International System of Units

It is built upon seven basic units.

These are meter, kilogram, second,
ampere, Kelvin, mole and candela.
 Basic Units
The seven quantities are known to be
basic in SI unit System.
Base quantity Name symbol
Length meter m
Mass kilogram kg
Time second s
Electric current ampere A
Thermodynamic kelvin K
temperature
Amount of substance mole mol
Luminous intensity candela cd
Meter

Up until 1983, the meter was defined as

1,650,763.73 wavelengths in a vacuum
of the orange-red line of the spectrum of
krypton-86. Since then, it is equal to the
distance traveled by light in vacuum in
1/299,792,45 of a second.
Second

The second is defined as the duration of

9,192,631,770 cycles of the radiation
associated with a specified transition of
the Cesium-133 atom.
Kilogram

The standard for the kilogram is a

cylinder of platinum-iridium alloy kept by
International Bureau of Weights and
Measures at Paris.
The kilogram is the only base unit still
defined by a physical object.
Kelvin (1)

The Kelvin is defined as the fraction 1/273.16

of the thermodynamic temperature of the
triple point of water, that is, the point at which
water forms an interface of the solid, liquid
and vapor.
This is defined as .01oC on the Centigrade
scale and 32.02oF on Fahrenheit scale.
Kelvin (2)

The temperature 0oK is called the

“absolute zero”.
Ampere

The Ampere is defined as that current, if

maintained in each of two long parallel
wires separated by a distance of one
meter, would produce a force, between
the two wires, of 2 x 10-7 newtons, for
each meter of length.
Candela

The Candela is defined as the luminous

intensity of 1/600,000 of a square meter
of a cavity at a temperature of freezing
platinum (2,042 ok).
Mole

The mole is defined as the amount of

substance of a system that contains as
many elementary entities as there are
as many atoms in 0.012 kilogram of the
Carbon-12.
Joule

Joule is defined as the energy

consumed in moving an object of one
kg through a distance of one meter.
One joule is equivalent to the 0.7376
foot pound-force and .2388 calories.
watt

Watt is defined as the “Rate of doing

work.”
One watt =1 joule/second
One watt is equivalent to 0.7376 ft--lbf/s
or equivalently 1/745.7 horsepower.
Decimal System
The SI system uses the decimal
system to relate larger and smaller
units to basic units.
It employs prefixes to signify the
various power of 10.
Decimal System (Prefixes)
Factor Name Symbol Factor Name Symbol
10-24 yocto y 1024 yotta Y
10-21 zepto z 1021 zetta Z
10-18 atto a 1018 exa E
10-15 femto f 1015 peta P
10-12 pico p 1012 tera T
10-9 nano n 109 giga G
10-6 micro  106 mega M
10-3 milli m 103 kilo k
10-2 centi c 102 hecto h
10-1 deci d 101 Deka da
Example 1
A laser emits light at a wavelength of 248nm.
This is same as
(a) .0248 millimeter.
or
(b) 2.48 micrometer.
or
(c) 0.248 micrometer.
or
(d)24800 angstrom.
The answer is

(C) 0.248 micrometer.

Example 2
A logic gate switches from the on state to
the off state in 10 neno seconds, this
corresponds to
(a)0.1 micro second
or
(b)10 micro second
or
(c) .001 micro second
or
(d) .01 micro second
The answer is

(d) .01 micro second

Sub-atomic elements

Electron : It is a negatively charged

particle.
Proton: It is a positively charged
particle.
Neutron: It is a neutral particle and
carries no charge.
Electrons and protons in an Atom
(1)
An atom is the smallest particle of the
basic elements which form the physical
substance we know as solid, liquid and
gas.
Each stable combination of electrons
and protons make one particular type of
atom.
Electrons and Protons in an Atom
(2)
To understand the concepts of
electronics we must have the
understanding what is happening at the
atomic level, not why it happens.
There are number of methods by which
electrons and protons might be
grouped.
They assemble in specific atomic
combination for a stable arrangement.
Electrons and Protons in an Atom
(3)
As a result, the electron stays in its orbit
around the nucleus.
In an atom that have more electrons
and protons than hydrogen atom, all the
protons are in nucleus, while all the
electrons are in one or more rings
around the nucleus.
Electrons and Protons in an Atom
(4)
The proton in the
nucleus makes it
heavier and stable
part of the atom
because it is 1840
times heavier than
the electron.
Electrons and Protons in an Atom
(5)
One electron is shown as the orbital ring
around the nucleus. In order to account for
the atom’s stability we can consider electron
spinning around the nucleus as planets
revolve around the sun.
The electrical force attracting the electron
towards proton is balanced by the mechanical
force (centrifugal force) directing it outwards.
Electrons and Protons in an Atom
(6)
The total number of electrons in the
outer rings must equal to the number of
protons in the nucleus in a neutral atom.
The distribution of electrons in the
orbital ring determines the the atoms
electrical stability. Especially important
are the number of electrons farthest
from the nucleus.
Electrons and Protons in an Atom
(7)
For example carbon
atom illustrated in
the figure, 6 protons
in the nucleus and 6
electrons in two
outside rings.
Electrons and Protons in an Atom
(8)
This outermost ring requires 8 electrons
stability, except, when there is only one
ring which require only 2 electrons for
its stability.
Electrons and Protons in an Atom
(9)
As another
example,the copper
atom in figure has
only one electron in
the last ring which
can include 8
electrons .
Therefore the
outside ring of
copper is less stable
than carbon.
Electrons and Protons in an Atom
(10)
When there are many atoms closed in a
copper wire, the outermost electrons
are not sure from which atom they
belong to.
They can migrate easily from one atom
to another at random.
These electrons are called “free
electrons”.
Structure of the Atom (1)

