SUMMARY NOTES ON Sanitary engineering

(cve 453)
WATER QUALITY
Water is the world’s most precious resource. However, it is not free from of certain impurities
that can severely affect clean consumption. Pure water is tasteless, colourless and odourless,
but water from rainfall, streams and wells contain chemicals and elements, including acid and
metallic rust elements.

Water quality is an essential dimension to provide safe water for drinking and other domestic
uses, as well as for irrigation. No international standards currently exist for water quality, as
WHO explains that water quality standards should be developed according to local, cultural,
environmental and socioeconomic conditions.
The Federal Ministry of Water Resources together with State Ministries of water resources and
the State Water Agencies are responsible for policy setting and water quality. They have set
standards for acceptable levels of many aquatic contaminants in drinking water. They have set
targets or guidelines for some water quality characteristics directed at aquatic ecosystem
health, fisheries concerns, and safety for human recreation. Water quality is highly variable
over time due to both natural and human factors and varies with season, flow (runoff), and
human management.

Basic Water Facts

• Water is the main compound found in living organisms. Approximately 62 % of the

human body is water.
• In its liquid form, water is transparent and nearly colourless.
• Pure water is flavorless and odourless.
• About 71 % of the Earth's surface is covered by water.
• Water is the third most abundant molecule in the universe, after hydrogen gas (H 2) and
carbon monoxide (CO).
• The chemical bonds between hydrogen and oxygen atoms in a water
molecule are polar covalent bonds. Water readily forms hydrogen bonds with other
water molecules. One water molecule may participate in a maximum of four hydrogen
bonds with other species.
• Water has an extraordinarily high specific heat capacity and also a high heat of
vaporization. Both of these properties are a result of hydrogen bonding between
neighboring water molecules.
• Water is nearly transparent to visible light and the regions of the ultraviolet and infrared
spectrum near the visible range. The molecule absorbs infrared light, ultraviolet light,
and microwave radiation.
• Water is an excellent solvent because of its polarity and high dielectric constant. Polar
and ionic substances dissolve well in water, including acids, alcohols, and many salts.
 • Water displays capillary action because of its strong adhesive and cohesive forces.
• Hydrogen bonding between water molecules also gives it high surface tension. This is
the reason why small animals and insects can walk on water.
• Pure water is an electrical insulator. However, even deionized water contains ions
because water undergoes auto-ionization. Most water contains trace amounts of solute.
Often the solute is salt, which dissociates into ions and increases the conductivity of
water.
• The density of water is about 1 gram per cubic centimeter. Regular ice is less dense
than water and floats on it. Very few other substances exhibit this behavior. Paraffin and
silica are other examples of substances that form lighter solids than liquids.
• The molar mass of water is 18.01528 g/mol.
• The melting point of water is 0.00 °C (32.00 °F; 273.15 K). Note the melting and
freezing points of water may be different from each other. Water readily undergoes
supercooling. It can remain in liquid state well below its melting point.
• The boiling point of water is 99.98 °C (211.96 °F; 373.13 K).
• Water is amphoteric. In other words, it can act as both and acid and as a base.
• Pure water has a neutral pH. Pure water has a pH, of about 7, which is neither acidic
nor basic.

Since water's chemical description is H2O, a water molecule consists of one atom of oxygen
bound to two atoms of hydrogen. The hydrogen atoms are "attached" to one side of the
oxygen atom, resulting in a water molecule having a positive charge on the side where the
hydrogen atoms are and a negative charge on the other side, where the oxygen atom is. Since
opposite electrical charges attract, water molecules tend to attract each other, making water
kind of "sticky." The side with the hydrogen atoms (positive charge) attracts the oxygen side
(negative charge) of a different water molecule.

Water is called the "universal solvent" because it dissolves more substances than any other
liquid. This means that wherever water goes, either through the ground or through our bodies,
it takes along valuable chemicals, minerals, and nutrients.

Impurities in Water
There are various classes of impurities in water as specified below:

PHYSICAL IMPURITIES

Physical impurities in water are those impurities that affect the physical composition of water,
such as, dissolved and suspended solids. Some soluble minerals impart a color to the solution.
Suspended solids are substances that are not completely soluble in water and are present as
particles. These particles usually impart a visible turbidity to the water. Dissolved and
suspended solids are present in most surface waters. Seawater is very high in soluble sodium
chloride; suspended sand and silt make it slightly cloudy.
CHEMICAL IMPURITIES

Chemical impurities in water are impurities that affect the chemical composition of water.
SOURCES OF CHEMICAL IMPURITIES IN WATER INCLUDE:

• Gases that are picked up from the atmosphere by rainwater and torrential downpours
• Decomposing animals and plants found near streams, rivers and lakes
• Industrial sewage and wastewater
• High levels of calcium, iron, magnesium, sodium, and chlorides in river water
• Organic compounds stemming from agricultural and domestic industrial waste. These
are known as anthropogenic contaminants, which are found in natural and drinking
water.
• Inorganic compounds stemming from medical wastewater and equipment systems

BIOLOGICAL IMPURITIES

Biological impurities in water are impurities that affect the biological composition of water and
cause the presence of living organisms. These include algae, protozoa, pathogens, bacteria,
viruses, microbes, and parasites. Contaminated water is also one of the main causes of
gastroenteritis for people of all ages.

WATER TREATMENT AND DISTRIBUTION

A water distribution system is a system of engineered hydrologic and hydraulic components
which provide water supply. Water supply networks are often run by public utilities of the water
industry. Such system typically includes:

1. A drainage basin
2. A raw water collection point (above or below ground) where the water accumulates,
such as a lake, a river, or groundwater from an underground aquifer. Raw water may be
transferred using uncovered ground-level aqueducts, covered tunnels or
underground water pipes to water purification facilities.
3. Water purification facilities. Treated water is transferred using water pipes (usually
underground).
4. Water storage facilities such as reservoirs, water tanks, or water towers. Smaller water
systems may store the water in cisterns or pressure vessels. Tall buildings may also
need to store water locally in pressure vessels in order for the water to reach the upper
floors.
5. Additional water pressurizing components such as pumping stations may need to be
situated at the outlet of underground or above ground reservoirs or cisterns (if gravity
flow is impractical).
6. A pipe network for distribution of water to the consumers (which may be private houses
or industrial, commercial or institution establishments) and other usage points (such
as fire hydrants).
7. Connections to the sewers (underground pipes, or aboveground ditches in some
developing countries) are generally found downstream of the water consumers, but the
sewer system is considered to be a separate system, rather than part of the water
supply system.
PRELIMINARY WATER TREATMENT

For domestic water supply, several steps in the treatment process include:
➢ Collection
➢ Screening and Straining
➢ Coagulation and Flocculation
➢ Sedimentation and Clarification
➢ Filtration
➢ Disinfection
➢ Storage
➢ Distribution.

1. Collection

The source water for a municipal surface water treatment plant is typically a local river, lake, or
reservoir. Quite often, a series of pumps and pipelines transport the water to the treatment
plant. At the water plant, large pumps are used to transfer the water up to the treatment facility.
Treatment facilities are often engineered to utilize gravity water flow as much as possible to
reduce pumping costs. Many water treatment plants utilize water from more than one source.
Blending groundwater with surface water is a method often used to improve the quality of the
final product.

2. Screening and Straining

Most waters contain varying amounts of suspended and dissolved materials which influence
turbidity, colour, taste, odour, microorganisms, fish, plants, trees, trash, etc. The material may
be organic or inorganic, suspended or dissolved, inert or biologically active, and vary in size
from colloidal to a tree trunk. Some of these larger items can impede equipment in the
treatment process, such as a tree limb getting stuck in a water pump impeller. So the first
process in conventional water treatment is to screen or strain out the larger items. This is often
accomplished using a large metal screen, often called a barscreen, which is placed in front of
the water source intake. Large items are trapped on the screen as the water passes through it.
These screens must routinely be raked or cleaned off.

