operator: +, –, *
• Axioms: associativity, distributivity, closure, identity elements, etc.
• Note: operators with two inputs are called binary
• Does not mean they are restricted to binary numbers!
• Operator(s) with one input are called unary

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BASIC DEFINITIONS
• A set is collection of elements, having the same property.
• S: set, x and y: element or event
• For example: S = {1, 2, 3, 4}
• If x = 2, then xS.
• If y = 5, then y S.
• A binary operator defines on a set S of elements is a rule that assigns,
to each pair of elements from S, a unique element from S.
• For example: given a set S, consider a*b = c and * is a binary operator.
• If (a, b) through * get c and a, b, cS, then * is a binary operator of S.
• On the other hand, if * is not a binary operator of S and a, bS, then c  S.

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BASIC DEFINITIONS
Postulate: a thing suggested or assumed as true as the basis for reasoning, discussion,
or belief

• The most common postulates used to formulate various algebraic

structures are as follows:
1.Closure: a set S is closed with respect to a binary operator if, for every pair
of elements of S, the binary operator specifies a rule for obtaining a unique
element of S.
• For example, natural numbers N={1,2,3,...} is closed w.r.t. the binary operator +
by the rule of arithmetic addition, since, for any a, bN, there is a unique cN
such that
• a+b = c
• But operator – is not closed for N, because 2-3 = -1 and 2, 3 N, but (-1)N.
2.Associative law: a binary operator * on a set S is said to be associative
whenever
• (x * y) * z = x * (y * z) for all x, y, zS
• (x+y)+z = x+(y+z)
3.Commutative law: a binary operator * on a set S is said to be commutative
whenever
• x * y = y * x for all x, yS
• x+y = y+x

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BASIC DEFINITIONS
4. Identity element: a set S is said to have an identity element with
respect to a binary operation * on S if there exists an element eS
with the property that
• e * x = x * e = x for every xS
• 0+x = x+0 =x for every xI . I = {…, -3, -2, -1, 0, 1, 2, 3, …}.
• 1*x = x*1 =x for every xI. I = {…, -3, -2, -1, 0, 1, 2, 3, …}.
5. Inverse: a set having the identity element e with respect to the binary
operator to have an inverse whenever, for every xS, there exists an
element yS such that
• x*y=e
• The operator + over I, with e = 0, the inverse of an element a is (-a), since a+(-a) =
0.
6. Distributive law: if * and ．are two binary operators on a set S, * is
said to be distributive over . whenever
• x * (y．z) = (x * y)．(x * z)

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George Boole
• Father of Boolean algebra
• He came up with a type of linguistic algebra, the three most
basic operations of which were (and still are) AND, OR and
NOT. It was these three functions that formed the basis of his
premise, and were the only operations necessary to perform
comparisons or basic mathematical functions.
• Boole’s system (detailed in his 'An Investigation of the Laws of
Thought, on Which Are Founded the Mathematical Theories of
Logic and Probabilities', 1854) was based on a binary approach,
processing only two objects - the yes-no, true-false, on-off,
zero-one approach.
• Surprisingly, given his standing in the academic community,
Boole's idea was either criticized or completely ignored by the
majority of his peers. George Boole (1815 - 1864)
• Eventually, one bright student, Claude Shannon (1916-2001),
picked up the idea and ran with it

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Axiomatic Definition of Boolean Algebra

• We need to define algebra for binary values

• Developed by George Boole in 1854
• Huntington postulates for Boolean algebra (1904):
• B = {0, 1} and two binary operations, + and．
• Closure with respect to operator + and operator ·
• Identity element 0 for operator + and 1 for operator ·
• Commutativity with respect to + and ·
x+y = y+x, x·y = y·x
• Distributivity of · over +, and + over ·
x·(y+z) = (x·y)+(x·z) and x+(y·z) = (x+y)·(x+z)
• Complement for every element x is x’ with x+x’=1, x·x’=0
• There are at least two elements x,yB such that xy

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Boolean Algebra

• Terminology:
• Literal: A variable or its complement
• Product term: literals connected by •
• Sum term: literals connected by +

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 Postulates of Two-Valued Boolean Algebra
• B = {0, 1} and two binary operations, + and．
• The rules of operations: AND、OR and NOT.

