COMPUTER NETWORKING UNIT - I

A network is a set of devices (often referred to as nodes) connected by

communication links. A node can be a computer, printer, or any other device
capable of sending and/or receiving data generated by other nodes on the
network.
“Computer network’’ to mean a collection of autonomous computers
interconnected by a single technology. Two computers are said to be
interconnected if they are able to exchange information.
The connection need not be via a copper wire; fiber optics, microwaves, infrared,
and communication satellites can also be used.
Networks come in many sizes, shapes and forms, as we will see later.
They are usually connected together to make larger networks, with the Internet
being the most well-known example of a network of networks.
There is considerable confusion in the literature between a computer
network and a distributed system. The key distinction is that in a distributed
system, a collection of independent computers appears to its users as a single
coherent system. Usually, it has a single model or paradigm that it presents to the
users. Often a layer of software on top of the operating system, called
middleware, is responsible for implementing this model. A well-known example
of a distributed system is the World Wide Web. It runs on top of the Internet and
presents a model in which everything looks like a document (Web page).

USES OF COMPUTER NETWORKS

1. Business Applications
 to distribute information throughout the company (resource sharing).
sharing physical resources such as printers, and tape backup systems, is
sharing information
 client-server model. It is widely used and forms the basis of much network
usage.
 communication medium among employees. Email (electronic mail),
which employees generally use for a great deal of daily communication.
 Telephone calls between employees may be carried by the computer network
instead of by the phone company. This technology is called IP telephony or
Voice over IP (VoIP) when Internet technology is used.
 Desktop sharing lets remote workers see and interact with a graphical
computer screen
 doing business electronically, especially with customers and suppliers. This
 new model is called e-commerce (electronic commerce) and it has grown rapidly in
recent years.

2 Home Applications
 peer-to-peer communication
 person-to-person communication
 electronic commerce
 entertainment. (game playing,)

3 Mobile Users
 Text messaging or texting
 Smart phones,
 GPS (Global Positioning System)
 m-commerce
 NFC (Near Field Communication)
4 Social Issues
With the good comes the bad, as this new-found freedom brings with it many
unsolved social, political, and ethical issues.
Social networks, message boards, content sharing sites, and a host of other
applications allow people to share their views with like-mindedindividuals. As long
as the subjects are restricted to technical topics or hobbies like gardening, not too
many problems will arise.
The trouble comes with topics that people actually care about, like politics,
religion, or sex. Views that are publicly posted may be deeply offensive to some
people. Worse yet, they may not be politically correct. Furthermore, opinions
need not be limited to text; high-resolution color photographs and video clips
are easily shared over computer networks. Some people take a live-and-let-live
view, but others feel that posting certain material (e.g., verbal attacks on
particular countries or religions, pornography, etc.) is simply unacceptable and
that such content must be censored. Different countries have different and
conflicting laws in this area. Thus, the debate rages.
Computer networks make it very easy to communicate. They also make it
easy for the people who run the network to snoop on the traffic. This sets up
conflicts over issues such as employee rights versus employer rights. Many
people read and write email at work. Many employers have claimed the right to
read and possibly censor employee messages, including messages sent from a
home computer outside working hours. Not all employees agree withthis,
especially the latter part.
Another conflict is centered around government versus citizen’s rights.
A new twist with mobile devices is location privacy. As part of the process of
providing service to your mobile device the network operators learn where you are
at different times of day. This allows them to track your movements. They may
know which nightclub you frequent and which medical center you visit.

Phishing ATTACK: Phishing is a type of social engineering attack often used

to steal user data, including login credentials and credit card numbers. It occurs
when an attacker, masquerading as a trusted entity, dupes a victim into
opening an email, instant message, or text message.
BOTNET ATTACK: Botnets can be used to perform distributed denial-of-service
attack (DDoS attack), steal data, send spam, and allows the attacker to access the
device and its connection.
The effectiveness of a data communications system depends on four fundamental
characteristics: delivery, accuracy, timeliness, and jitter.
I. Delivery. The system must deliver data to the correct destination. Data must
be received by the intended device or user and only by that device or user.
2 Accuracy. The system must deliver the data accurately. Data that have been
altered in transmission and left uncorrected are unusable.
3. Timeliness. The system must deliver data in a timely manner. Data delivered
late are useless. In the case of video and audio, timely delivery means delivering
data as they are produced, in the same order that they are produced, and without
significant delay. This kind of delivery is called real-time transmission.
4. Jitter. Jitter refers to the variation in the packet arrival time. It is the uneven
delay in the delivery of audio or video packets. For example, let us assume that
video packets are sent every 30 ms. If some of the packets arrive with 30-ms delay
and others with 40-ms delay, an uneven quality in the video is the result.
A data communications system has five components
I. Message. The message is the information (data) to be communicated.
Popular forms of information include text, numbers, pictures, audio, and video.
2 Sender. The sender is the device that sends the data message. It can be a
computer, workstation, telephone handset, video camera, and so on.
3. Receiver. The receiver is the device that receives the message. It can be a
computer, workstation, telephone handset, television, and so on.
4. Transmission medium. The transmission medium is the physical path by
which a message travels from sender to receiver. Some examples of
transmission media include twisted-pair wire, coaxial cable, fiber-optic cable,
and radio waves.
5. Protocol. A protocol is a set of rules that govern data communications. It
represents an agreement between the communicating devices. Without a
protocol, two devices may be connected but not communicating, just as a
person speaking French cannot be understood by a person who speaks only
Japanese.