3. Coagulation and Flocculation

Once the pre-screened source water is received into the treatment plant, chemicals are added
to help make the suspended particles that are floating in the water clump together to form a
heavier and larger gelatinous particle, often called floc. The process of adding a chemical to
cause the suspended material to “clump” into larger particles is called coagulation, while the
formation of flocs is called flocculation. Coagulation-flocculation is applied prior
to sedimentation and filtration (e.g. rapid sand filtration) to enhance the ability of
a treatment process to remove particles. The purpose of coagulation is to destabilise the
particles and enable them to become attached to other particles, so that they may be removed
in subsequent processes. In water treatment, coagulation - flocculation involves the addition of
polymers that clump the small, destabilized particles together into larger aggregates so that
they can be more easily separated from the water. A rapid mix unit is usually used where the
coagulant is added to the water to provide a very quick and thorough mixing. There are many
different chemicals that are used in this process, which are called coagulants. One of the most
common that has been used for many years is aluminum sulfate, or alum. Some other very
popular coagulants are ferrous sulfate, ferric chloride, sodium aluminate, activated silica, and
compounds called polymers. These polymers are classified as cationic polymers (positively
charged), anionic polymers (negatively charged), and nonionic polymers (neutrally charged).

4. Sedimentation and Clarification

Once the flocculation process is complete, the water then passes over the weir in the
flocculator and travels to the center of the clarifier, or sedimentation basin. Here, the water
makes its way from the center of the clarifier to the saw tooth weir at the perimeter of the unit.
As the water makes its way towards the weir, the large floc particles are allowed to settle out to
the bottom of the clarifier. A rake continuously travels across the bottom of the clarifier and
scrapes the settled floc to the center of the unit. Pumps are used to pull the settled “sludge” out
of the clarifier and send it to a sedimentation / disposal pond.

Sedimentation is the process of allowing particles in suspension in water to settle out of the
suspension under the effect of gravity. The process of particles settling to the bottom of a body
of water is called sedimentation. The particles that settle out from the suspension
become sediment, and in water treatment is known as sludge. Sedimentation is a
physical water treatment process using gravity to remove suspended solids from water. The
water that passes over the weir is collected and transferred to the filters. The reason
clarification occurs before filtration is so the majority of suspended material can be removed
prior to filtration, which avoids overloading the filters and thus allowing much more water to be
filtered before the filters must be backwashed.

5. Filtration

Filtration is the process of separating suspended solid matter from a liquid, by causing the
liquid to pass through the pores of some substance, called a filter. The liquid which has passed
through the filter is called the filtrate. Water flows through a filter designed to remove particles
in the water.
Filtration collects the suspended impurities in water and enhances the effectiveness of
disinfection. The filters are routinely cleaned by backwashing. Water filters use two different
techniques to remove dirt. Physical filtration means straining water to remove larger impurities
and chemical filtration, which involves passing water through an active material that removes
impurities chemically as they pass through. Clarified water enters the filters from the top.
Gravity pulls the water down through the filters where it is collected in a drain system at the
bottom of the unit.
There are many different types of materials (media) used in filters. The most common being
sand and gravel.

6. Disinfection

Once the water has gone through the filtration process, it is clear and clean but may still
contain bacteria and viruses. To ensure that the bacteria and viruses are destroyed, there
must be a disinfection process employed. Water disinfection means the removal, deactivation
or killing of pathogenic microorganisms. Sterilization is a process related to disinfection.

Chlorine is very effective against bacteria, viruses and fungi that contaminate water. The most
common disinfection process is chlorination. Chorine is used as a oxidizing agent as well as a
disinfection solution. Chlorine comes in many different forms including chlorine gas (most
common), chlorine dioxide, hypochlorite (bleach), and others. Whichever method is used,
chlorine is added to the water in an amount to ensure all microorganisms are destroyed. Water
plants monitor the chlorine levels continuously and very carefully in the treated water. They
must add enough chlorine to ensure thorough disinfection of the water, but avoid adding
excesses that can cause taste and odor problems when delivered to the consumer.

CHLORINATION

When chlorine is added in water it reacts with organic and inorganic impurities. The amount of
chlorine utilized for this is known as chlorine demand. The remaining chlorine will appear as
available residual chlorine, which serves as disinfectant to kill the pathogens.

(a) Pre Chlorination • Chlorine is applied before treatment especially before filtration. •
Sometimes added before sedimentation.
Advantages
i. Reduces bacterial load on filtration
ii. Reduces coagulant required. Iii
iii. Controls growth of algae
iv. Eliminates tastes and odour.

(b) Post Chlorination: Addition of chlorine after treatment i.e. after filtration. • Added
before water enters into distribution system.

(c) Double Chlorination: Application of chlorine at two or more points in purification

process.
i. Before sedimentation tank
ii. After filtration • This is done if water is more contaminated.
(d) Super chlorination: Chlorine is applied beyond break point. • It is done after filtration
with contact time of 30 to 60 mins. • It is practiced when there is an epidemic in the society.

(e) De Chlorination • Process of removing excess chlorine from water is known as De-
Chlorination. It can be achieved by aeration or using chemicals such as sodium
thiosulphate , sodium bi sulphate, sodium sulphite, Activated carbon, potassium
permanganate.
Other forms of disinfection
➢ Boiling
➢ High pH Treatment (Excess Lime) • Lime can destroy bacteria at high pH values.
➢ Silver Treatment • Silver when immersed in water has inhibiting effect on bacterial life.
➢ Ultraviolet (UV) radiation.
➢ Ozonation: infusion of ozone into water.
➢ Potassium Permanganate • Commonly used in rural areas. • Used for purification of
open well water supplies. • KMnO4 is dissolved in bucket and added in well water.
Water should not be used during first 48 hours after KMnO4 addition
Once the disinfection process is complete, the water is stored.

7. Storage and Distribution

Storage usually takes place in an underground storage tank called a “clear well”, and also in
elevated storage tanks that are visible around town. There must always be an ample supply of
water available in the event of emergencies. These can include power outages, fires, floods,
etc. The stored water is pushed through underground pipelines all over town in what is called a
“distribution system”. The distribution system consists of large water pumps at the treatment
plant, overhead water storage tanks, large pipelines, smaller pipelines, fire hydrants, valves,
and water meters.

Note: Not all of the treatment processes listed above are used but gives a general description
of processes typically used in the treatment of municipal water. Treatment process for
wastewater involves the use of conventional treatment practices such as aerated lagoons,
trickling filters, activated sludge processes, stabilization ponds and rotating biological
contractors. Different wastewater treatment processes such as chemical oxidation,
coagulation/flocculation, chemical precipitation, dissolved air flotation, ion exchange,
electrochemical treatment, air stripping, filtration and reverse osmosis, are marred with so
many disadvantages which include, high investments, consumption of chemicals and energy,
as well as sludge disposal costs.
 DISTRIBUTION NETWORK

Advantages of dead end system

➢ Relatively cheap
➢ Determination of discharges and pressure easier due to less number of valves.
Disadvantage
➢ Due to many dead ends, stagnation of water occurs in pipes.
Advantages
➢ Water is kept in good circulation due to absence of dead loads.
➢ In case of a breakdown in some section, water is available from some other direction.
Disadvantages
➢ Calculation of exact sizes of pipes is not possible due to provision of valves on all
branches.
WATER DISTRIBUTION METHODS
WASTEWATER

Wastewater is defined as any water that has been negatively affected in quality by humans.
Wastewater is comprised of liquid and solid waste that is discharged from domestic
residences, commercial properties, industrial plants, and agriculture facilities or land.
Wastewater contains a wide range of contaminants at various concentrations.
BASIC CHARACTERISTICS OF WASTEWATER

The three main characteristics of wastewater are classified below.

Physical Characteristics of Wastewater
➢ Color: Fresh sewage is normally brown and yellowish in color but over time becomes
black in color.
➢ Odor: Wastewater that includes sewage typically develops a strong odor.
➢ Turbidity: Due to suspended solids in wastewater, wastewater will have a higher
turbidity, or cloudiness.
➢ Total solids: Total Suspended Solids, Total Dissolved Solid
Chemical Characteristics of Wastewater

➢ Temperature - Due to more biological activity, wastewater will have a higher

temperature.
➢ Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD) - COD is a measure of organic materials in
wastewater in terms of the oxygen required to oxidize the organic materials.
➢ Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD) - BOD is the amount of oxygen needed to stabilize
organic matter using microorganisms.
➢ Total Organic Carbon (TOC) - TOC is a measure of carbon within organic materials.
➢ Nitrogen - Organic nitrogen is the amount of nitrogen present in organic compounds.
➢ Phosphorous - Organic phosphorous (in protein) and inorganic phosphorous
(phosphates, PO4- )
➢ Chlorides (Cl-)
➢ Sulfates (SO4-2)
➢ ·Heavy metals: Mercury (Hg), Arsenic (As), Lead (Pb), Zinc (Zn), Cadmium (Cd),
Copper (Cu), Nickel (Ni), Chromium (Cr), Silver (Ag).
➢ Oil and Grease - Oil and grease originate from food waste and petroleum products. The
amount of oil and grease in raw wastewater varies from 10 to 109 mg/L.
Biological Characteristics of Wastewater
➢ Nitrogenous Oxygen Demand (NOD) - NOD is the amount of oxygen needed to convert
organic and ammonia nitrogen into nitrates by nitrifying bacteria.
➢ Microbial life in wastewater - Wastewater contains the following microbes: Bacteria,
Viruses, Fungi, Algae, Protozoa, Rotifers, Nematodes.
WASTEWATER ANALYSIS
Physical Analysis
➢ Colour
Colour is an indication of the amount of dissolved and suspended materials present in water
and measured in terms of Pt-Co (Platinum-Cobalt).
Apparent colour of a sample is actually the colour the eye sees which is measured without
removing the colloidal or suspended sources of turbidity, while

True colour depicts measurements made after particulate matter has been removed by
filtration.
Colour is caused by substances in solution, known as true colour, and by substances in
suspension, mostly organics causing apparent or organic colour. Colour determination test
must be done as soon as possible, because biological or physical changes occurring during
storage may affect the colour.
➢ Turbidity
Turbidity is a basic test of water quality which measures the light transmitting properties of
water, with respect to colloidal and residual suspended solids. Wastewater contain suspended
solid matter of different particle sizes which are large enough to settle, while some are colloidal
(very small particles), that may not settle at all and cause the liquid to appear turbid.
The amount of light reaching lower depths in rivers and lakes become reduced due to high
turbidity levels in water and this may hinder growth of aquatic plants and so affect species
(such as fish and shellfish), which are dependent on them.
Turbidity can be measured using Formazin Turbidity Unit known as Formazin Nephelometric
Units (FNU) or by using Nephelometric Turbidty Unit known as (NTU). These nephelometers
are relatively unaffected by small changes in design parameters and are therefore specified as
the standard instrument for measurement of low turbidities.
Effects of high turbidity in water

• High turbidity levels also affect the rate of dissolved oxygen absorption by fish gills.
• High turbidity rates in drinking water results in gastrointestinal diseases.
➢ Conductivity

Conductivity is a measure of water's ability to conduct an electrical current. Conductivity is

determined by the water temperature and concentration of dissolved salts or other substances
that can carry an electrical charge. While there is no water quality standard for conductivity, it
can be a useful diagnostic tool for interpreting other water quality information. It is measured
with a meter and reported using units called micromhos/centimeter (mhos/cm). Conductivity
meters are factory calibrated, but should be periodically tested for accuracy in a standard salt
solution.
 ➢ Total Solids
Solids are categorized into several groups based on particle size and characterization such
as:

• Total Suspended Solids (TSS)

• Total Dissolved Solids (TDS)
• Volatile Suspended Solids (VSS)
• Total Solids (TS).
Total solids may be determined by driving off the water fraction, and suspended solids may be
determined by filtering out the solid fraction on a porous pad (filter paper) and drying.
Settleable solids may be determined by permitting a sample to settle. The categories used
most often in the wastewater treatment field are suspended solids and dissolved solids.
Higher concentrations cause physiological effects and make drinking water less palatable. TS
are the total of all solids (all of the solid constituents) in a water sample. They include total of
the organic and inorganic solids, the total suspended solids, total dissolved solids, and volatile
suspended solids.
TSS is the amount of filterable solids in a water sample. TSS are solids in water trapped by a
filter and includes materials, such as silt, decaying plant and animal matter, industrial wastes,
and sewage. The TSS gives a measure of the turbidity of the water giving rise to a muddy
appearance as a result of the light scattering from very small particles in the water. It however
increases surface water temperature.
Effects of high TSS in water

• Indicates presence of bacteria, nutrients, pesticides, and metals in the water.

• It also reduces light from reaching submerged vegetation
• Reduces photosynthesis and dissolved oxygen released into the water by plants.
• Clogs pipes and machinery in industries.

TDS are those solids that pass through a filter with a pore size of 0.45-2.0 micrometre. They
are said to be non-filterable. Dissolved solids are smaller in size than suspended and colloidal
solids. Most wastewater are analysed for TDS, which represents the amount of material such
as carbonate, bicarbonate, chloride, sulfate, phosphate, nitrate, calcium, magnesium, sodium,
organic ions, etc., dissolved in water, and are usually smaller than TSS.
Even though certain levels of these ions in water is necessary for aquatic life, changes in TDS
concentrations can be harmful because the flow of water within an organism's cells is
determined by the density of the water.
Effects of high TDS in water

• The growth of many aquatic lives can be limited resulting in death if TDS concentrations
are too high or too low.
• High concentrations of TDS reduce water clarity and photosynthesis processes.
 • Combines with toxic compounds and heavy metals resulting in increased water
temperature.
• Dissolved solids, such as calcium, bicarbonates, magnesium, sodium, sulfates, and
chlorides, cause scaling in plumbing above 200 mg/L.
The TDS can be reduced by distillation, reverse osmosis, electrodialysis, evaporation, ion
exchange, and, in some cases, chemical precipitation. Water with more than 1000 mg/L of
dissolved solids is classified as ‘‘saline,’’ irrespective of the nature of the minerals present.
Volatile solids are those solids lost on ignition (heating to 550 degrees C.) They are useful to
the treatment plant operator because they give a rough approximation of the amount of organic
matter present in the solid fraction of wastewater, activated sludge and industrial wastes.

CHEMICAL ANALYSIS
➢ Hydrogen Ion Concentration (pH), Acidity and Alkalinity
Hydrogen Ion Concentration (pH) is the composition of hydrogen ions in a solution which
represents the acidity, neutrality and alkalinity of a solution at a given temperature. In water,
the hydrogen and hydroxide ions are equal, and the solution is neither acidic nor basic but
neutral. Therefore, it is an important water quality measurement parameter for both wastewater
and natural waters and also determines the rate of removal of pollutants from wastewater.
The pH functions as the final end point to determine acidity or alkalinity. pH values from 0 to 7
are diminishing acidic, 7 to 14 increasingly alkaline and 7 is neutral. Measurement of pH is
one of the most important and frequently used tests, as every phase of water and wastewater
treatment and water quality management is pH dependent.
The pH of natural water usually lies in the range of 4 to 9 and mostly it is slightly basic because
of the presence of bicarbonates and carbonates of alkali and alkaline earth metals. pH value is
governed largely by the carbon dioxide/ bicarbonate/ carbonate equilibrium. It may be affected
by humic substances, by changes in the carbonate equilibriums due to the bioactivity of plants
and in some cases by hydrolysable salts. The effect of pH on the chemical and biological
properties of liquid makes its determination very important. It is used in several calculations in
analytical work and its adjustment to an appropriate value is absolutely necessary in many of
analytical procedures.
Acidity is a measure of an aggregate property of water and can be interpreted in terms of
specific substances only when the chemical composition of the sample is known. Strong
mineral acids, weak acids such as carbonic and acetic, and hydrolyzing salts such as iron or
aluminum sulfates may contribute to the measured acidity according to the method of
determination. Acids contribute to corrosiveness and influence chemical reaction rates,
chemical speciation, and biological processes.
Acidity is able to neutralize heavy metal and ion hydroxide in water and has quantitative
capacity to react with a strong base to a designated pH. The measurement also reflects a
change in the quality of the source of water, and the measured value may vary significantly
with the end-point pH used in the determination.
Alkalinity of water is its acid-neutralizing capacity. It is the sum of all the titratable bases. The
measured value may vary significantly with the end-point pH used. Alkalinity is a measure of
an aggregate property of water and can be interpreted in terms of specific substances only
when the chemical composition of the sample is known.

Alkalinity is significant in many uses and treatments of natural waters and wastewaters.
Because the alkalinity of many surface waters is primarily a function of carbonate, bicarbonate,
and hydroxide content, it is taken as an indication of the concentration of these constituents.
The measured values also may include contributions from borates, phosphates, silicates, or
other bases if these are present. Alkalinity measurements are used in the interpretation and
control of water and wastewater treatment processes.

➢ Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD) and Dissolved Oxygen (DO)

Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD5) is the dissolved oxygen requirement by aerobic micro-
organisms to break down organic material present in a given water sample at 20ºC for 5 days,
expressed in mg/L. All living organisms are dependent upon oxygen in one form or the other to
maintain the metabolic processes that produce energy for growth and reproduction. Aerobic
processes are of great interest, which need free oxygen for wastewater treatment. Dissolved
Oxygen (DO) is also important in precipitation and dissolution of inorganic substances in water.
DO levels in natural waters and wastewaters depend on physical, chemical and biological
activities that occur. Analysis of DO is a key test in water pollution control and wastewater
treatment processes. In other words, BOD is the measurement of how much stress is being
placed on the dissolved oxygen system of a river or waterway. The most common method is
the Azide Modification Method

Importance of DO

• It is necessary to know DO levels to assess quality of raw water and to keep a check on
stream pollution.
• In wastewaters, dissolved oxygen is the factor that determines whether the biological
changes are brought out by aerobic or anaerobic organisms.
• DO test is the basis of BOD test which is an important parameter to evaluate pollution
potential of wastes.
• DO is necessary for all aerobic biological wastewater treatment processes.
Any wastes, such as municipal sewage, abattoir discharge, and some industrial wastes with
high BOD, must be treated to remove or lower the BOD before release into the receiving
water. The five-day Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD5), is a standardized assessment of the
amount of oxidizable, or respirable, organic matter in water.

Example: Calculate the BOD5 of a given wastewater sample, given that 1 mL of the sample
was diluted to a 300 mL BOD bottle and incubated for 5 days at 20°C. The initial and final DO
are 8.2 mg/L and 5.9 mg/L respectively.

Calculation
𝐼𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝐷𝑂−𝐹𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝐷𝑂
BOD5 (mg/L) =
𝑃

where p = volumetric fraction of sample to total BOD bottle

sample volume =1 mL; BOD bottle volume = 300 mL
1
P= = 0.0033
300
8.2−5.9
BOD5 mg/L = = 697 mg/L.
0.0033

➢ Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD)

By definition, Chemical Oxygen Demand is “a measure of the oxygen requirement of organic

matter content of a sample that is susceptible to oxidation by a strong chemical oxidant” and
expressed in mg/L. A COD test can be used to easily quantify the amount of organics in water
and the oxygen demand is measured by the amount of oxidant used in titrimetric or
photometric methods. It is an important, rapidly measured parameter used in the measurement
of organic strength for streams and polluted water bodies. The dichromate reflux method is
preferred over other procedures because of its high oxidizing ability and its applicability to
different samples. It is also economical.
Differences between COD and BOD5 tests

BOD5 and COD are quite similar in function because both measure the amount of
biodegradable organic compounds in water.

• COD also measures both biodegradable and non-biodegradable organic matter.

• COD results can be obtained in 3-4 hours while BOD5 require 3-5 days.
• COD test is relatively easy, precise, and is unaffected by interferences as in the BOD
test.
• COD test does not differentiate between the biologically oxidisable and biologically inert
material like the BOD test.
Example:
In a COD experiment, 2.5 mL of diluted sample was used and volume of FAS used for blank
and sample were 1.55 mL and 1.32 mL respectively. Calculate COD concentration in the
wastewater sample. Given: Molarity of FAS is 0.1 M.

Formula:

(𝐴−𝐵)× 𝑀 × 8000
COD as mg/L =
𝑚𝐿 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒
where A = mL FAS used for blank
B = mL FAS used for sample

M = molarity of FAS = 0.1 M

8000=milli equivalent weight of oxygen x 1000 mL/L
Solution
(1.55−1.32) ×𝑂.1 × 8000
COD as mg/L = = 73.6
2.5
Given that 1 mL of sample was diluted to 100 mL

DF (Dilution Factor) = 100

COD mg/L = 73.6 x DF
COD mg/L = 73.6 x 100
COD = 7360 mg/L
 ➢ Total Nitrogen (TN) and Ammonia (NH3)
Total Nitrogen is very essential for plants and animals when in the standard proportion.
However, when in excess, leads to reduced dissolved oxygen which alters plant life and
organisms. Nitrogen sources include, wastewater treatment plants, runoffs from crops and
animal farms, failing septic systems and industrial discharges.
Three forms of nitrogen are frequently measured in water bodies:

• Ammonia
• Nitrates
• Nitrites
Total Nitrogen is defined as the sum of organic nitrogen, nitrate, nitrite, and ammonia.
Ammonia nitrogen signifies the amount of ammonia which is a toxic pollutant found in most
organic wastewaters. When ammonia is in excess, it becomes very dangerous to human body
resulting in poisoning effect and also affects the stability of water structures leading to rivers
and lakes eutrophication.
Total nitrogen can be determined through oxidative digestion of all digestible nitrogen forms to
nitrate. There are two procedures, one using a persulfate/UV digestion and the other using
persulfate digestion. The persulfate method determinates total nitrogen by oxidation of all
nitrogenous compounds to nitrate.
The processes of removal of nitrogen from wastewater include nitrification and denitrification.
Nitrification is a two-step conversion process performed by the autotrophic aerobic bacteria
Nitrosomonas sp. and breaks down ammonia to nitrite while the Nitrobacter sp .oxidizes nitrite
to nitrate.
Denitrrification is the anaerobic process that converts nitrate-nitrogen to Nitrogen gas.

➢ Total Phosphorus (TP)

Phosphorous occurs in natural waters and in wastewater almost solely in the form of various
types of phosphates. These forms are commonly classified into orthophosphates and total
phosphates.
Total Phosphorus refers to the sum of all phosphorus compounds that occur in various forms
(reactive, condensed and organic phosphorous). These may occur in the soluble form, in
particles of detritus or in the bodies of aquatic organisms. The various forms of phosphates
find their way into wastewater, effluents and polluted water from a variety of sources including
water used for laundering or other cleaning purposes, sewage and food residues.
Orthophosphates applied to agricultural or residential cultivated land as fertilizers are carried
into surface waters with storm runoff.

Phosphate in small concentration can be useful in a lot of ways:

 i. Reduces scale formation in water supply
ii. Increases carrying capacity of mains
iii. Prevents corrosion in water mains
iv. Remove iron and manganese in micro quantities
v. In coagulation especially in acid conditions
vi. Biological degradation of wastewaters.
However, excess phosphorus in water leads to a number of effects in both plants, animals and
humans and as such must be analyzed in water to determine its concentration.

Effect of high concentration of phosphorus in water

• It promotes growth of nuisance causing micro-organisms.

• It causes oxygen deficiency leading to eutrophication of the aquatic environment with
deadly consequences on fish and other aquatic organisms.
• When ingested in high quantities, phosphorus causes digestion problems.

Metals
The effects of metals in water range from being beneficial to dangerously toxic. This is
because, some metals are essential to plant and animal growth while others may adversely
affect water consumers, wastewater treatment systems, and receiving waters. The benefits
versus toxicity of some metals depend on their concentrations in water.
Metals may be determined satisfactorily by a variety of methods such as colorimetric methods
as well as instrumental methods, i.e., atomic absorption spectrometry, including flame, electro-
thermal (furnace), hydride, and cold vapor techniques; flame photometry; inductively coupled
plasma emission spectrometry; inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry, and anodic
stripping voltammetry, with the choice often depending on the precision and sensitivity
required. Examples include, Zinc, Cadmium, Chromium, Manganese, Iron, Arsenic, Lead,
Copper, Mercury, Silver and many others.
➢ Chromium
Chromium is mainly found in chrome-iron ore, and used in alloys, in electroplating and in
pigment. Chromium salts are used widely in industrial processes and could enter water supply
through the discharge of wastes. Chromate compounds frequently are added to cooling water
for corrosion control. Chromium may exist in water supplies in both the hexavalent and the
trivalent state although the trivalent form rarely occurs in potable water.
Chromium is considered nonessential for plants, but an essential trace element for animals.
Hexavalent compounds have been shown to be carcinogenic by inhalation and are corrosive to
tissue. The chromium guidelines for natural water are linked to the hardness or alkalinity of the
water (i.e., the softer the water, the lower the permitted level for chromium).
➢ Copper
Copper occurs in its native state, but is also found in many minerals, the most important of
which are those containing sulfide compounds (e.g., chalcopyrite), and also those with oxides
and carbonates. Copper is widely used in electrical wiring, roofing, various alloys, pigments,
cooking utensils, piping, and in the chemical industry. Copper salts are used in water supply
systems to control biological growths in reservoirs and distribution pipes and also to catalyze
the oxidation of manganese.
Copper forms a number of complexes in natural waters with inorganic and organic ligands.
Corrosion of copper-containing alloys in pipe fittings may introduce measurable amounts of
copper into the water in a pipe system. Copper is considered an essential trace element for
plants and animals. Some compounds are toxic by ingestion or inhalation.

➢ Iron
Iron is widely used in steel and other alloys. Elevated iron levels in water can cause stains in
plumbing, laundry and cooking utensils and can impart objectionable taste and colour to foods.
➢ Manganese
Manganese is associated with iron minerals, and occurs in ocean, fresh waters, and soils. The
common ores are pyrolusite (MnO2) and psilomelane. Manganese is used in steel alloys,
batteries, and food additives. The common aqueous species are the reduced Mn 2+ and the
oxidized Mn4+. The aqueous chemistry of manganese is similar to that of iron. Since
groundwater is often anoxic, any soluble manganese in groundwater is usually in the reduced
state (Mn2+).

Groundwater containing manganese usually will precipitate black MnO2 when exposed to air or
other oxidants. Elevated manganese levels therefore can cause stains in plumbing/laundry,
and cooking utensils. It is considered an essential trace element for plants and animals. The
➢ Zinc
Zinc most commonly enters the domestic water supply from deterioration of galvanized iron
and dezincification of brass. In such cases lead and cadmium also may be present because
they are impurities of the zinc used in galvanizing. Zinc in water also may result from industrial
waste pollution.
The solubility of zinc is controlled in natural waters by adsorption on mineral surfaces,
carbonate equilibrium, and organic complexes. Zinc is used in a number of alloys such as
brass and bronze, and in batteries, fungicides, and pigments. Zinc is essential for plants and
animal growth but at higher levels it is toxic to some species of aquatic life.

BIOLOGICAL ANALYSIS
An essential goal for the provision of safe drinking water is that it be essentially free of
disease-causing micro-organisms. The WHO Guidelines for Drinking Water Quality (GDWQ)
and many other authorities continue to support the use of bacterial indicator levels and their
measurement as a basis for judging and verifying drinking water quality. Waterborne
pathogens enter the drinking water systems through faecal contamination, and the list of such
organisms (such as bacteria, viruses, protozoans and parasites) cannot be exhausted.
 ➢ INDICATOR ORGANISMS

Indicator organisms are microorganisms whose presence in water indicates probable presence
of pathogens (disease-causing organisms). Traditionally, the fecal coliform group has been
used as an indicator of bacterial pathogen presence and general wastewater contamination.

The bacterial analysis for water quality includes examinations for total organisms of the
coliform group, which are indicative of fecal contamination or sewage pollution. Such
examinations for fecal coliforms, E. coli, fecal streptococci, and Clostridium perfringens may be
helpful in interpreting the significance of surface water tests for total coliforms and possible risk
to public health.
Coliforms are also found in swimming pool ropes, slimes, stormwater drainage, pump leathers,
surface waters, and many other sources. Common outdoor recreational activities such as
swimming, boating, bathing, camping and hiking, all place humans at risk of waterborne
diseases from ingestion or direct contact with contaminated water.

➢ Coliform bacteria
Coliform bacteria are bacteria that produce a red colony with a metallic (golden) sheen within
24 h incubation at 35°C on an Endo-type medium. The description of this group has been
based on the lactose fermentation method used for detection rather than the principles of
systematic bacteriology. Therefore, when the fermentation technique is used, coliform bacteria
include all aerobic and facultative anaerobic, gram-negative, non-spore-forming, rod-shaped
bacteria that ferment lactose with gas and acid formation within 48 h at 35°C.

➢ Standard method for carrying out tests for coliform group

• Multiple Tube Fermentation Technique

• Membrane Filtration (MF) Technique
• Agar Plate Count (Spread Plate Method)

The membrane filter method gives a direct count of total coliforms and faecal coliforms present
in a given sample of water. A measured volume of water is filtered, under vacuum, through a
cellulose acetate membrane of uniform pore diameter, usually 47 mm. Bacteria are retained on
the surface of the membrane which is placed on a suitable selective medium in a sterile
container and incubated at an appropriate temperature. If coliforms are present in the water
sample, characteristic colonies are formed that can be counted directly.
The membrane filter (MF) technique is highly reproducible, and can be used to test relatively
large sample volumes. It usually yields numerical results more rapidly than the multiple-tube
fermentation procedure. The MF technique is extremely useful in monitoring drinking water and
a variety of natural waters. However, the MF technique has some limitations, mostly when
testing high turbidity waters or large numbers of non-coliform bacteria.
Agar Plate Count is the standard plate count that estimates the number of live heterotrophic
bacteria in water and measures changes that occur during water treatment and distribution.
Colonies may possibly arise from single cells, pairs, chains, clusters, all of which are termed
“colony-forming units” (CFU). It is important to choose the procedure and medium that
produces the greatest number of colonies within the designated incubation time because, the
final count depends on the interaction among the colonies developed.

➢ Microorganisms:

Microorganisms or microbes are microscopic organisms that exist as unicellular, multicellular,

or cell clusters. Microorganisms in wastewaters are very injurious to the human body, plants,
animals and the environment. However, these organisms also play major roles in ammonia
oxidation, nitrogen and phosphorous removal as well degradation of pollutants in wastewater.

They can be divided into six major types: bacteria, archaea, fungi, protozoa, algae, viruses and
multicellular animal parasites (helminths ). Each type has a characteristic cellular composition,
morphology, mean of locomotion, and reproduction.

Water-borne Diseases

Waterborne diseases are caused by drinking contaminated or dirty water. Contaminated water
can cause many types of diarrheal diseases, including Cholera, and other serious illnesses
such as Guinea worm disease, Typhoid, and Dysentery. Symptoms such as diarrhoea,
vomiting, nausea, or fever may appear in vulnerable persons within a few minutes or longer

Examples of water borne diseases

1. Cholera is a diarrheal caused by a bacterial infection of the small intestine

2. Cryptosporidium enteritis is a parasitic infection of the small intestine, most common in

people with comprised immune systems, such as young children and people living with
HIV/AIDS.

3. Cyclosporiasis is an intestinal parasitic disease caused by drinking contaminated water.

4. Diarrhoea is defined as the passage of three or more loose or liquid stools per day (or more
frequent passage than is normal for the individual). It is usually a symptom of an infection in
the intestinal tract, which can be caused by a variety of bacterial, viral and parasitic organisms.
Infection is spread through contaminated food or drinking-water, or from person-to-person as a
result of poor hygiene. Most people who die from diarrhoea actually die from severe
dehydration and fluid loss.

5. Dysentery: Amoebic and bacillary dysentery are both infections of the intestine that cause
diarrhea. Amoebic dysentery is caused by amoebas found in contaminated food or drink, while
bacillary dysentery is caused by bacteria found in contaminated food or drink.

6. Gastroenteritis is an inflammation of the intestinal lining caused by a virus, bacteria, or

parasites. This disease is spread through contaminated food or water.

7. Giardiasis is a parasitic diarrheal illness caused by drinking contaminated water.

8. Guinea worm is a disease caused by a parasite found in unsafe drinking water that enters a
person’s body.
9. Hepatitis E is a virus caused by drinking contaminated water.