Although no body has ever seen an

atom, its hypothetical structure fits
experimental evidence that has been
measured very exactly.
The size and electrical charge of the
invisible particles are indicated by how
much they are affected by the known
forces.
Structure of the Atom (2)

Our present planetary model of the

atom is proposed by Neil Bohar in 1913.
His contribution was joined with the new
ideas of nuclear atom developed by
Lord Ruther Ford.
With the quantum theory developed by
Max Plank and Albert Einstein.
Structure of the Atom (3)

The nucleus contains protons for all the

positive charge in the atom.
The number of protons in the nucleus is
equal to the number of planetary
electrons.
The positive and negative charges are
as the electrons and protons have the
equal and opposite charges.
The orbits for the planetary electrons
are also called shells or energy levels.
Electron Valence

This value is the number of electrons in

an incomplete outermost shell.
A completed outer shell has a valence
of zero.
Copper for instance, has a valence of 1,
as there is one electron in the outermost
shell of the copper atom.
Sub-shells (1)

Although not shown in the illustrations,

all the shells except K shell are divided
into sub-shells.
This sub-division accounts for the
different types of the orbits in the same
shell.
Sub-shells (2)

For instance, electrons in the one sub-

shell will have circular orbits while other
electrons of the same shell will have
elliptical orbit.
This sub-division accounts for the
magnetic properties of the atom.
Particles in the Nucleus (1)

A stable nucleus, it is not radioactive,

but contains protons and neutrons.
The neutron is electrically neutral
particle, without any charge.
Its mass is almost same as that of
proton.
Particles in the Nucleus (2)
The proton has the positive charge of the
hydrogen nucleus.
Table lists the charge and mass for these
three basic particles in all atoms.
STABLE PARTICLES IN THE ATOM
Particle Charge Mass
Electrons in 0.16x10-18C, 9.108x10-28 g
orbital shells negative
Proton in 0.16x10-18C, 1.672x10-24 g
nucleus positive
Neutron, in None 1.675x10-24 g
nucleus
Atomic Number

This gives the number of protons or

electrons required in the atom of an
element.
Hydrogen atom has atomic number 1.
Orbital Rings (1)

The planetary electrons in successive

shells are called K, L, M, N, O, P and Q
at increasing distance outward from the
nucleus.
Each shell has a maximum number of
electrons for stability.
 Orbital Rings (2)
As indicated in Table these stable shells
corresponds to the inert gases as helium
and neon etc.

SHELLS OR ORBITAL ELECTRONS IN THE ATOM

SHELL MAXIMUM ELECTRONS INERT GAS
K 2 Helium
L 8 Neon
Orbital Rings (3)

For example electronic configuration of

the copper atom having 29 protons in
nucleus and 29 orbital electrons will be
K shell = 2 electrons
L shell =8 electrons
M shell =18 electrons
N shell =1 electron
Total = 29 electrons
Example 1
An element with 16 protons and 16 electrons
has atomic number value
(a) 14
or
(b) 18
or
(c) 16
or
(d) 22
The answer is

(c) 16
Example 2
What is the electron valence of an element of
atomic number 5
(a) 2
or
(b) 3
or
(c) 4
or
(d) 5
The answer is

(b) 3
Conductors

When electrons can move easily from

one atom to another in a material, it is a
conductor.
In general all the metals are good
conductors, with silver the best and
copper at second.
Insulators

A material with atoms in which the electrons

tend to stay in their own orbits is an insulator
and it cannot conduct electricity easily.
However, the insulators are able to hold or
store electricity better than the conductors.
These are also called dielectric materials.
Semiconductors

Carbon can be considered as

semiconductor, conducting less than the
metal conductors but more than the
insulators.
In the same group are germanium and
silicon which are commonly used for
transistor and other semiconductor
components.
Coulomb: The Unit of Electric
Charge (1)
The mechanical force of attraction and
repulsion between the charges is the
fundamental method by which electricity
makes itself evident.
Any charge is an example of static
electricity because the electrons and
protons are not in motion.
Coulomb: The Unit of Electric
Charge (2)
The charge of many billions of
electrons or protons is necessary for
common applications of electricity.
Therefore, it is convenient to define a
practical unit called coulomb(C) as
equal to charge of 6.25 x 10 18 electrons
or protons stored in a dielectric.
Coulomb: The Unit of Electric
Charge (3)
The analysis of static charges and their
forces is called electrostatics.
The symbol of electric charge is Q or q,
standing for quantity.
This unit is named after Charles A.
Coulomb, a French physicist, who
measured force between the charges.
Negative and Positive Polarities (1)

Historically, the negative polarity refers

to as static charge produced on rubber,
amber, silk and resinous material in
general. Positive polarity refers to the
static charge produced on glass and
other various materials.
Negative and Positive Polarities (2)

On the basis of this, the electrons in all

atoms are basic particles of negative
charge because their polarity is same
as the charge on rubber. Protons have
positive charge because the polarity is
same as the charge on glass.
Charges of the Same Polarity Repel
Exercises

(1) What will be the atomic number of

an atom having 29 electrons?
(2) Charge of 1 coulomb and charge of -
2 coulomb will attract or repel?
(3) What will be the electronic
distribution of an atom of atomic number
23?