Data Representation
Text
Numbers
Images
Audio
Video

Data Flow
Communication between two devices can be simplex, half-duplex, or full-duplex
as shown in Figure.

Simplex In simplex mode, the communication is unidirectional, as on a one-

way street. Only one of the two devices on a link can transmit; the other can
only receive (Figure a). Keyboards and traditional monitors are examples of
simplex devices.
Half-Duplex
In half-duplex mode, each station can both transmit and receive, but not at the
same time. When one device is sending, the other can only receive, and vice versa
(Figure b). Walkie-talkies and CB (citizens band) radios are both half- duplex
systems.
Full-Duplex
In full-duplex, both stations can transmit and receive simultaneously (Figure c).
One common example of full-duplex communication is the telephone network.
When two people are communicating by a telephone line, both can talk and
listen at the same time. The full-duplex mode is used when communication in
both directions is required all the time.
Network Criteria
A network must be able to meet a certain number of criteria. The most
important of these are performance, reliability, and security.
Performance
Performance can be measured in many ways, including transit time and response
time. Transit time is the amount of time required for a message to travel from
one device to another. Response time is the elapsed time between
an inquiry and a response. The performance of a network depends on a number of
factors, including the number of users, the type of transmission medium, the
capabilities of the connected hardware, and the efficiency of the software.
Performance is often evaluated by two networking metrics: throughput and
delay. We often need more throughput and less delay. However, these two criteria
are often contradictory. If we try to send more data to the network, we may
increase throughput but we increase the delay because of traffic congestion in
the network.
Reliability: In addition to accuracy of delivery, network reliability is measured by
the frequency of failure, the time it takes a link to recover from a failure, andthe
network's robustness in a catastrophe.
Security: Network security issues include protecting data from unauthorized
access, protecting data from damage and development, and implementing policies
and procedures for recovery from breaches and data losses.
Physical Structures
Before discussing networks, we need to define some network attributes.
Type of Connection
A network is two or more devices connected through links. A link is a
communications pathway that transfers data from one device to another.
There are two possible types of connections: point-to-point and multipoint.
Point-to-Point A point-to-point connection provides a dedicated link between
two devices. The entire capacity of the link is reserved for transmission
between those two devices. Most point-to-point connections use an actual
length of wire or cable to connect the two ends, but other options, such as
microwave or satellite links, are also possible
When you change television channels by infrared remote control, you are
establishing a point-to-point connection between the remote control and the
television's control system.
Multipoint A multipoint (also called multi-drop) connection is one in which more
than two specific devices share a single link
In a multipoint environment, the capacity of the channel is shared, eitherspatially
or temporally. If several devices can use the link simultaneously, it is a spatially
shared connection. If users must take turns, it is a timeshared connection.
Physical Topology
The term physical topology refers to the way in which a network is laid out physically.
Two or more devices connect to a link; two or more links form a topology. The
topology of a network is the geometric representation of the relationship of all
the links and linking devices (usually called nodes) to one another.
There are four basic topologies possible: mesh, star, bus, and ring

MESH:
A mesh topology is the one where every node is connected to every other node
in the network.

A mesh topology can be a full mesh topology or a partially connected mesh

topology.
In a full mesh topology, every computer in the network has a connection to
each of the other computers in that network. The number of connections in this
network can be calculated using the following formula (n is the number of
computers in the network): n(n-1)/2
In a partially connected mesh topology, at least two of the computers in the
network have connections to multiple other computers in that network. It is an
inexpensive way to implement redundancy in a network. In the event that one
of the primary computers or connections in the network fails, the rest of the
network continues to operate normally.
Advantages of a mesh topology
 Can handle high amounts of traffic, because multiple devices can transmit
data simultaneously.
 A failure of one device does not cause a break in the network or transmission
of data.
 Adding additional devices does not disrupt data transmission between other
devices.
Disadvantages of a mesh topology
 The cost to implement is higher than other network topologies, making it a
less desirable option.
 Building and maintaining the topology is difficult and time consuming.
 The chance of redundant connections is high, which adds to the high costs
and potential for reduced efficiency.
STAR:

A star network, star topology is one of the most common network setups. In this
configuration, every node connects to a central network device, likea hub,
switch, or computer. The central network device acts as a server and the
peripheral devices act as clients. Depending on the type of network card used
in each computer of the star topology, a coaxial cable or a RJ-45 network cable
is used to connect computers together.
Advantages of star topology
 Centralized management of the network, through the use of the central
computer, hub, or switch.
 Easy to add another computer to the network.
 If one computer on the network fails, the rest of the network continues to
function normally.
 The star topology is used in local-area networks (LANs), High-speed LANs
often use a star topology with a central hub.
Disadvantages of star topology
 Can have a higher cost to implement, especially
when using a switch orrouter as the central network
device.
 The central network device determines the performance
and number ofnodes the network can handle.
 If the central computer, hub, or switch fails, the entire
network goes downand all computers are disconnected
from the network
BUS:

a line topology, a bus topology is a network setup in

which each computerand network device are connected to a
single cable or backbone.
Advantages of bus topology
 It works well when you have a small network.
 It's the easiest network topology for connecting
computers or peripheralsin a linear fashion.
 It requires less cable length
than a star topology.
Disadvantages of bus topology
 It can be difficult to identify the problems if the whole
network goes down.
 It can be hard to troubleshoot individual device issues.
 Bus topology is not great for large networks.
 Terminators are required for both ends of the main
cable.
 Additional devices slow the network down.
 If a main cable is damaged, the network fails or splits
into two.
RING: