Introduction to Computers

1. What is Computer?

Defining the word Computer you might have more than ten definitions depend on
how this computer is used and where this computer is used. But for our level we can
use the following general definition;-

A computer is an electronic device that manipulates information, or "data." It has the

ability to store, retrieve, and process data.

2. Computers in our daily life

Nowadays, we cannot imagine our life without computers and the fact is that they
have become so important that nothing can replace them. They seem to be everywhere
today. Since 1948 when the first real computer has been invented our life has changed
so much that we can call it real digital revolution.

First computers differed from today's ones. They were so huge that they occupied
whole rooms or buildings being relatively slow. They were not faster than modern
simple watches or calculators. Nowadays they are also used by scientist and they may
also be as huge as the old ones but they are millions times faster. They can perform
many complex operations simultaneously and scientist practically can't do without
them. Thanks to them people has access to enormous amount of information.
Gathering data has never been simpler than now. They are not only used in
laboratories but also in factories to control production. Sometimes it is computers who
manufacture other computers.

But not only in science and industry computers are being used. Thanks to them
modern medicine can diagnose diseases faster and more thoroughly. Also in banking
system computers have become irreplaceable. They control ATMs, all data is stored
on special hard disks and paper isn't used in accountancy any more. Furthermore,
architects, designers and engineers can't imagine their work without computers. This
machines are really everywhere and we depend on them also in such fields as
criminology. They help police to solve crimes and collect evidence.

Moreover, computers are wide-spread in education. Except their classic tasks such as
administration and accountancy they are used in process of learning. Firstly, they
store enormous amount of data which helps students to gain an information. Secondly,
thanks to special teaching techniques and programs they improve ours skills of
concentration and assimilation of knowledge. They have become so popular that not
knowing how to use those means to be illiterate.

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 ADVANTAGES:

2.1. Storage

Computers saves storage place. Imagine how much paper would have to be used,
how many trees would have to be cut just to store information which is today on
hard disks. Data stored on just one CD in paper form would use room of dozens
square meters and would weight thousands of kilos. Nowadays, techniques of
converting data from paper to digital form have also tremendously developed.
You can simply rewrite the text using a keyboard. If you are not good at it you can
use a scanner to scan necessary documents. At least there are special devices
which can transfer our voice into text. Thanks to computers banks, private and
government companies, libraries, and many other institutions can save millions of
square meters and billions of dollars. Nowadays we have access to billions of
information and due to the computer's capabilities we actually don't need to worry
not only how to store them but also how to process them.

2.2. Calculate and process information faster

Computers can calculate and process information faster and more accurate than
human. This to say computer can simplify our works, for example a job of which
you cam work for a week, with computer you can finish it within a day. They are
a lot of jobs you can simplify different types of jobs from designing to writing.

2.3. Entertain

Computers are user-friendly. We can watch videos and listen to the music having
only PC. We don't need video player, TV and stacking hi-fi any more.
Furthermore, we don't have to buy PC's which can take much room due to their
other necessary components and wires. We can always buy laptop or palm top
which is even smaller, and use them outside anywhere we want. Also can use
computers to play different games, so apart from watching TV or video or listen to
music, a user can also play games.

2.4. Communication

During the relative short era of computers we have developed languages and rules
for communication between them. Users can communicate among others using
computers via internet. Among other means of communications users can send
Emails to others, chatting and even browsing some information’s.

3. History of Computers

The computer as we know it today had its beginning with a 19th century English
mathematics professor name Charles Babbage. He designed the Analytical Engine
and it was this design that the basic framework of the computers of today are based
on. Generally speaking, computers can be classified into three generations.
Each generation lasted for a certain period of
time, and each gave us either a new and improved computer or an improvement to the
existing computer.

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 3.1. First Generation Computers (1940s – 1950s)

First electronic computers

used vacuum tubes, and they
were huge and complex. The
first general purposes
electronic computer was the
ENIAC (Electronic
Numerical Integrator and
Computer). It was digital,
although it didn’t operate
with binary code, and was
reprogrammable to solve a
complete range of computing
problems. It was programmed
using plug boards and switches, supporting input from an IBM card reader, and
output to an IBM card punch. It took up 167 square meters, weighed 27 tons, and
consuming 150 kilowatts of power. It used thousands of vacuum tubes, crystal
diodes, relays, resistors, and
The first non-general purpose computer was ABC (Atanasoff–Berry Computer),
and other similar computers of this era included german Z3, ten British Colossus
computers, LEO, Harvard Mark I, and UNIVAC.

3.2. Second Generation Computers (1955 – 1960)

The second generation of

computers came about thanks
to the invention of the
transistor, which then started
replacing vacuum tubes in
computer design. Transistor
computers consumed far less
power, produced far less heat,
and were much smaller
compared to the first
generation, albeit still big by
today’s standards.

The first transistor computer was created at the University of Manchester in 1953.
The most popular of transistor computers was IBM 1401. IBM also created the
first disk drive in 1956, the IBM 350 RAMAC.

3.3. Third Generation Computers (1960s)

The invention of the integrated circuits (ICs), also known as microchips, paved the
way for computers as we know them today. Making circuits out of single pieces of
silicon, which is a semiconductor, allowed them to be much smaller and more
practical to produce. This also started the ongoing process of integrating an ever
larger number of transistors onto a single microchip. During the sixties microchips

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 started making their way into computers, but the process was gradual, and second
generation of computers still held on.

First appeared
minicomputers, first of which
were still based on non-
microchip transistors, and
later versions of which were
hybrids, being based on both
transistors and microchips,
such as IBM’s System/360.
They were much smaller, and
cheaper than first and second
generation of computers, also
known as mainframes. Minicomputers can be seen as a bridge between
mainframes and microcomputers, which came later as the proliferation of
microchips in computers grew.

3.4. Fourth Generation Computers (1971 – present)

First microchips-based central processing units consisted of multiple microchips

for different CPU components. The drive for ever greater integration and
miniaturization led towards single-chip CPUs, where all of the necessary CPU
components were put onto a single microchip, called a microprocessor. The first
single-chip CPU, or a microprocessor, was Intel 4004.

The advent of the microprocessor spawned the evolution of the microcomputers,

the kind that would eventually become personal computers that we are familiar
with today.

4. Types of Computers

There are a lot of terms used to describe computers. Most of these words imply
the size, expected use or capability of the computer. While the term computer can
apply to virtually any device that has a microprocessor in it, most people think of
a computer as a device that receives input from the user through a mouse or
keyboard, processes it in some fashion and displays the result on a screen.

4.1. Desktop Computers

Many people use desktop computers at

work, home, school, or the library. They
can be small, medium, or large in style,
and usually sit on a desk. Once you add a
monitor, mouse, and a keyboard, you
have what is typically known as a
desktop computer.

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 Most desktop computers are easy to upgrade and expand, or add new parts.
Another benefit of desktop computers is the cost. If you compare a desktop and a
laptop with the same features, you will most likely find that the desktop computer
is priced lower.

Some desktop computers have a built-in monitor to save space. These are often
called all-in-one desktop computers.