AND OR NOT
x y x．y x y x+y x x'
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1
0 1 0 0 1 1 1 0
1 0 0 1 0 1
1 1 1 1 1 1
1.Closure (+ and‧)
2.The identity elements
(1) +: 0
(2)．: 1

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 Postulates of Two-Valued Boolean Algebra
3. The commutative laws
4. The distributive laws

x y z y+z x．(y+z) x．y x．z (x．y)+(x．z)

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0
0 1 0 1 0 0 0 0
0 1 1 1 0 0 0 0
1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
1 0 1 1 1 0 1 1
1 1 0 1 1 1 0 1
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

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 Postulates of Two-Valued Boolean Algebra
5. Complement
• x+x'=1 → 0+0'=0+1=1; 1+1'=1+0=1
• x．x'=0 → 0．0'=0．1=0; 1．1'=1．0=0
6. Has two distinct elements 1 and 0, with 0 ≠ 1

• Note
• A set of two elements
• + : OR operation; ．: AND operation
• A complement operator: NOT operation
• Binary logic is a two-valued Boolean algebra

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Duality
• The principle of duality is an important concept. This says that if
an expression is valid in Boolean algebra, the dual of that
expression is also valid.
• To form the dual of an expression, replace all + operators with .
operators, all . operators with + operators, all ones with zeros,
and all zeros with ones.
• Form the dual of the expression
a + (bc) = (a + b)(a + c)
• Following the replacement rules…
a(b + c) = ab + ac
• Take care not to alter the location of the parentheses if they are
present.

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Basic Theorems

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Boolean Theorems
• Huntington’s postulates define some rules
Post. 1:
closure
Post. 2:
(a) x+0=x, (b) x·1=x
Post. 3:
(a) x+y=y+x, (b) x·y=y·x
Post. 4:
(a) x(y+z) = xy+xz,
• Need more rules to modify (b) x+yz = (x+y)(x+z)
Post. 5: (a) x+x’=1, (b) x·x’=0
algebraic expressions
• Theorems that are derived from postulates
• What is a theorem?
• A formula or statement that is derived from postulates (or other
proven theorems)
• Basic theorems of Boolean algebra
• Theorem 1 (a): x + x = x (b): x · x = x
• Looks straightforward, but needs to be proven !

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Proof of x+x=x
• We can only use
Huntington postulates:
Huntington postulates:
Post. 2: (a) x+0=x, (b) x·1=x
Post. 3: (a) x+y=y+x, (b) x·y=y·x
Post. 4: (a) x(y+z) = xy+xz,
(b) x+yz = (x+y)(x+z)
• Show that x+x=x. Post. 5: (a) x+x’=1, (b) x·x’=0
x+x = (x+x)·1 by 2(b)
= (x+x)(x+x’) by 5(a)
= x+xx’ by 4(b)
= x+0 by 5(b)
=x by 2(a)
Q.E.D.
• We can now use Theorem 1(a) in future proofs

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Proof of x·x=x
Huntington postulates:

• Similar to previous Post. 2: (a) x+0=x, (b) x·1=x

proof Post. 3: (a) x+y=y+x, (b) x·y=y·x
Post. 4: (a) x(y+z) = xy+xz,
(b) x+yz = (x+y)(x+z)
Post. 5: (a) x+x’=1, (b) x·x’=0
Th. 1: (a) x+x=x

• Show that x·x = x.

x·x = xx+0 by 2(a)
= xx+xx’ by 5(b)
= x(x+x’) by 4(a)
= x·1 by 5(a)
=x by 2(b)
Q.E.D.

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Proof of x+1=1 Huntington postulates:
• Theorem 2(a): x + 1 = 1 Post. 2: (a) x+0=x, (b) x·1=x
x + 1 = 1．(x + 1) by 2(b) Post. 3: (a) x+y=y+x, (b) x·y=y·x
=(x + x')(x + 1) 5(a) Post. 4: (a) x(y+z) = xy+xz,
= x + x' 1 4(b) (b) x+yz = (x+y)(x+z)
= x + x' 2(b) Post. 5: (a) x+x’=1, (b) x·x’=0
Th. 1: (a) x+x=x
=1 5(a)
• Theorem 2(b): x．0 = 0 by duality
• Theorem 3: (x')' = x
• Postulate 5 defines the complement of x, x + x' = 1 and x x' = 0
• The complement of x' is x is also (x')'

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 Absorption Property (Covering)
Huntington postulates:
• Theorem 6(a): x + xy = x
• x + xy = x.1 + xy by 2(b) Post. 2: (a) x+0=x, (b) x·1=x
= x (1 + y) 4(a) Post. 3: (a) x+y=y+x, (b) x·y=y·x
= x (y + 1) 3(a) Post. 4: (a) x(y+z) = xy+xz,
= x．1 Th 2(a) (b) x+yz = (x+y)(x+z)
=x 2(b) Post. 5: (a) x+x’=1, (b) x·x’=0
Th. 1: (a) x+x=x
• Theorem 6(b): x (x + y) = x by duality
• By means of truth table (another way to proof )

x y xy x+xy
0 0 0 0
0 1 0 0
1 0 0 1
1 1 1 1

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 DeMorgan’s Theorem
• Theorem 5(a): (x + y)’ = x’y’
• Theorem 5(b): (xy)’ = x’ + y’
• By means of truth table

x y x’ y’ x+y (x+y)’ x’y’ xy x’+y' (xy)’

0 0 1 1 0 1 1 0 1 1
0 1 1 0 1 0 0 0 1 1
1 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 1 1
1 1 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0

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 Consensus Theorem

1. xy + x’z + yz = xy + x’z
2. (x+y)•(x’+z)•(y+z) = (x+y)•(x’+z) -- (dual)
• Proof:
xy + x’z + yz = xy + x’z + (x+x’)yz
= xy + x’z + xyz + x’yz
= (xy + xyz) + (x’z + x’zy)
= xy + x’z
QED (2 true by duality).

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Operator Precedence
• The operator precedence for evaluating Boolean Expression is
• Parentheses
• NOT
• AND
• OR
• Examples
• x y' + z
• (x y + z)'

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 Boolean Functions
• A Boolean function
• Binary variables
• Binary operators OR and AND
• Unary operator NOT
• Parentheses
• Examples
• F1= x y z'
• F2 = x + y'z
• F3 = x' y' z + x' y z + x y'
• F4 = x y' + x' z

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 Boolean Functions
 The truth table of 2n entries
x y z F1 F2 F3 F4
0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 1 0 1 1 1
0 1 0 0 0 0 0
0 1 1 0 0 1 1
1 0 0 0 1 1 1
1 0 1 0 1 1 1
1 1 0 1 1 0 0
1 1 1 0 1 0 0
• Two Boolean expressions may specify the same function
• F3 = F4

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 Boolean Functions
• Implementation with logic gates
• F4 is more economical

F2 = x + y'z

F3 = x' y' z + x' y z + x y'

F4 = x y' + x' z

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 Algebraic Manipulation
• To minimize Boolean expressions
• Literal: a primed or unprimed variable (an input to a gate)
• Term: an implementation with a gate
• The minimization of the number of literals and the number of terms → a circuit
with less equipment
• It is a hard problem (no specific rules to follow)
• Example 2.1
1.x(x'+y) = xx' + xy = 0+xy = xy
2.x+x'y = (x+x')(x+y) = 1 (x+y) = x+y
3.(x+y)(x+y') = x+xy+xy'+yy' = x(1+y+y') = x
4.xy + x'z + yz = xy + x'z + yz(x+x') = xy + x'z + yzx + yzx' = xy(1+z) + x'z(1+y) = xy
+x'z
5.(x+y)(x'+z)(y+z) = (x+y)(x'+z), by duality from function 4. (consensus theorem
with duality)

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 Complement of a Function
• An interchange of 0's for 1's and 1's for 0's in the value of F
• By DeMorgan's theorem
• (A+B+C)' = (A+X)' let B+C = X
= A'X' by theorem 5(a) (DeMorgan's)
= A'(B+C)' substitute B+C = X
= A'(B'C') by theorem 5(a) (DeMorgan's)
= A'B'C' by theorem 4(b) (associative)
• Generalizations: a function is obtained by interchanging AND and OR
operators and complementing each literal.
• (A+B+C+D+ ... +F)' = A'B'C'D'... F'
• (ABCD ... F)' = A'+ B'+C'+D' ... +F'

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 Examples
• Example 2.2
• F1' = (x'yz' + x'y'z)' = (x'yz')' (x'y'z)' = (x+y'+z) (x+y+z')
• F2' = [x(y'z'+yz)]' = x' + (y'z'+yz)' = x' + (y'z')' (yz)‘
= x' + (y+z) (y'+z')
= x' + yz‘+y'z
• Example 2.3: a simpler procedure
• Take the dual of the function and complement each literal
1.F1 = x'yz' + x'y'z.
The dual of F1 is (x'+y+z') (x'+y'+z).
Complement each literal: (x+y'+z)(x+y+z') = F1'
2.F2 = x(y' z' + yz).
The dual of F2 is x+(y'+z') (y+z).
Complement each literal: x'+(y+z)(y' +z') = F2'

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 2.6 Canonical and Standard Forms
Minterms and Maxterms
• A minterm (standard product): an AND term consists of all literals in
their normal form or in their complement form.
• For example, two binary variables x and y,
• xy, xy', x'y, x'y'
• It is also called a standard product.
• n variables con be combined to form 2n minterms.
• A maxterm (standard sums): an OR term
• It is also call a standard sum.
• 2n maxterms.

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 Minterms and Maxterms
 Each maxterm is the complement of its corresponding
minterm, and vice versa.

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 Minterms and Maxterms
• An Boolean function can be expressed by
• A truth table
• Sum of minterms
• f1 = x'y'z + xy'z' + xyz = m1 + m4 +m7 (Minterms)
• f2 = x'yz+ xy'z + xyz'+xyz = m3 + m5 +m6 + m7 (Minterms)

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 Minterms and Maxterms
• The complement of a Boolean function
• The minterms that produce a 0
• f1' = m0 + m2 +m3 + m5 + m6 = x'y'z'+x'yz'+x'yz+xy'z+xyz'
• f1 = (f1')' = (x+y+z)(x+y'+z)
(x+y'+z') (x'+y+z')(x'+y'+z) = M0 M2 M3 M5 M6
• f2 = (x+y+z)(x+y+z')(x+y'+z)(x'+y+z)=M0M1M2M4
• Any Boolean function can be expressed as
• A sum of minterms (“sum” meaning the ORing of terms).
• A product of maxterms (“product” meaning the ANDing of terms).
• Both boolean functions are said to be in Canonical form.

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 Sum of Minterms
• Sum of minterms: there are 2n minterms and 22n combinations of
function with n Boolean variables.
• Example 2.4: express F = A+BC' as a sum of minterms.
• F = A+B'C = A (B+B') + B'C = AB +AB' + B'C = AB(C+C') + AB'(C+C') + (A+A')B'C =
ABC+ABC'+AB'C+AB'C'+A'B'C
• F = A'B'C +AB'C' +AB'C+ABC'+ ABC = m1 + m4 +m5 + m6 + m7
• F(A, B, C) = S(1, 4, 5, 6, 7)
• or, built the truth table first

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 Product of Maxterms
• Product of maxterms: using distributive law to expand.
• x + yz = (x + y)(x + z) = (x+y+zz')(x+z+yy') = (x+y+z)(x+y+z')(x+y'+z)
• Example 2.5: express F = xy + x'z as a product of maxterms.
• F = xy + x'z = (xy + x')(xy +z) = (x+x')(y+x')(x+z)(y+z) = (x'+y)(x+z)(y+z)
• x'+y = x' + y + zz' = (x'+y+z)(x'+y+z')
• F = (x+y+z)(x+y'+z)(x'+y+z)(x'+y+z') = M0M2M4M5
• F(x, y, z) = P(0, 2, 4, 5)

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 Conversion between Canonical Forms
• The complement of a function expressed as the sum of minterms
equals the sum of minterms missing from the original function.
• F(A, B, C) = S(1, 4, 5, 6, 7)
• Thus, F'(A, B, C) = S(0, 2, 3)
• By DeMorgan's theorem
F(A, B, C) = P(0, 2, 3)
F'(A, B, C) =P (1, 4, 5, 6, 7)
• mj' = Mj
• Sum of minterms = product of maxterms
• Interchange the symbols S and P and list those numbers missing from the
original form
• S of 1's
• P of 0's

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 • Example
• F = xy + xz
• F(x, y, z) = S(1, 3, 6, 7)
• F(x, y, z) = P (0, 2, 4, 6)

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 Standard Forms
• Canonical forms are very seldom the ones with the least number of
literals.
• Standard forms: the terms that form the function may obtain one, two,
or any number of literals.
• Sum of products: F1 = y' + xy+ x'yz'
• Product of sums: F2 = x(y'+z)(x'+y+z')
• F3 = A'B'CD+ABC'D'

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 Implementation
• Two-level implementation

F1 = y' + xy+ x'yz' F2 = x(y'+z)(x'+y+z')

• Multi-level implementation

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 2.7 Other Logic Operations (
• 2n rows in the truth table of n binary variables.
n
• 22 functions for n binary variables.
• 16 functions of two binary variables.

• All the new symbols except for the exclusive-OR symbol are not in
common use by digital designers.