10. Typhoid fever is a bacterial infection that is most commonly spread through contaminated
water.

WASTEWATER TREATMENT

Wastewater is any water that has been affected by human use. Wastewater is "used water
from any combination of domestic, industrial, commercial or agricultural activities, surface
runoff or stormwater, and any sewer inflow or sewer infiltration". The characteristics of
wastewater vary depending on the source.

Influent is water that "flows in". This is the raw, untreated wastewater. Effluent means to "flow
out". This is the treated wastewater.

Preliminary treatment

Preliminary treatment seeks to remove grit, rags and solids that float which may harm the
operation of the rest of the plant. Bar racks or mechanical screens remove paper, rags and
other large solids. Sand and grit are removed by gravity settling in a grit chamber. it consists
of removal of floating material (like dead animals, tree branches, papers, plastics, wood
pieces, vegetables peels etc) and also the heavy settleable inorganic solids (grit etc).
Preliminary treatment of wastewater includes basic physical operations such as screening,
comminution, grit removal, and sedimentation. Screens are made of long, closely spaced,
narrow metal bars. They block floating debris such as wood, rags, and other bulky objects that
could clog pipes or pumps. In modern plants the screens are cleaned mechanically, and the
material is promptly disposed of by burial on the plant grounds. A comminutor may be used to
grind and shred debris that passes through the screens. The shredded material is removed
later by sedimentation or flotation processes.

Wastewater treatment comprises involves primary and preliminary unit operations such as
screening, filtration, ion exchange, coagulation and adsorption where no chemical changes
occur. Secondary processes in most cases are conventional treatment practices, involving the
use of biological processes such as: aerated lagoons, trickling filters, activated sludge
processes and rotating biological contactors are usually the main problems mostly
encountered in wastewater treatment due to complex approaches. Tertiary processes involve
mainly the use of chemicals for disinfection purposes especially where treated water is to be
used for domestic purposes and drinking.

Preliminary/primary treatment seeks to remove grit, rags and solids that float which may
harm the operation of the rest of the plant. Bar racks or mechanical screens remove paper,
rags and other large solids. Sand and grit are removed by gravity settling in a grit chamber. It
consists of removal of floating material (like dead animals, tree branches, papers, plastics,
wood pieces, vegetables peels etc) and also the heavy settleable inorganic solids (grit etc).
Preliminary treatment of wastewater includes:

Primary treatment removes material that will either float or readily settle out by gravity. It
includes the physical processes of screening, grit removal, and sedimentation. Screens are
made of long, closely spaced, narrow metal bars. They block floating debris such as wood,
rags, and other bulky objects that could clog pipes or pumps. In modern plants the screens are
cleaned mechanically, and the material is promptly disposed of by burial on the plant grounds.
A comminutor may be used to grind and shred debris that passes through the screens. The
shredded material is removed later by sedimentation or flotation processes.

Screening

Screening is the removal of large size floating matters by a series of closely spaced bars
placed across the flow inclined at 30 o – 60o. These floating materials, if not removed, will
choke the pipes or adversely affect the working of the sewage pumps.
Screens should preferably be placed before the grit chambers, however, if the quality of grit is
not important, as in the case of land sliding. Screens may be placed after the grit chamber or
something within the body of the grit chamber.
The screens may be cleaned manually or mechanically, the waste accumulated is removed
periodically which can be disposed of by burial, disintegration or used as fertilizers.

Grit Removal
Grit chambers are long narrow tanks that are designed to slow down the flow so that
solids such as sand, coffee grounds, and eggshells will settle out of the water. Grits are
heavy inorganic solids such as sand, metal fragments, egg shells of specific gravity
ranging from 2 -2.65. They cause excessive wear during different treatment stages and
therefore must be removed. A grit chamber may be horizontal flow or vertical flow and
is manually or mechanically cleaned. Grit of a properly designed and operated chamber
is free from organic matters which may be used as land fill. If grit contains organics in
high proportion, it is disposed of by burial or used as manure.

Grit causes excessive wear and tear on pumps and other plant equipment. Its removal
is particularly important in cities with combined sewer systems, which carry a good
deal of silt, sand, and gravel that wash off streets or land during a storm.

Suspended solids that pass through screens and grit chambers are removed from the
sewage in sedimentation tanks. These tanks, also called primary clarifiers, provide
about two hours of detention time for gravity settling to take place. As the sewage flows
through them slowly, the solids gradually sink to the bottom. The settled solids known
as raw or primary sludge are moved along the tank bottom by mechanical scrapers.
Sludge is collected in a hopper, where it is pumped out for removal. Mechanical
surface-skimming devices remove grease and other floating materials.

Skimming Tank
It is used to separate grease and oil and other floating matters which may adversely
affect the efficiency of the treatment facilities. Grease may tend to trap trickling filter
and coat the biological flock in the activated sludge process. The floating matters may
be collected by continuous mechanical process or by hand manually. They have baffled
entrance and outlet.

Mixed sludge received from secondary wastewater treatment is passed through a

dissolved-air flotation tank, where solids rise to the surface and are skimmed off. The
thickened sludge is pulped with steam, and then passed to thermal hydrolysis, where
large molecules such as proteins and lipids are broken down under heat and pressure.
The hydrolyzed sludge is passed through a flash tank, where a sudden drop in pressure
causes cells to burst, and then to anaerobic digestion, where bacteria convert dissolved
organic matter to biogas (which can be used to fuel the treatment process). Digested
sludge is passed through a dewatering step; the dried solids are disposed of, and the
water is sent back to secondary treatment.

Secondary treatment

Secondary treatment removes the soluble organic matter that escapes primary
treatment. It also removes more of the suspended solids. Removal is usually
accomplished by biological processes in which microbes consume the organic
impurities as food, converting them into carbon dioxide, water, and energy for their own
growth and reproduction. The sewage treatment plant provides a
suitable environment, albeit of steel and concrete, for this natural biological process.
Removal of soluble organic matter at the treatment plant helps to protect the dissolved
oxygen balance of a receiving stream, river, or lake.

Tertiary Treatment

Primary treatment removes about 60 percent of total suspended solids and about 35
percent of BOD; dissolved impurities are not removed. It is usually used as a first step
before secondary treatment. Secondary treatment removes more than 85 percent of
both suspended solids and BOD. A minimum level of secondary treatment is usually
required in developed countries. Tertiary processes can remove more than 99 percent
of all the impurities from sewage, producing an effluent of almost drinking-water
quality. Tertiary treatment can be very expensive, often doubling the cost of secondary
treatment. It is used only under special circumstances.

For all levels of wastewater treatment, the last step prior to discharge of the sewage
effluent into a body of surface water is disinfection, which destroys any remaining
pathogens in the effluent and protects public health. Disinfection is usually
accomplished by mixing the effluent with chlorine gas or with liquid solutions of
hypochlorite chemicals in a contact tank for at least 15 minutes. Because chlorine
residuals in the effluent may have adverse effects on aquatic life, an additional chemical
may be added to dechlorinate the effluent. Ultraviolet radiation, which can disinfect
without leaving any residual in the effluent, is becoming more competitive with chlorine
as a wastewater disinfectant.

Effluent limitations guidelines and standards are established by EPA for different non-
municipal (i.e., industrial) categories. These guidelines are developed based on the
degree of pollutant reduction attainable by an industrial category through the
application of pollutant control technologies.

Types of Biological Treatment

Biological treatment processes have favoured wastewater treatment due to its cost
effectiveness, nevertheless, treatment of high strength effluent would require also physical–
chemical processes. The integrated process ameliorates the drawbacks of individual
processes, thus contributes to a higher efficacy of the overall treatment.

There are three basic biological treatment methods: the trickling filter, the activated sludge
process, and the oxidation pond. A fourth, less common method is the rotating biological
contractor.
 TRICKLING FILTER

A trickling filter is simply a tank filled with a deep bed of stones. Settled sewage is sprayed
continuously over the top of the stones and trickles to the bottom, where it is collected for
further treatment. As the wastewater trickles down, bacteria gather and multiply on the stones.
The steady flow of sewage over these growths allows the microbes to absorb the dissolved
organics, thus lowering the biochemical oxygen demand (BOD) of the sewage. Air circulating
upward through the spaces among the stones provides sufficient oxygen for the metabolic
processes.