4.2. Laptop Computers

The second type of computer that you may

be familiar with is a laptop computer, or
laptops as they are often referred to.
Laptops are battery or AC-powered
personal computers that are more portable
than desktop computers, allowing you to
use them almost anywhere.

Since a laptop is smaller than a desktop,

it's more difficult to access the internal
components. That means you may not be able to upgrade them as much as a
desktop. However, it's usually possible to add more RAM or a bigger hard drive.
A laptop computer is sometimes called a notebook computer because of its size.

4.3. Servers

A server is a computer that "serves up"

information to other computers on a
network. Many businesses have file
servers that employees can use to store
and share files. A server can look like a
regular desktop computer, or it can be
much larger.

Servers also play an important role in

making the internet work: they are where
web pages are stored. When you use your browser to click a link, a web server
delivers the page you requested.
4.4. Other Types of Computers

Today, there lots of everyday devices

that is basically specialized
computers, even though we don't
always think of them as computers.
Here are a few common examples:

Tablet Computers: These use a

touch-sensitive screen for typing and
navigation. Since they don't require a

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 keyboard or mouse, tablet computers are even more portable than laptops. The
iPad is an example of a tablet computer.

Mobile Phones: Many mobile phones can do a lot of things a computer can do,
such as browsing the internet or playing games. These phones are often called
smartphones.

Game Consoles: A game console is a specialized kind of computer that is used

for playing video games. Although they are not as fully-featured as a desktop
computer, many newer consoles, such as the Nintendo Wii, allow you to do non-
gaming tasks like browsing the internet.

TVs: Many TVs now include applications (or apps) that let you access various
types of online content. For example, you can view your Facebook news feed or
watch streaming movies on Netflix.

5. The Four Operations of a Computer System

The main and also basic function of a computer is to run programs. The programs
they run can help to improve humans' every day lives. But, there are four basic
functions of a Computer which are Input, Processing, Storage and Output.

5.1. Input

The input hardware allows you to enter data and instructions into the computer.
The primary devices used are the keyboard and mouse. Other input devices are
Scanner, Light pen, Joy Stick, Digital Cameras and Microphones.

5.1.1. Keyboard

This is most commonly used device which acts

as input device. Its structure is like typewriter. It
contains no. of keys which have some specific
ASCII values. Like ‘A’ has ASCII value 65.
When this is pressed, it is converted into 65 &
this 65 is sent to CPU in the form of Binary
language (i.e. 1000001). Then operations are
done on this data.

5.1.2. Mouse

The mouse is a device that allows you to control

the movement of the insertion point on the screen.
The operator places the palm of the hand over the
mouse and moves it across a mouse pad, which
provides traction for the rolling ball inside the
device. Movement of the ball determines the
location of the I beam on the computer screen. When the operator clicks the
mouse the I beam becomes an insertion point which indicates the area you are

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 working on the screen. You can also click the mouse and activate icons or
drag to move objects and select text.

5.1.3. Bar Code Reader

It is a device which is used to read the code from

the products which are usually in the form of Bars.
It contains a light sensitive detector which
identifies the values of the bars on the product &
converts them into numeric code.
These bar readers are used in Shopping malls in a
very large scale

5.1.4. Digital Camera

As the name specifies, these camera stores the

data digitally, which then can be stored in the
computer & can be stored for a long time. But it
has very limited storage capacity. These are very
popular because of less expensive photographs &
Speed

5.1.5. Light Pen

It is a pointing device which contains a photocell

mounted at its tip. It senses the light from the
screen when it becomes closer to the screen, &
generates a pulse. So for identifying a particular
location on the screen these light pens are very
useful. But this is not in very much use these days.

5.1.6. Scanner

The scanner is an input device like the photocopier machine

which makes the electronic copy of the picture or document
which can be further edited

5.1.7. Mic's or Microphones

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 The scanner is an input device like the photocopier machine which makes the
electronic copy of the picture or document which can be further edited.

5.2. Processing

The central processing unit or (CPU) is the "brain" of your computer. It contains
the electronic circuits that cause the computer to follow instructions from ROM
(read only memory) or from a program in RAM (random access memory). By
following these instructions information is processed. The CPU contains three
parts Arithmetic Logic Unit, Memory and Control Unit.

5.2.1. Arithmetic Logic Unit

ALU is where the "intelligence" of the computer is located. It can add and
compare numbers. To multiply 2 x 4 the computer would add 2 + 2 + 2 + 2.
The ALU makes decisions by determining if a number is greater, less, or equal
to the other number. Processing is completed in nanoseconds, which is a
billionth of a second.

5.2.2. Memory

Two types of memory contained on a chip are RAM (Random Access

Memory) or ROM (Read Only Memory). ROM memory has been installed on
your computer by the manufacturer and can not be altered. ROM is the
memory that determines all the basic functions of the
operation of your machine, such as startup, shut
down, and placing a character on the screen. RAM is
temporary memory, which displays the information
you are working on. RAM remembers what you see
on your screen while you are working. Today's
applications required large amounts of temporary
memory, which may require you to upgrade and add more RAM memory.

5.2.3. Control Unit

This is the part of the unit, which directs information to the proper places in
your computer, such as calculation of information by the ALU unit or to store
and print material.

5.3. Storage Devices

Storage Devices are the data storage devices that are used in the computers to
store the data. The computer has many types of data storage devices. Some of
them can be classified as the removable data Storage Devices and the others as the
non removable data Storage Devices.

The most important computational unit is the CPU, which requires a large amount
of data for executing various instructions. This data is in the form of bits and

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 bytes. This binary digital data is stored on the storage devices or memory.
Initially, all the storage devices were referred to as memory, but these days,
memory means the semiconductor storage device called the Random Access
Memory or RAM. Early computers used delay lines, magnetic drums, William
tubes etc. for storing data.

These devices provided an extremely low access rate. But with the invention of
transistors, radical changes were introduced in the memory implementation
techniques. Depending upon the storage capacity, access rate and volatility, data
storage can be divided into primary storage and secondary storage.

The memory is of two types; one is the primary memory and the other one is the
secondary memory.

5.3.1. Primary memory

The primary memory is the volatile memory and the secondary memory is the
non volatile memory. The volatile memory is the kind of the memory that is
erasable and the non volatile memory is the one where in the contents cannot
be erased. Primary storage or the commonly referred Random Access Memory
is the memory which is directly accessible to the CPU. The CPU constantly
reads instructions from this memory. The capacity of RAM in terms of data
storage is less, but it offers a very fast access rate, thus making it pretty
expensive. It offers minimum latency, hence suitable for transactional
environment databases. Primary storage also consists of processor registers
and processor cache.

Processor Registers:
Processor registers, located within the CPU are used to load instructions for
execution by the CPU. Registers hold data word of size 32 or 64 bits. They are
the fastest means of data storage. But they are capable of storing data of a very
small size.

Processor Cache:
Processor cache is the part of RAM and is used for speeding up the
executions. It copies the most frequently used data from the main memory and
stores it. When the CPU needs the particular data item, it can simply access
the cache memory which is closely located, instead of accessing the much
slower main memory.

