Chapter 2: Subfields in Anthropology

Introduction: Anthropology has four main subfields:

1. Cultural Anthropology
 Studies human cultures and how they differ
 Looks at various aspects of human life, including:
o Social relationships
o Politics
o Economics
o Social behaviors
o Medicine (both traditional and modern)
o Development
o Religion, beliefs, taboos, and food habits
Examples:
o Comparing wedding traditions in different countries
o Studying how social media affects teenage behavior
o Examining the role of traditional healers in a community
o Investigating how different cultures view mental health
o

2. Archaeology
 Studies human history through physical remains
 Involves digging up and examining objects from the past
 Tries to understand how people lived by looking at what they left behind
 Includes methods for finding, preserving, and understanding these objects
Examples:
 Excavating ancient Roman cities like Pompeii
 Analyzing pottery shards to understand trade routes
 Using ground-penetrating radar to find buried structures
 Studying cave paintings to learn about prehistoric life
3. Biological (Physical) Anthropology
 Studies human bodies and how they change over time
 Looks at genetics to understand how humans are related and why we look different
 Considers how environment and diet affect human physical traits
Examples:
 Examining fossil records to trace human evolution
 Studying how living at high altitudes affects lung capacity
 Investigating how diet influences height across generations
 Analyzing DNA to trace human migration patterns

4. Linguistic Anthropology
 Studies languages and how they relate to each other
 Explores how languages spread from one group to another
Examples:

 Documenting endangered languages in remote areas

 Studying how slang develops in different social groups
 Examining how bilingual children switch between languages
 Investigating how language shapes our perception of color

Nutrition and Anthropology: How They Connect

Anthropology tries to understand two main things:

1. How people relate to each other and to their culture

2. How we meet our basic needs, like food and health

Medical anthropologists study both human biology and culture. They look at how health, food,
society, and beliefs all work together.

Here are some examples of what they do:

 Study how diseases like malaria spread in different communities

 Learn how different cultures think about illness and healing
 Help hospitals give better care by understanding cultural beliefs
 Look at how language affects healthcare

For instance:
  In some cultures, people might think illness is caused by spirits
 Others might rely more on modern medicine
 Some communities might prefer group healing practices

By understanding these differences, medical anthropologists can help:

 Make healthcare work better for different groups of people

 Improve how doctors and patients communicate
 Design health programs that fit with local beliefs and practices

CHAPTER 3: FOOD TABOOS AND CULTURAL NORMS

What are Food Taboos?

Food taboos are foods and beverages that people abstain from consuming due to religious or
cultural prohibitions

Food Taboos can apply to various food types, including:

o Meat from specific animals (mammals, rodents, reptiles, amphibians, fish,

mollusks, crustaceans)
o Particular parts or excretions of animals
o Certain plants, fungi, or insects

Some form of food taboos appears to be present in all societies, at least when broadly understood
as foods culturally defined as inedible or disgusting.

E.g. the consumption of insects is often considered disgusting or culturally inedible, despite
insects being a nutritious and sustainable protein source in many other parts of the world.

Taboos can take many forms and vary in their specificity and strictness:

o They may prohibit killing, touching, or consuming an animal

o They can apply to everyone or only to certain groups (e.g., women, children,
pregnant women)
o They may be enforced only during specific times or circumstances
o The strength of prohibition can range from strict enforcement to mild suggestions

Some taboos have known origins and may have had logical reasons when introduced, even if
those reasons are no longer relevant. For example, the Jewish and Muslim taboo against pork
may have originated to prevent tapeworm infections.

Food taboos can be deeply ingrained in a society's culture or religion, persisting even when the
original reasons for the taboo no longer apply.

What are Myths?

Definition of Myths: Myths are traditional stories, beliefs, or ideas that are widely held but often
lack a factual basis.

In the context of food and nutrition, myths often involve beliefs about the properties, effects, or
appropriate consumption of certain foods that are not supported by scientific evidence.