Settling tanks, called secondary clarifiers, follow the trickling filters. These clarifiers remove
microbes that are washed off the rocks by the flow of wastewater. Two or more trickling filters
may be connected in series, and sewage can be recirculated in order to increase
treatment efficiencies.

➢ Activated Sludge

The activated sludge treatment system consists of an aeration tank followed by a secondary
clarifier. Settled sewage, mixed with fresh sludge that is recirculated from the secondary
clarifier, is introduced into the aeration tank. Compressed air is then injected into the mixture
through porous diffusers located at the bottom of the tank. As it bubbles to the surface, the
diffused air provides oxygen and a rapid mixing action. Air can also be added by the churning
action of mechanical propeller-like mixers located at the tank surface.

Under such oxygenated conditions, microorganisms thrive, forming an active, healthy

suspension of biological solids—mostly bacteria—called activated sludge. About six hours of
detention is provided in the aeration tank. This gives the microbes enough time to absorb
dissolved organics from the sewage, reducing the BOD.

The mixture then flows from the aeration tank into the secondary clarifier, where activated
sludge settles out by gravity. Clear water is skimmed from the surface of the clarifier,
disinfected, and discharged as secondary effluent.

The sludge is pumped out from a hopper at the bottom of the tank. About 30 percent of the
sludge is recirculated back into the aeration tank, where it is mixed with the primary effluent.
This recirculation is a key feature of the activated sludge process. The recycled microbes are
well acclimated to the sewage environment and readily metabolize the organic materials in the
primary effluent. The remaining 70 percent of the secondary sludge must be treated and
disposed of in an acceptable manner (see Sludge treatment and disposal).

Variations of the activated sludge process include extended aeration, contact stabilization, and
high-purity oxygen aeration. Extended aeration and contact stabilization systems omit the
primary settling step. They are efficient for treating small sewage flows from motels, schools,
and other relatively isolated wastewater sources. Both of these treatments are usually provided
in prefabricated steel tanks called package plants. Oxygen aeration systems mix pure oxygen
with activated sludge. A richer concentration of oxygen allows the aeration time to be
shortened from six to two hours, reducing the required tank volume.

Activated sludge process: Primary and secondary treatment of sewage.

➢ Rotating Biological Contractor

In this treatment system a series of large plastic disks mounted on a horizontal shaft are
partially submerged in primary effluent. As the shaft rotates, the disks are exposed alternately
to air and wastewater, allowing a layer of bacteria to grow on the disks and to metabolize the
organics in the wastewater.

➢ Oxidation pond

Oxidation ponds, also called lagoons or stabilization ponds, are large, shallow ponds designed
to treat wastewater through the interaction of sunlight, bacteria, and algae. Algae grow
using energy from the sun and carbon dioxide and inorganic compounds released
by bacteria in water. During the process of photosynthesis, the algae release oxygen needed
by aerobic bacteria.

Mechanical aerators are sometimes installed to supply yet more oxygen, thereby reducing the
required size of the pond. Sludge deposits in the pond must eventually be removed by
dredging. Algae remaining in the pond effluent can be removed by filtration or by a
combination of chemical treatment and settling.

General principles of stabilization ponds include:

1. Lagoon systems can be cost-effective to design and construct in areas where land is
inexpensive.
2. They use less energy than most waste water treatment methods.
3. They are simple to operate and maintain and generally require only part-time stuff.
4. They can handle intermittent use and shock loadings better than many systems, making
them a good option for campgrounds, resorts, and other seasonal properties.
5. They are very effective at removing disease-causing organisms (pathogens) from
wastewater.
6. The effluent from lagoon systems can be suitable for irrigation (where appropriate),
because of its high-nutrient and low pathogen content.

Advantages

➢ Resistant to organic and hydraulic shock loads

➢ High reduction of solids, BOD and pathogens
➢ High nutrient removal if combined with aquaculture
➢ Low operating cost
➢ No electrical energy required
 ➢ No real problems with flies or odours if designed and maintained correctly
Disadvantages

➢ Requires large land area

➢ High capital cost depending on the price of land
➢ Requires expert design and construction
➢ Sludge requires proper removal and treatment

Sludge Treatment and Disposal

The residue that accumulates in sewage treatment plants is called sludge (or biosolids).
Sewage sludge is the solid, semisolid, or slurry residual material that is produced as a by-
product of wastewater treatment processes. This residue is commonly classified as primary
and secondary sludge.

Primary sludge is generated from chemical precipitation, sedimentation, and other primary
processes, whereas secondary sludge is the activated waste biomass resulting from biological
treatments. Some sewage plants also receive sewage or septic tank solids from household on-
site wastewater treatment systems. Quite often the sludges are combined together for further
treatment and disposal.
Treatment and disposal of sewage sludge are major factors in the design and operation of all
wastewater treatment plants. Two basic goals of treating sludge before final disposal are to
reduce its volume and to stabilize the organic materials. Stabilized sludge does not have an
offensive odour and can be handled without causing a nuisance or health hazard. Smaller
sludge volume reduces the costs of pumping and storage. Treatment of sewage sludge may
include a combination of thickening, digestion, and dewatering processes.

➢ Thickening
Thickening is usually the first step in sludge treatment because it is impractical to handle thin
sludge, a slurry of solids suspended in water. Thickening is usually accomplished in a tank
called a gravity thickener. A thickener can reduce the total volume of sludge to less than half
the original volume.
➢ Digestion

Sludge digestion is a biological process in which organic solids are decomposed into stable
substances. Digestion reduces the total mass of solids, destroys pathogens, and makes it
easier to dewater or dry the sludge. Digested sludge is inoffensive, having the appearance and
characteristics of a rich potting soil.
 ➢ Dewatering
Digested sewage sludge is usually dewatered before disposal. Dewatered sludge still contains
a significant amount of water—often as much as 70 percent—but, even with that moisture
content, sludge no longer behaves as a liquid and can be handled as a solid material. Sludge-
drying beds provide the simplest method of dewatering. A digested sludge slurry is spread on
an open bed of sand and allowed to remain until dry. After about six weeks of drying, the
sludge cake, as it is called, may have a solids content of about 40 percent. It can then be
removed from the sand with a pitchfork or a front-end loader.

Sludge Disposal

The final destination of treated sewage sludge usually is the land. Dewatered sludge can be
buried underground in a sanitary landfill. It also may be spread on agricultural land in order to
make use of its value as a soil conditioner and fertilizer. Since sludge may contain toxic
industrial chemicals, it is not spread on land where crops are grown for human consumption.
Where a suitable site for land disposal is not available, as in urban areas, sludge may
be incinerated. Incineration completely evaporates the moisture and converts the organic
solids into inert ash. The ash must be disposed of, but the reduced volume makes disposal
more economical. Air pollution control is a very important consideration when sewage sludge is
incinerated. Appropriate air-cleaning devices such as scrubbers and filters must be used.
Dumping sludge in the ocean, which was once an economical disposal method for many
coastal communities, is no longer considered a viable option. It is now prohibited in the United
States and many other coastal countries.

Wastewater Reuse

When the intended receiving water is very vulnerable to the effects of pollution, secondary
effluent may be treated further by several tertiary processes.
Wastewater can be a valuable resource in cities or towns where population is growing and
water supplies are limited. In addition to easing the strain on limited freshwater supplies, the
reuse of wastewater can improve the quality of streams and lakes by reducing the effluent
discharges that they receive.

Wastewater may be reclaimed and reused for crop and landscape irrigation, groundwater
recharge, or recreational purposes. Reclamation for drinking is technically possible, but this
reuse faces significant public resistance.

There are two types of wastewater reuse: direct and indirect.

In direct reuse, treated wastewater is piped into some type of water system without first being
diluted in a natural stream or lake or in groundwater. One example is the irrigation of a golf
course with effluent from a municipal wastewater treatment plant.

Indirect reuse involves the mixing of reclaimed wastewater with another body of water before
reuse. In effect, any community that uses a surface water supply downstream from the
treatment plant discharge pipe of another community is indirectly reusing wastewater.
Indirect reuse is also accomplished by discharging reclaimed wastewater into a
groundwater aquifer and later withdrawing the water for use. Discharge into an aquifer (called
artificial recharge) is done by either deep-well injection or shallow surface spreading.