Though, primary storage allows faster access, it is highly volatile in nature,

that means, it clears up during the booting. To prevent this, a small bootstrap
program (BIOS) is implemented. BIOS loads the booting instructions from the
non-volatile main memory and executes them to boot RAM. The problem of
volatility can be avoided using Read Only Memory (ROM). Though ROM
retains the program instructions it does not allow to add or change them.

5.3.2. Secondary memory

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 The secondary memory is used to store the data permanently in the computer.
Secondary storage is commonly referred to as hard disk. It is a non-volatile
storage and is capable of storing large amounts of data. The term 'secondary'
refers to the inability of the CPU to access it directly. The data in the
secondary storage is accessed by the CPU through intermediary devices like
the processor cache. The computer uses its secondary storage via the various
input/ output channels. As secondary storage is non-volatile, it is used for safe
or offline storage of data. The data in secondary memory is organized into
files, directories and drives. The drives are periodically formatted to provide
the abstraction as required by the FileSystem.
The commonly used secondary storage devices
include flash drives, USB sticks, punch cards,
floppy disks, CDs, magnetic tapes,. Though,
secondary storage provides very slow access, it
is much cheaper than the primary storage and is
capable of storing much larger volumes of data.

Modern computer operating systems implement virtual memory to efficiently

use the available space on the primary memory. As for secondary memory, it
is still an important medium of storing data and recovering it in times of crisis.

5.4. Output Devices

After processing the data the computer displays the result, it gives an output. The
devices which are used to display the data to the user either in the form of hard
copy or soft copy are called output devices.

5.4.1. VDU (Visual Display Unit)

This is also called monitor. It is used to get the data in the form of soft copy.
Their functioning is exactly similar to the television. There are different types
of VDU

5.4.1.1. Cathode Ray Tube (CRT)

CRT, or Cathode Ray Tube, technology is the oldest technology among

visual-display units. Invented in the late 1800s and first used in televisions
in the 1940s, CRTs were the dominant visual-display unit until the late
1990s, when they began to be replaced by LCD technology.

In CRT monitors, a funnel-shaped glass

tube projects electron beams back and
forth across the inside of the screen,
illuminating phosphor dots in a series on
many lines that appear on the outside of
the screen--these lines compose an entire
screenful of imagery. CRTs are the largest
and heaviest of monitor types, usually

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 sporting large display surfaces and smaller, boxier back ends (to house the
tube).

Screen surfaces on CRT displays are curved; in general appearance, these

monitors resemble non – flat screen television sets, and their screens
feature a 4:3 ratio (square-shaped), rather than widescreen format. CRTs
use the most power of all displays (around 150W for a 17-inch monitor),
cannot be used with laptops and have a subtle "flicker" in their display,
which causes eyestrain. However, CRT displays feature simple and solid
technology, can be seen from a wide viewing angle and are manufactured
at significantly lower cost than alternative display units.

5.4.1.2. Liquid Crystal Displays (LCD’s)

Liquid crystal displays (LCD’s) began as display

units for calculators and laptop screens, but
started to quickly replace CRT monitors in the
latter part of the twentieth century. In LCD
technology, light shines through a combination of
liquid crystals and polarized glass to create an
onscreen image. LCD screens are flat rather than
curved and generally housed in slimmer, smaller and lighter casings than
CRT displays. LCD offers a higher resolution and better image contrast
than CRT, and because LCD technology doesn't flicker, it causes less
eyestrain. These displays often come in widescreen format as televisions,
and both widescreen and 4:3 ratios as monitors. LCD’s generate less heat
and consume as little as a third of the power of CRTs. However, LCD’s
feature a higher price and a smaller viewing angle than CRT screens.
5.4.1.3. Light Emitting Diodes (LED)

An LED display is a flat panel display, which uses light-emitting diodes as

a video display. An LED panel is a small display, or a component of a
larger display. They are typically used outdoors in store signs and
billboards, and in recent years have also become commonly used in
destination signs on public transport vehicles or even as part of transparent
glass area. LED panels are sometimes used as form of lighting, for the
purpose of general illumination, task lighting, or even stage lighting rather
than display.

5.4.1.4. Thin Film Transistor (TFT)

TFT LCD (Thin film transistor liquid crystal display) is a variant of liquid
crystal display (LCD) which uses thin-film transistor (TFT) technology to
improve image qualities such as addressability and contrast. TFT LCD is
an active matrix LCD, in contrast to passive matrix LCD’s or simple,
direct-driven LCD’s with a few segments.

TFT LCD’s are used in appliances including television sets, computer

monitors, mobile phones, handheld video game systems, personal digital
assistants, navigation systems and projectors

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 5.4.2. Printer

These devices give the hard copy of the output. There are in different types of
printers depending on their mechanism. Impact - Have mechanical contact in
between paper & printing head. Non Impact - No mechanical contact between
paper & printing head

5.4.2.1. Impact Printers

An impact printer is a type of printer that

operates by striking a metal or plastic head
against an ink ribbon. The ink ribbon is
pressed against the paper, marking the page
with the appropriate character, dot, line, or
symbol. Common examples of impact
printers include dot matrix, daisy-wheel
printers, and ball printers.

Dot matrix printers work by striking a grid of pins

against a ribbon. Different characters are printed by
using different pin combinations. Daisy-wheel
printers use a circular wheel with "petals" that each
have a different character or symbol on the end. In
order to print each character, the wheel spins to the appropriate petal and a
hammer strikes the petal against the ribbon and the page. Similarly, ball
printers use a spherical ball with raised characters on the outside. The ball
spins to each character before printing it on the page.

While impact printers still have some uses (such as printing carbon
copies), most printers are now non-impact printers. These printers, such as
laser and inkjet printers are much quieter than impact printers and can print
more detailed images.

5.4.2.2. Impact Printers

Early printers, such as dot matrix and daisywheel printers were called
impact printers, since they operated by striking an ink ribbon against the
paper. Most modern printers, including inkjet and laser printers, don't
include an ink ribbon and are considered to be non-impact printers.

Non-impact printers are generally much quieter than

impact printers since they don’t physically strike the
page. For example, inkjet printers spray tiny drops of
ink onto the page, while laser printers use a cylindrical
drum that rolls electrically charged ink onto the paper.

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 Both of these methods are non-impact and provide an efficient printing
process that produces little sound. The low impact nature of inkjet and
laser printers also means they are less likely to need maintenance or repairs
than earlier impact printers.

5.4.2.3. Speakers

Speakers receive the sound in the form of electric current from the sound
card & convert it to sound format. These are used for listening music,
chatting, seminars for presentations etc.

5.4.3. Video projector

A video projector is an image

projector that receives a video signal
and projects the corresponding image
on a projection screen using a lens
system. All video projectors use a very
bright light to project the image, and
most modern ones can correct any
curves, blurriness, and other inconsistencies through manual settings. Video
projectors are widely used for many applications such as, conference room
presentations, classroom training, home theatre and concerts. Projectors are
widely used in many schools and other educational settings, sometimes
connected to an interactive whiteboard to interactively teach pupils.

5.4.4. Plotter

The plotter is a computer printer for

printing vector graphics. In the past, plotters
were used in applications such as computer-
aided design, though they have generally
been replaced with wide-format
conventional printers. It is now
commonplace to refer to such wide-format
printers as "plotters," even though they technically are no

6. Memory of a computer

The computers use code based on ones (1) and zeros (0) numbers called Binary
numbers. The hard disk and other storage devices are basically disks with hundreds of
thousands of tiny magnets. When you "save" the hard drive "writes" in computer code
what needs to be saved. There is a needle like device that hovers over the hard disk
and changes the polarity of the magnets, where a + polarity is a 1, and a negative
polarity is a 0. I may have the polarity and numbers backwards, but the idea is the
same. Your computers basic systems can read these codes and processes them to what
you see on the screen. This is why you don't ever want to get magnets near your
computer or attach "non-shielded" speakers to your computer.

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A computer numeric processor is made up of many decision circuits, each of which
may be either off or on. These two states are represented by a zero or one. In order to
count higher than one, such bits (BInary digiTS) are strung together. A group of eight
is known as a byte (techno-weenies are known for holding puns in high regard). One
byte can represent numbers from zero (00000000) to 255 (11111111), or 2^8 = 256
distinct states. (The carat stands in for raising the first number to the exponent of the
second.) Of course, bytes may also be combined to represent larger numbers. The
computer represents all numbers and characters internally in this fashion.

Bit=a 1 or 0
Byte=8 bits
Kilobyte=1024 bytes
Megabyte=1024 kilobytes
Gigabyte=1024 megabytes
Terabyte=1024 gigabytes

7. Computer hardware and Software

Computer hardware equals the collection of physical elements that comprise a

computer system. Computer hardware refers to the physical parts or components of a
computer such as monitor, keyboard, hard drive disk, mouse, printers, graphic cards,
sound cards, memory, motherboard and chips, etc all of which are physical objects
that you can actually touch.
Computer software, or just software, is a collection of computer programs and
related data that provides the instructions for telling a computer what to do and how to
do it. Software refers to one or more computer programs and data held in the storage
of the computer. In other words, software is a set of programs, procedures,
algorithms and its documentation concerned with the operation of a data processing
system. Program software performs the function of the program it implements, either
by directly providing instructions to the digital electronics or by serving as input to
another piece of software

7.1. Types of software

Software includes all the various forms and roles that digitally stored data may
have and play in a computer (or similar system), regardless of whether the data is
used as code for a CPU, or other interpreter, or whether it represents other kinds
of information. Software thus encompasses a wide array of products that may be
developed using different techniques such as ordinary programming languages,
scripting languages, microcode, or an FPGA configuration.

Practical computer systems divide software systems into three major classes:

a) System software,
b) Programming software and
c) Application software

7.1.1. System software

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 System software is computer software designed to operate the computer
hardware, to provide basic functionality, and to provide a platform for running
application software. System software includes device drivers, operating
systems, servers, utilities, and window systems.

System software is responsible for managing a variety of independent

hardware components, so that they can work together harmoniously. Its
purpose is to unburden the application software programmer from the often
complex details of the particular computer being used, including such
accessories as communications devices, printers, device readers, displays and
keyboards, and also to partition the computer's resources such as memory and
processor time in a safe and stable manner.

7.1.1.1. Examples of System Software (Operating Systems)

Microsoft Windows Operating System

Microsoft Windows is a
family of proprietary
operating systems designed
by Microsoft Corporation
and primarily targeted to
Intel architecture based computers, with an estimated 88.9 percent
total usage share on Web connected computers. Microsoft Windows
originated in 1985 as an operating environment running on top of
MS-DOS, which was the standard operating system shipped on most
Intel architecture personal computers at the time

Microsoft has different versions of Windows Operating Systems

starting from Windows 8, Windows 7, Windows Vista Windows XP
Windows 2000 Windows Me, Windows 98, Windows NT 4.0 and
Windows 95.

OS X

OS X (formerly "Mac OS
X") is a line of open core
graphical operating systems
developed, marketed, and
sold by Apple Inc., the
latest of which is pre-
loaded on all currently
shipping Macintosh computers. OS X is the successor to the original
Mac OS, which had been Apple's primary operating system since
1984. Unlike its predecessor, OS X is a UNIX operating system built
on technology that had been developed at NeXT through the second
half of the 1980s and up until Apple purchased the company in early
1997. The operating system was first released in 1999 as Mac OS X
Server 1.0

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 Other versions of OS X are Mac OS X v10.0 "Cheetah", OS X 10.8
"Mountain Lion", Mac OS X v10.7 Lion.

Linux and GNU

Linux (or GNU/Linux) is a Unix-

like operating system that was
developed without any actual
UNIX code, unlike BSD and its
variants. Linux can be used on a
wide range of devices from
supercomputers to wristwatches.
The Linux kernel is released
under an open source license, so
anyone can read and modify its code. It has been modified to run on
a large variety of electronics. Although estimates suggest that Linux
is used on 1.82% of all personal computers, it has been widely
adopted for use in servers and embedded systems (such as cell
phones). Linux has superseded UNIX in most places and is used on
the 10 most powerful supercomputers in the world. The Linux kernel
is used in some popular distributions, such as Red Hat, Debian,
Ubuntu, Linux Mint and Google's Android.

Google Chromium OS

Chromium is an operating
system based on the Linux
kernel and designed by
Google. Since Chromium
OS targets computer users
who spend most of their
time on the Internet, it is mainly a web browser with limited ability
to run local applications, though it has a built-in file manager and
media player. Instead, it relies on Internet applications (or Web
apps) used in the web browser to accomplish tasks such as word
processing, as well as online storage for storing most files.

BSD and its descendants

A subgroup of the UNIX

family is the Berkeley
Software Distribution
family, which includes
FreeBSD, NetBSD, and
OpenBSD. These operating
systems are most commonly found on webservers, although they can
also function as a personal computer OS. The Internet owes much of

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 its existence to BSD, as many of the protocols now commonly used
by computers to connect, send and receive data over a network were
widely implemented and refined in BSD. The World Wide Web was
also first demonstrated on a number of computers running an OS
based on BSD called NextStep.

7.1.2. Application software

Application software is developed to perform in any task those benefits from

computation. It is a set of programs that allows the computer to perform a
specific data processing job for the user. It is a broad category, and
encompasses software of many kinds, including the internet browser being
used to display this page.

7.1.2.1. Examples of Application Software

Word Processing Software: This software enables users to create and edit
documents. The most popular examples of this type of software are MS-
Word, WordPad, Word Perfect and Notepad among other text editors.

Database Software: Database is a structured collection of data. A

computer database relies on database software to organize data and enable
database users to perform database operations. Database software allows
users to store and retrieve data from databases. Examples are Oracle, MS
Access, etc.