Examples of Food Myths in a Kenyan Context:

1. Myth: "Eating mangoes with milk will cause skin rashes or even death." Reality: There's
no scientific evidence to support this belief. Mangoes and milk can be safely consumed
together.
2. Myth: "Pregnant women shouldn't eat eggs, as it will make the baby bald." Reality: Eggs
are actually an excellent source of protein and nutrients for pregnant women and
developing fetuses.
3. Myth: "Eating groundnuts (peanuts) causes pimples." Reality: There's no direct link
between eating peanuts and developing acne. Peanuts are a nutritious food rich in protein
and healthy fats.
4. Myth: "Drinking cold water after eating hot food will cause indigestion or stomach
cancer." Reality: Drinking cold water after hot food doesn't cause health issues. The body
regulates internal temperature effectively.
5. Myth: "Eating ugali (maize meal porridge) makes you gain weight." Reality: Ugali itself
doesn't necessarily cause weight gain. Overeating any food, including ugali, can lead to
weight gain.

These myths often persist due to cultural transmission and can sometimes influence dietary
choices.

It is important for nutritionists and health educators to understand these myths in order to address
them effectively and promote evidence-based dietary practices.

Cultural Notions

Cultural notions are shared ideas, beliefs, and practices that a group of people learn and pass on
to each other.

In the context of food and nutrition, these notions shape how people think about, prepare, and
consume food.

Let's chat about cultural notions and food. Think of these as the "unwritten rules" about food in
your family or community. You know, those things everyone just seems to know without anyone
actually teaching them. Let's break it down:

1. Family Food Traditions: Remember how your grandma always makes that special dish
for holidays? That's a cultural notion! It's not just about the food, but about the meaning
behind it. Maybe it's ugali and nyama choma for a celebration, or mandazi on weekend
mornings.
 2. The "Proper" Way to Eat: Have you ever been told, "Don't eat with your left hand!" or
"Always finish what's on your plate"? These are cultural notions about how to eat
"properly". They're different in every culture!
3. "Good" and "Bad" Foods: In some families, certain foods might be seen as "healthy" or
"unhealthy", "pure" or "impure". This isn't always based on nutrition facts, but on beliefs
passed down through generations.
4. Who Eats What: Sometimes, there are ideas about who should eat certain foods. Like,
"Fish is brain food for students" or "Pregnant women shouldn't eat papaya". These beliefs
can affect who gets what nutrients.
5. When to Eat: Cultural notions also tell us when to eat. Some cultures have strict meal
times, while others are more flexible. Think about fasting during Ramadan for Muslims,
or no meat on Fridays for some Christians.
6. Food and Identity: The foods you eat (or don't eat) can be a big part of who you are.
Being vegetarian, keeping kosher, or loving spicy food – these can all be part of your
cultural identity.
7. The Power of Food: In many cultures, certain foods are believed to have special powers.
Like chicken soup for colds, or particular herbs for strength. These beliefs can influence
what people eat when they're sick or need energy.
8. Learning Food Rules: You weren't born knowing these food rules. You learned them by
watching your family, trying things out, and being told what's "right" and "wrong". That's
how cultural notions get passed down.

Here's a fun activity: Think about your own family's food rules. Are there foods you always eat
on birthdays? Things you're told are "good for you" that might be different from what your
friends hear? That's your food culture in action!

Understanding these cultural notions is super important if you want to work in nutrition or
health. It helps you understand why people eat the way they do, and how to suggest healthy
changes without disrespecting their culture.

Two traits of culture are;

i. Material culture; tangible things e.g. dressing, decoration, etc.
ii. Non-material; deals with ideas, philosophies beliefs. All these affect
nutrition.

Food and culture

 Culture is the major determinant of what we eat. It influence food intake
 We eat food for biological aspect; to meet energy and nutrients requirements
of the body
 Culture influences how much energy and nutrients we take. This is because
food intake is influenced by social activities, process, religion, economic
processes, political processes etc.
 While food intake is biological stimuli, it is also respond to culture
 Eating fulfills both biological & social needs
 Study of nutrition can be said bio-cultural kind of study