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 Boolean Expressions

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 2.8 Digital Logic Gates
• Boolean expression: AND, OR and NOT operations
• Constructing gates of other logic operations
• The feasibility and economy;
• The possibility of extending gate's inputs;
• The basic properties of the binary operations (commutative and associative);
• The ability of the gate to implement Boolean functions.

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 Standard Gates
• Consider the 16 functions in Table 2.8 (slide 33)
• Two are equal to a constant (F0 and F15).
• Four are repeated twice (F4, F5, F10 and F11).
• Inhibition (F2) and implication (F13) are not commutative or associative.
• The other eight: complement (F12), transfer (F3), AND (F1), OR (F7), NAND (F14),
NOR (F8), XOR (F6), and equivalence (XNOR) (F9) are used as standard gates.
• Complement: inverter.
• Transfer: buffer (increasing drive strength).
• Equivalence: XNOR.

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 Summary of Logic Gates

March 6, 2023 Figure 2.5 Digital logic gates 42

 Summary of Logic Gates

March 6, 2023 Figure 2.5 Digital logic gates 43

 Multiple Inputs
• Extension to multiple inputs
• A gate can be extended to multiple inputs.
• If its binary operation is commutative and associative.
• AND and OR are commutative and associative.
• OR
• x+y = y+x
• (x+y)+z = x+(y+z) = x+y+z
• AND
• xy = yx
• (x y)z = x(y z) = x y z

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 Multiple Inputs
• NAND and NOR are commutative but not associative → they are not
extendable.

Figure 2.6 Demonstrating the nonassociativity of the NOR operator;

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(x ↓ y) ↓ z ≠ x ↓(y ↓ z) 45
 Multiple Inputs
• Multiple NOR = a complement of OR gate, Multiple NAND = a complement of
AND.
• The cascaded NAND operations = sum of products.
• The cascaded NOR operations = product of sums.

March 6, 2023
Figure 2.7 Multiple-input and cascated NOR and NAND gates 46
 Multiple Inputs
• The XOR and XNOR gates are commutative and associative.
• Multiple-input XOR gates are uncommon?
• XOR is an odd function: it is equal to 1 if the inputs variables have an odd
number of 1's.

March 6, 2023 Figure 2.8 3-input XOR gate 47

 Positive and Negative Logic
• Positive and Negative Logic
• Two signal values <=> two logic values
• Positive logic: H=1; L=0
• Negative logic: H=0; L=1
• Consider a TTL gate
• A positive logic AND gate
• A negative logic OR gate
• The positive logic is used in this book

March 6, 2023
Figure 2.9 Signal assignment and logic polarity
48
 Positive and Negative Logic

March 6, 2023 49
Figure 2.10 Demonstration of positive and negative logic
 2.9 Integrated Circuits
Level of Integration
• An IC (a chip)
• Examples:
• Small-scale Integration (SSI): < 10 gates
• Medium-scale Integration (MSI): 10 ~ 100 gates
• Large-scale Integration (LSI): 100 ~ xk gates
• Very Large-scale Integration (VLSI): > xk gates
• VLSI
• Small size (compact size)
• Low cost
• Low power consumption
• High reliability
• High speed

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 Digital Logic Families
• Digital logic families: circuit technology
• TTL: transistor-transistor logic (dying?)
• ECL: emitter-coupled logic (high speed, high power consumption)
• MOS: metal-oxide semiconductor (NMOS, high density)
• CMOS: complementary MOS (low power)
• BiCMOS: high speed, high density

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 Digital Logic Families
• The characteristics of digital logic families
• Fan-out: the number of standard loads that the output of a typical gate can
drive.
• Power dissipation.
• Propagation delay: the average transition delay time for the signal to propagate
from input to output.
• Noise margin: the minimum of external noise voltage that caused an
undesirable change in the circuit output.

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 CAD
• CAD – Computer-Aided Design
• Millions of transistors
• Computer-based representation and aid
• Automatic the design process
• Design entry
• Schematic capture
• HDL – Hardware Description Language
• Verilog, VHDL
• Simulation
• Physical realization
• ASIC, FPGA, PLD

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Chip Design
• Why is it better to have more gates on a single chip?
• Easier to build systems
• Lower power consumption
• Higher clock frequencies

• What are the drawbacks of large circuits?

• Complex to design
• Chips have design constraints
• Hard to test

• Need tools to help develop integrated circuits

• Computer Aided Design (CAD) tools
• Automate tedious steps of design process
• Hardware description language (HDL) describe circuits
• VHDL (see the lab) is one such system

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