Spreadsheet Software: Excel, Lotus 1-2-3 and Apple Numbers are some
examples of spreadsheet software. Spreadsheet software allows users to
perform calculations using spreadsheets. They simulate paper worksheets
by displaying multiple cells that make up a grid.

Multimedia Software: They allow users to create and play audio and
video files. They are capable of playing media files. Audio converters,
audio players, burners, video encoders and decoders are some forms of
multimedia software. Examples of this type of software include Real
Player and Media Player.

Presentation Software: The software that is used to display information

in the form of a slide show is known as presentation software. This type of
software includes three functions, namely, editing that allows insertion and
formatting of text, methods to include graphics in the text and a
functionality of executing slide shows. Microsoft PowerPoint is the best
example of presentation software.

Enterprise Software: It deals with the needs of organization processes

and data flow. Customer relationship management or the financial
processes in an organization are carried out with the help of enterprise
software.

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 Information Worker Software: Individual projects within a department
and individual needs of creation and management of information are
handled by information worker software. Documentation tools, resource
management tools and personal management systems fall under the
category of this type of application software.

Educational Software: It has the capabilities of running tests and tracking

progress. It also has the capabilities of collaborative software. It is often
used in teaching and self-learning. Dictionaries like Britannica and
Encarta, mathematical software like Matlab and others like Google Earth
and NASA World Wind are some of the well-known names in this
category.

Simulation Software: Used to simulate physical or abstract systems,

simulation software finds applications in both, research and entertainment.
Flight simulators and scientific simulators are examples of simulation
software.

Content Access Software: It is used to access content without editing.

Common examples of content access software are web browsers and
media players.

Application Suites: An application suite is an important type of

application software. It consists of a group of applications combined to
perform related functions. OpenOffice.org and Microsoft Office are the
best examples of this type of application software. These application
suites, as you know, come as bundles of applications like word processors,
spreadsheets, presentation software, etc. Applications in the suite can work
together or operate on each other's files.

Software that aid Engineering and Development of Products: These

software are used in the design and development of hardware and software
products. Integrated development environments (IDE) and computer
language editing tools falls under this type of application software.
Interestingly, software products are developed using other software, and
software communicate with one another through software. Application
programming interfaces which aid the communication of two or more
software, are examples of this application software type.

7.1.3. Programming software

Programming software includes tools in the form of programs or applications

that software developers use to create, debug, maintain, or otherwise support
other programs and applications. The term usually refers to relatively simple
programs such as compilers, debuggers, interpreters, linkers, and text editors,
that can be combined together to accomplish a task, much as one might use
multiple hand tools to fix a physical object. Programming tools are intended to
assist a programmer in writing computer programs, and they may be combined

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 in an integrated development environment (IDE) to more easily manage all of
these functions.

7.1.3.1. Examples of Programming software

Examples of programming software are C++, or Visual C, or Visual Basic,

or Visual C++, or Java, or Python, or C, or B, or BASIC.

8. Working with Mouse

In computing, a mouse is a pointing device that functions by

detecting two-dimensional motion relative to its supporting
surface. Physically, a mouse consists of an object held under one
of the user's hands, with one or more buttons.

The mouse sometimes features other elements, such as "wheels", which allow the user
to perform various system-dependent operations, or extra buttons or features that can
add more control or dimensional input. The mouse's motion typically translates into
the motion of a pointer on a display, which allows for fine control of a graphical user
interface.

There three types on how to use a mouse while working, Click, Right Click, Double
Click and Drag. Click or clicking is used to pick or select items. Right Click is used to
display a shortcut menu on different item. Double click is used to open Files, Folders,
Driver destinations and programs.

8.1. Types of Mouse (Mice)

Mechanical mice

Mechanical mouse devices began to become main stream with the

invention and production of ball mice. The ball mouse – pictured
right – typically features two built-in rollers that are able to detect
the movement of the ball. That movement is then translated by
computer software into the motion of a mouse pointer along the X
and Y axes.

A ball-based mechanical mouse generally requires a flat surface

or mouse mat and has a nasty habit of collecting dust.

Optical mice

Optical mice, introduced in the late 90’s, offer a number of

advantages – they’re able to work on many surfaces, and
offer greater precision than a mechanical mouse.

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 Here’s how they work. The modern optical mouse is likely to feature a tiny
camera or optoelectronic sensor that is able to capture over a thousand frames per
second. Usually equipped with a red light-emitting diode (LED), an optical mouse
illuminates a surface and captured images are fed back to a digital signal
processor (DSP) for translation into movement. Using complex algorithms,
changes in a sequence of images are translated into movement on the X and Y
axes. With movements detected hundreds of times each second, the motion of the
on-screen pointer appears very smooth.

With the advance of computing power, optical mice became cheap to produce and
have since become far more popular than their mechanical predecessors. Optical
mice have the advantage of featuring no moving parts and no large openings to
collect dust – meaningless all-round wear and tear. Optical mice are also more
accurate and – depending on the surface - don’t require a mouse mat.

Laser mice

In recent years, laser mice have been introduced as a

logical successor to optical mice. Using very similar
technology, laser mice feature one notable change – they
utilize an infrared laser diode as opposed to a colored
light-emitting diode (LED).

By using an infrared laser, these mice are able to capture images at a far-greater
resolution (denoted as dots per inch or dpi), consequently resulting in greater
accuracy and improved precision.

A laser mouse, then, clearly has its advantages – but be aware that it’s a device
that targets certain markets. The precision of a laser pointer is ideal for
professionals working with computer graphics, or indeed gamers. For the
everyday user, an optical mouse is likely to be cheaper and plenty sufficient.

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9. Working with Windows Operating System

9.1. Starting a computer running Windows XP operating system

Starting your computer is also known as booting

the computer. It is important to switch your
computer on in the correct way because the
computer will check the peripheral devices on start
up. Starting the computer will also start the
operating system.

If the power switch on the system unit is off (no

light), then you need to turn on the computer parts
in the correct sequence

9.1.1. Sequence for starting a computer

a) Check peripheral device connections.

b) Turn on power at the power outlet.
c) If the monitor has a separate switch, turn it on.
d) Switch on the printer.
e) Check to see if there is a floppy disk in the floppy disk drive if
your computer has one. Eject the disk to ensure the computer starts
from the hard drive.
f) Switch on the system unit. If using a desktop PC the power switch
is usually a button on the front or side of the system unit. If using a
laptop the power switch is usually at the top of the keyboard.
g) The computer will perform a start-up routine. When the start-up
routine has completed then the operating system will start.

9.2. Logging on

The computer you are using may have been set up so that you need to log on to
the computer in order to be able to access the software and stored data, and
commence using it. This is a security feature that is often in place for computers in
the workplace, school, college or other large organisation.
When you log on you are connecting the
computer with a network of other
computers in the organisation.
If you need to log on you will see a box
on the screen asking you for two items of
information that you need to type in:

a) username
b) Password

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 Usernames and passwords are set (for each authorised user) by the IT
Administrator for the organisation. You are a teacher or IT Department (in an
organisation) will provide you with these details.

9.3. Security conditions

Your username and password determines what information and features of the
computer and network you have access to, and this is determined by the IT
security policy of the organisation.

Therefore, it is important to note the conditions of use that apply to you when you
log on to a computer with your username and password. These conditions appear
on the screen before you are asked to enter your name and password. You must
click on the OK button after you have read the conditions. This enables you to get
to the log on screen where you enter your name and password.

9.4. Shutting down a computer running Windows XP operating system

It is good practice to use the correct shut down procedure when you want to turn
off your computer so that you do not lose data. If you still have any software
applications or files open they will be displayed at the bottom of the screen. Each
of the applications and files must be closed. You may get a message asking you to
confirm whether files need to be saved. Make sure you save any work you have
done before you turn off the computer.

Depending on whether or not you have had to log on to start using a computer,
you will need to follow a different sequence shutting down the computer.

9.5. Logging off

If you have had to log on to the computer when

you started the session, then you need to log off
when you finish your session on the computer.

Logging off means you are disconnecting the

computer from the network and no one else will
be able to access the same computer unless they
also have a log on (username and password).
You must log off the computer regardless of
whether or not you will be turning off the
power.

If you don’t log off the computer, then you will

be preventing other people from using the same
computer and being able to log on with their
own name and password. In the workplace, failure to log off will probably also
mean that other people (who may be unauthorised to use your computer) can
access all the files that you have access to. This could mean a serious breach of
security in an organisation.

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 9.5.1. To log off a computer:

a) Close all files (remember to save your latest work if necessary).

b) Close all software programs.
c) Remove floppy disks or other storage media from drives if
necessary.
d) Click the Start button on the taskbar (at the bottom left corner of
the screen) to see the Start menu.
e) Click on Log Off (at the bottom of the menu).
f) A message box will appear on the screen asking you to confirm
that you want to log off. Click on Log Off.
g) A final message box will appear telling you ‘It is now safe to turn
off your computer.’

You can now switch off the computer and the power outlet if you want to shut
down the computer.

9.6. Sequence for shutting down a computer

Follow this sequence if you do not have to log off first.

a) Close all files (remember to save your latest work if necessary).

b) Close all software programs.
c) Remove floppy disks or other storage media from drives if necessary.
d) Click on Start on the taskbar. Select Turn Off computer from the Start
menu.
e) Check that Turn off is selected.

f) Click on OK to confirm.
Your computer may automatically turn the power off but if not you will
get a message like ‘It is now safe to turn off your computer.’
g) Switch off the computer and the power outlet.

9.7. User Accounts

A user account defines the actions a user can perform in Windows. On a stand-
alone computer or a computer that is a member of a workgroup, a user account
establishes the privileges assigned to each user.

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 9.7.1. Types of user accounts

There are two types of user accounts available on your computer: computer
administrator and limited. The guest account is available by default for users
with no assigned account on the computer.

Computer administrator account

The computer administrator account is

intended for someone who can make
system wide changes to the computer,
install software, and access all non-
private files on the computer. Only a
user with a computer administrator
account has full access to other user
accounts on the computer. A user with a
computer administrator account:
• Can create and delete user accounts on the computer.
• Can change other users' account names, pictures, passwords, and
account types.
• Cannot change his or her own account type to limited unless there is
at least one other user with a computer administrator account. This
ensures that there is always at least one user with a computer
administrator account on the computer.
• Can manage his or her network passwords, create a reset password
disk, and set up his or her account to use a .NET Passport.

Limited account

The limited account is intended for someone who should be prohibited from
changing most computer settings and deleting important files. A user with a
limited account:
• Generally cannot install software or hardware, but can access
programs that have already been installed on the computer.
• Can change his or her account picture and can also create, change, or
delete his or her password.
• Cannot change his or her account name or account type. A user with a
computer administrator account must make these kinds of changes.
• Can manage his or her network passwords, create a reset password
disk, and set up his or her account to use a .NET Passport.

Note

Some programs might not work properly for users with limited accounts. If so,
change the user's account type to computer administrator, either temporarily or
permanently.

Guest account

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 The guest account is intended for use by someone who has no user account on
the computer. There is no password for the guest account, so the user can log
on quickly to check e-mail or browse the Internet. A user logged on to the
guest account:
• Cannot install software or hardware, but can access applications that
have already been installed on the computer.
• Cannot change the guest account type.
• Can change the guest account picture.

Note

You might see an account with the name "Owner" when you first log on. The
owner account, with computer administrator privileges, is created during
installation if no user accounts are set up at that time. You can rename this
account with a user's name.

10. Working with Windows Desktop

Windows XP is an operating system that lets you use different types of applications or
software. For example, it allows you to use a word processing application to write a
letter, and a spreadsheet application to track your financial information.

Windows XP is a graphical user interface (GUI). It has pictures (graphical) that you
use (user) to communicate (interface) with the computer. This type of system is
popular because it's logical, fun and easy to use.

This operating system has multitasking capabilities, meaning it can run several
applications at the same time. Multitasking allows you to view this lesson on the
Internet at the same time that you practice using other applications with Windows XP.

By the end of this lesson, learners should be able to:

a) Discuss the parts of the Windows XP desktop

b) Discuss the parts of the Start menu
c) Locate the Taskbar
d) Locate the Recycle Bin
e) Log off and switch users

10.1. The Windows XP Desktop

Like previous versions of Windows, Windows XP uses a desktop for the standard
interface. Think of the desktop as workspaces where you can access everything
you need to operate your computer, such as system components, applications, the
Internet, etc.

10.2. The desktop contains:

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  Start button: one of the most important tools you will use while working
with Windows XP. The Start button allows you to open menus and start
applications.
 Taskbar: primarily used to switch between open windows and
applications. Learn more about using the Taskbar in a later lesson.

 Icons (or graphical pictures): represent applications, files, and other parts
of the operating system. By default Windows XP provides you with one
desktop icon, the Recycle Bin. Learn more about the Recycle Bin in a later
lesson.

Your desktop's appearance may vary from the example shown below, especially if
you bought a computer with XP preinstalled.

10.3. The Start Menu

To begin exploring Windows XP, click the Start button.

When you click the Start button, the Start menu appears. The Start menu is
your gateway to the applications that are on your computer. The left side of the
Start menu lists programs, and the right side allows access to common Windows
folders (My Documents, for example). It also provides access to Help and
Support, Search, and Run.

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 If you select All Programs, a pop-up menu appears. Pop-up menus like this are
called cascading menus. If a cascading menu is available, a small black triangle
appears next to the name of the application or function.

In the example below, the Word program has been selected.

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 10.4. To explore the Start menu:

a) Click the Start button.

b) Move the mouse pointer to each option, and view the various
cascading menus.
c) Click (or roll your mouse pointer over) All Programs.
d) Move the mouse pointer to the right and view other cascading menus.
e) To exit the menus, click outside the menu area or press Esc on your
keyboard.

The Start menu remembers items you've recently opened and places the icon
on the Start menu so you can easily open it next time you open the Start menu.
For example, if you recently opened Microsoft Word using Start All
Programs Microsoft Word, the next time you open the Start menu, simply
click the Word icon on the left side of the Start menu.

10.5. Understanding Icons

The small pictures on the desktop are called icons. One type of icon is
an object icon. Examples of object icons are My Computer, Recycle
Bin, and Internet Explorer. These icons allow you to open files and
programs on your computer.

Shortcut icons allow you to open an application quickly. These icons

appear on your desktop and with little arrow in the left corner. Desktop
shortcuts are links to files and programs. You can add or delete shortcuts
without affecting the programs on your computer. You'll learn about
creating shortcuts in a later lesson.

10.6. To open a program using an icon:

a) Place your mouse over the icon.

b) Text appears identifying its name or contents.
c) Then, double-click the icon.

10.7. Understanding the Taskbar

The taskbar is the small blue bar you see at the bottom of your desktop. It
contains the Start menu and the Quick Launch bar, which contains icons for
Internet Explorer, Windows Media Player, and Show Desktop. Click an icon to
open a program. Click Show Desktop to quickly view your desktop without
closing any programs or windows.

The box on the right is called the Notification Area. Here, you'll find the clock
and several other icons depending on what you have installed on your computer.
Other icons appear in the Notification Area detailing the status of your activity.
For example, when you're printing a document, a printer icon appears. Microsoft

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 also uses the Notification Area to remind you when software updates are
available for download.

When you open or minimize a window or program, a rectangular button appears

on the taskbar that shows the name of the application. These buttons disappear
when you close a window.

10.8. Log off and Switch Users

More than one person may use your computer. For example, many family
members may use the same computer at home while several coworkers may be
able to access your computer on a computer network. Windows XP allows
everyone who uses your computer to have separate computer accounts. A
computer accounts tracks each person's unique settings, documents, and email
accounts.

Windows XP even enables you to log off the computer so someone else can log
on without having to restart the computer.

10.8.1. To log off/switch users:

a) Click the Start menu and click Log Off.

b) A dialog box appears asking you if you want to Switch User or
Log Off.
c) Switch User allows someone else to log on to the computer. If you
choose to Switch User, your applications will continue to run in the
background while the new user logs on.
d) If you choose Log Off, your applications will close.
e) In any case, you're taken to a Windows XP logon screen where
you're prompted to enter your username and password.

11. How to change your Windows XP Desktop Wallpaper

Wallpapers are images that appear in the background on your Desktop, behind all
your icons. To change your Desktop wallpaper, do the following:

a) Click anywhere on the Desktop that is not an icon, but

click once with your right hand mouse button
b) A menu pops up. The one below
c) Click on Properties, once with your Left mouse button
d) The following dialogue box pops up

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This is the Display Properties dialogue box. As you can see, there are tab strips for
Themes, Desktop, Screensaver, Appearance, and Settings. Click on the Background
tab strip and the dialogue box will change to this one:

There is a list of wallpapers we can use. Click on one, and you get a preview of what
it will look like. Scroll down to see more wallpapers. If you're satisfied, click the OK
button to set your wallpaper.

You can use your own images. You are not limited to the ones on the list. If you have
an image somewhere on your computer, and you want to use that instead of the ones
on the list, you can click the Browse button, in the image above. Doing so will bring
up the Browse Dialogue box:

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On the image above, no background files are showing. You can click one of the
folders on the left to search for a picture, or use the "Look In" drop down box at the
top. When some background image are showing, click on one to select it. The name of
the file you have selected will then appear in the File name text box.

Click the "Open" button to return to the Display Properties dialogue box. A preview
of your image will be displayed. If you're happy with your selection, click the
"Apply" button then OK. Your desktop will change to your selected image.

12. Using Windows Explorer

Windows Explorer displays the hierarchical structure of files, folders, and drives on
your computer. It also shows any network drives that have been mapped to drive
letters on your computer. Using Windows Explorer, you can copy, move, rename, and
search for files and folders. For example, you can open a folder that contains a file
you want to copy or move, and then drag the file to another folder or drive.

There are other places in Windows where you can view and work with files and
folders. My Documents is a convenient place to store documents, graphics, or other
files you want to access quickly. You can also view My Network Places, which lists
other computers that are connected to your local area network (LAN) When you
delete files or folders from your hard disk, Windows places them in the Recycle Bin,
where you can retrieve them, until you empty the Recycle Bin. Files or folders deleted
from a floppy disk or a network drive are permanently deleted and are not sent to the
Recycle Bin.

12.1. Open Windows Explorer

To open Windows Explorer, click Start, point to All Programs, point to

Accessories, and then click Windows Explorer.

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 12.2. To copy a file or folder

a) Open My Documents
If the file or folder you want to copy is not located in My
Documents or its subfolders, use Search to find it. To open Search,
click Start, and then click Search.
b) Click the file or folder you want to copy.
c) Under File and Folder Tasks, click Copy this file or Copy this
folder.
d) In Copy Items, select the drive or folder you want to copy to, and
then click Copy

12.3. Selecting more than one file or folder

a) Open My Documents
b) To select consecutive files or folders, click the first item, press and
hold down SHIFT, and then click the last item.
c) To select nonconsecutive files or folders, press and hold down
CTRL, and then click each item.
d) To select all the files and folders in the window, on the Edit menu,
click Select All

12.4. Copy or Move Files or Folders

a) Open a destination with a file/Folder or files/Folders to copy

b) If you have to copy one file or Folder, just click a file or folder to
select it.
c) If you have to copy more than one file or folder, click the first file
or folder from the list of file or folder to copy or move, then if the
files or folders are in series hold down shift key and click the last
file or folder in a group. But if the files or folders are not is series
(scattered), click the first file or folder, hold down Control key
(CTRL) and while holding down a key continue clicking to select
other files or folders in a group.
d) Then if you want to copy Click Copy Command (Right click), if
you want to move click cut command.
e) Click to select a destination you want to put the copies files of
folders.

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 f) Then click Paste

12.5. To create a new folder

a) Open My Documents.
b) Under File and Folder Tasks, click Make a new folder.
c) A new folder is displayed with the default name, New Folder,
selected
d) Type a name for the new folder, and then press ENTER

12.6. To move files by dragging

a) Open Windows Explorer

b) Find the file or folder you want to move
c) Make sure the destination for the file or folder you want to move is
visible. For example, if you are moving a file from the My
Documents folder to the desktop, you might need to resize
Windows Explorer so the desktop is visible.
d) Drag the file or folder to the destination

12.7. Deleting Files or Folders

a) Select a file (s) or folder (s) to delete

b) Press delete key on your keyboard or right click a file or folder
then choose delete from a drop down menu

Note:
If you are deleting files or folders from all location from a Hard
Disk, files are stored in a Recycle bin folder, so later if you want
can restore them by opening recycle bin folder , click to select a
file or folder and choose Restore from a menu.

But if you are deleting files or folders from a any movable storage
device like Flash Disk or External Hard Disk, the files and folders
will be permanently deleted from a system.

12.8. To change the name of a file or folder

a) Open My Documents
If the file or folder you want to rename is not located in My
Documents or its subfolders, use Search to find it. To open Search,
click Start, and then click Search.
b) Click the file or folder you want to rename.
c) Under File and Folder Tasks, click Rename this file or Rename
this folder

Note:

Some programs cannot interpret long file names. The limit for
programs that do not support long file names is eight characters. File

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 names cannot contain the following characters: \ / : * ? " < > |. You
can also rename a file or folder by right-clicking it and then clicking
Rename.

12.9. To check size of a file of space in a storage device

a) Click to select either a file or a destination drive (eg. Flash Disk)

b) Right click it and choose Properties

13. Save a file

When you save a file, you can save it to a folder on your hard disk drive, a network
location, disk, DVD, CD, the desktop, flash drive, or save as another file format.
You should save the file frequently while you are working on it to avoid losing
data because of an unexpected power failure or other problem.

By default, the Microsoft Office programs save a file in a default working folder. To
save the copy in a different location, click a different folder in the folder list. See Save
as a copy or to a different location to learn more.

a) Click the Microsoft Office Button , and then click Save, or press
CTRL+S.
b) If you don't see the Microsoft Office Button , click Save on the File
menu.
c) If you are saving the file for the first time, you are asked to give it a name.

14. Computer Malware

Malware, short for malicious (or malevolent) software, is software used or created
by attackers to disrupt computer operation, gather sensitive information, or gain
access to private computer systems. It can appear in the form of code, scripts, active
content, and other software. 'Malware' is a general term used to refer to a variety of
forms of hostile or intrusive software.

Malware includes computer viruses, worms, Trojan horses, spyware, adware, and
other malicious programs. Malware is not the same as defective software, which is
software that has a legitimate purpose but contains harmful bugs that were not
corrected before release. However, some malware is disguised as genuine software,
and may come from an official company website. An example of this is software used
for harmless purposes that is packed with additional tracking software that gathers
marketing statistics.

Malware has caused the rise in use of protective software types such as anti virus,
anti-malware, and firewalls. Each of these is commonly used by personal users and
corporate networks in order to stop the unauthorized access by other computer users,
as well as the automated spread of malicious scripts and software.

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 14.1. Classes of Malicious Software

Two of the most common types of malware are viruses and worms. These types of
programs are able to self-replicate and can spread copies of themselves, which
might even be modified copies. To be classified as a virus or worm, malware must
have the ability to propagate. The difference is that a worm operates more or less
independently of other files, whereas a virus depends on a host program to spread
itself. These and other classes of malicious software are described below.

14.1.1. Viruses

A computer virus is a type of malware that propagates by inserting a copy of

itself into and becoming part of another program. It spreads from one
computer to another, leaving infections as it travels. Viruses can range in
severity from causing mildly annoying effects to damaging data or software
and causing denial-of-service (DoS) conditions. Almost all viruses are
attached to an executable file, which means the virus may exist on a system
but will not be active or able to spread until a user runs or opens the malicious
host file or program. When the host code is executed, the viral code is
executed as well. Normally, the host program keeps functioning after it is
infected by the virus. However, some viruses overwrite other programs with
copies of themselves, which destroys the host program altogether. Viruses
spread when the software or document they are attached to is transferred from
one computer to another using the network, a disk, file sharing, or infected e-
mail attachments.

14.1.2. Worms

Computer worms are similar to viruses in that they replicate functional copies
of themselves and can cause the same type of damage. In contrast to viruses,
which require the spreading of an infected host file, worms are standalone
software and do not require a host program or human help to propagate. To
spread, worms either exploit vulnerability on the target system or use some
kind of social engineering to trick users into executing them. A worm enters a
computer through vulnerability in the system and takes advantage of file-
transport or information-transport features on the system, allowing it to travel
unaided.

14.1.3. Trojans

A Trojan is another type of malware named after the wooden horse the Greeks
used to infiltrate Troy. It is a harmful piece of software that looks legitimate.
Users are typically tricked into loading and executing it on their systems. After
it is activated, it can achieve any number of attacks on the host, from irritating
the user (popping up windows or changing desktops) to damaging the host
(deleting files, stealing data, or activating and spreading other malware, such
as viruses). Trojans are also known to create back doors to give malicious
users access to the system.

[Type here]
 Unlike viruses and worms, Trojans do not reproduce by infecting other files
nor do they self-replicate. Trojans must spread through user interaction such as
opening an e-mail attachment or downloading and running a file from the
Internet.

14.2. Antivirus or anti-virus software

Antivirus or anti-virus software is software used to prevent, detect and remove

malware (of all descriptions), such as: computer viruses, Trojan horses, worms,
adware and spyware.

A variety of strategies are typically employed. Signature-based detection involves

searching for known patterns of data within executable code. However, it is
possible for a computer to be infected with new malware for which no signature is
yet known.

14.3. Examples of Ant virus

There is a lot of computer antivirus around, but these are just few of them, AVG,
kaspersky, Avast, Microtrend Avira, NORTON, Mcafee and others

15. Connecting a Computer (PC)

After you unpack your new computer, you may need help with its setup. Your
computer comes with a monitor, keyboard, and mouse. You should connect these
items before you turn on your new computer.

Your computer will offer several types of connection ports, but USB ports are
becoming the most common. Wireless keyboards and mouse use a small transmitter
that you insert into a USB port, for example.

Use the following table in conjunction with the figure to identify device-to-PC
connector ports.

15.1. VGA Port

A Video Graphics Array (VGA) connector is a three-row 15-pin DE-15

connector. The 15-pin VGA connector is found on many video cards, computer
monitors, and high definition television sets. On laptop computers or other small
devices, a mini-VGA port is sometimes used in place of the full-sized VGA
connector. In Personal Computers (PC) a VGA Card is used to connect a Monitor

VGA Port (Female)

[Type here]
 VGA Cable head (Male)

15.2. USB port

A USB port is a standard cable connection interface on personal computers and

consumer electronics. USB ports allow stand-alone electronic devices to be
connected via cables to a computer (or to each other).

USB stands for Universal Serial Bus, an industry standard for short-distance
digital data communications. USB allows data to be transferred between devices.
USB ports can also supply electric power across the cable to devices without their
own power source.

In a Personal Computers USB Ports are used to connect devices like USB Mouse
and USB Printers. Other devices like Flash Disk and Cameras also can use USB
Connectors.

USB Ports

USB Cable terminal

15.3. Audio Ports or Sound Card

A sound card (also known as an audio card) is an internal computer expansion

card that facilitates the input and output of audio signals to and from a computer
under control of computer programs. The term sound card is also applied to
external audio interfaces that use software to generate sound, as opposed to using
hardware inside the PC. Typical uses of sound cards include providing the audio
component for multimedia applications such as music composition, editing video
or audio, presentation, education and entertainment (games) and video projection.

[Type here]
 In Personal Computers a sound card is used to plug Left and Right speakers as
well as Microphone.

Sound card, ports for left and right speakers and the
microphones

Male Cable head from devices like speakers, microphones

and headphones

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