Quality and treatment requirements for reclaimed wastewater become more stringent as the
chances for direct human contact and ingestion increase. The impurities that must be removed
depend on the intended use of the water. For example, removal of phosphates or nitrates is
not necessary if the intended use is landscape irrigation.

If direct reuse as a potable supply is intended, tertiary treatment with multiple barriers against
contaminants is required. This may include secondary treatment followed by granular media
filtration, ultraviolet radiation, granular activated carbon adsorption,
reverse osmosis, air stripping, ozonation, and chlorination.

SEWERAGE SYSTEMS
A Sewer is a pipe or conduit carrying sewage. Sewers are usually not flow full (Gravity
Flow). The full flowing sewers are called force main as the flow is under pressure.

A sewerage system, or wastewater collection system, is a network of pipes, pumping stations,

and appurtenances that convey sewage from its points of origin to a point of treatment and
disposal.

Combined systems

Systems that carry a mixture of both domestic sewage and storm sewage are called combined
sewers. Combined sewers typically consist of large-diameter pipes or tunnels, because of the
large volumes of storm water that must be carried during wet-weather periods. They are very
common in older cities but are no longer designed and built as part of new sewerage facilities.
Because wastewater treatment plants cannot handle large volumes of storm water, sewage
must bypass the treatment plants during wet weather and be discharged directly into the
receiving water. These combined sewer overflows, containing untreated domestic sewage,
cause recurring water pollution problems and are very troublesome sources of pollution.

In some large cities the combined sewer overflow problem has been reduced by diverting the
first flush of combined sewage into a large basin or underground tunnel. After temporary
storage, it can be treated by settling and disinfection before being discharged into a receiving
body of water, or it can be treated in a nearby wastewater treatment plant at a rate that will not
overload the facility.

Separate systems

New wastewater collection facilities are designed as separate systems, carrying either
domestic sewage or storm sewage but not both. Storm sewers usually carry surface runoff to a
point of disposal in a stream or river. Small detention basins may be built as part of the system,
storing storm water temporarily and reducing the magnitude of the peak flow rate. Sanitary
sewers, on the other hand, carry domestic wastewater to a sewage treatment plant. Pretreated
industrial wastewater may be allowed into municipal sanitary sewerage systems, but storm
water is excluded.

Storm sewers are usually built with sections of reinforced concrete pipe.
Corrugated metal pipes may be used in some cases. Storm water inlets or catch basins are
located at suitable intervals in a street right-of-way or in easements across private property.
The pipelines are usually located to allow downhill gravity flow to a nearby stream or to a
detention basin. Storm water pumping stations are avoided, if possible, because of the very
large pump capacities that would be needed to handle the intermittent flows.

A sanitary sewerage system includes laterals, submains, and interceptors. Except for
individual house connections, laterals are the smallest sewers in the network. They usually are
not less than 200 mm (8 inches) in diameter and carry sewage by gravity into larger submains,
or collector sewers. The collector sewers tie in to a main interceptor, or trunk line, which
carries the sewage to a treatment plant. Interceptors are usually built with precast sections of
reinforced concrete pipe, up to 5 metres (15 feet) in diameter. Other materials used for sanitary
sewers include vitrified clay, asbestos cement, plastic, steel, or ductile iron. The use of plastic
for laterals is increasing because of its lightness and ease of installation. Iron and steel pipes
are used for force mains or in pumping stations. Force mains are pipelines that carry sewage
under pressure when it must be pumped.
Sewer is a pipe or conduit carrying sewage. Sewers are usually not flow full (Gravity
Flow). The full flowing sewers are called force main as the flow is under pressure.

Types of sewers according to material

1. Asbestos Cement (AC) Sewer

2. Brick Sewer
3. Cement Sewer
4. Cast iron (CT) Sewer
5. Steel Sewers
6. Plastic Sewers

Alternative systems

Sometimes the cost of conventional gravity sewers can be prohibitively high because of low
population densities or site conditions such as a high water table or bedrock.

Three alternative wastewater collection systems that may be used under these circumstances
include small-diameter gravity sewers, pressure sewers, and vacuum sewers.

In small-diameter gravity systems, septic tanks are first used to remove settleable and floating
solids from the wastewater from each house before it flows into a network of collector mains
(typically 100 mm, or 4 inches, in diameter); these systems are most suitable for small
rural communities. Because they do not carry grease, grit and sewage solids, the pipes can be
of smaller diameter and placed at reduced slopes or gradients to minimize trench excavation
costs.

Pressure sewers are best used in flat areas or where expensive rock excavation would be
required. Grinder pumps discharge wastewater from each home into the main pressure sewer,
which can follow the slope of the ground.

In a vacuum sewerage system, sewage from one or more buildings flows by gravity into a
sump or tank from which it is pulled out by vacuum pumps located at a central vacuum station
and then flows into a collection tank. From the vacuum collection tank the sewage is pumped
to a treatment plant.
Flow rates

There is a wide variation in sewage flow rates over the course of a day. A sewerage
system must accommodate this variation. In most cities domestic sewage flow rates are
highest in the morning and evening hours. They are lowest during the middle of the night.

Flow quantities depend upon population density, water consumption, and the extent of
commercial or industrial activity in the community. The average sewage flow rate is usually
about the same as the average water use in the community. Although sewage flows depend
upon residential, commercial, and industrial connections, sewage flow rates potentially can
become higher as a result of inflows and infiltration into the sanitary sewer system.

Inflows correspond to storm water entering sewers from inappropriate connections, such as
roof drains, storm drains, downspouts and sump pumps. High amounts of rainwater runoff can
reach the sewer system during precipitation and stormflow events or during seasonal spring
flooding of rivers inundated with melting ice.
Infiltration refers to the groundwater entering sewers via defective or broken pipes. In both
these cases, downstream utilities and treatment plants may experience flows higher than
anticipated and can become hydraulically overloaded. During such overloads, utilities may ask
residents connected to the system to refrain from using dishwashers and washing machines
and may even limit toilet flushing and the use of showers in an attempt to lessen the strain.
Such I&I issues can be especially severe in old and aging water infrastructures.

Major roles of a sewer system

• Reducing environmental degradation by removing sewage

• Preventing flooding of low lying areas due to absence of sewers
• Prevention of vector propagation by sewage stagnations
• Avoiding cross connections with freshwater sources by seepage

Factors influencing the selection of materials for sewers

• Flow characteristics,
• Availability in the sizes required including fittings and ease of handling and installation,
• Water tightness and simplicity of assembly,
• Physical strength,
• Resistance to acids, alkalies, gases, solvents, etc.,
• Resistance to scour,
• Durability and cost including handling and installation.
No single material will meet all the conditions that may be encountered in sewer design.
Selection should be made for the particular application and different materials may be selected
for parts of a single project. The determination of the suitability in all respects of the pipes and
specials for any work is a matter of decision by the engineer concerned on the basis of
requirements for the scheme and guided by relative limitations on use of pipe materials in
specific locations.

Procedure for Sewer Construction

In sewer construction work, two operations are of special importance, namely, excavation of
trenches, and laying of sewer pipes in trenches and tunnels. Such operations include

1) Removal of pavement
2) Removal of the material from the ground, and its separation, its classification where
necessary, and its final disposal
3) Sheeting and bracing the sides of the trench
4) Removal of water (if any) from the trench
5) Protection of other structures, both underground and on the surface, whose
foundations may be affected
6) Backfilling,
7) Replacement of the pavement

The most common type of sewer construction practice involves the use of open trenches and
prefabricated pipes. However, larger sewer systems, and unusual situations may require
tunnelling, jacking of pipes through the soil, or cast-in-situ concrete sewers.

The structural design of a sewer is based on the relationship: the supporting strength of the
sewer as installed divided by a suitable factor of safety which must equal or exceed the load
imposed on it by the weight of earth and any superimposed loads.

Essential steps in the design and construction of buried sewers or conduits

i) Determination of the maximum load that will be applied to the pipe based on
the trench and backfill conditions and the live loads to be encountered

ii) Computation of the safe load carrying capacity of the pipe when installed and
bedded in the manner to be specified using a suitable factor of safety and
 making certain the design supporting strength thus obtained is greater than
the maximum load to be applied.

iii) Specifying the maximum trench widths, the type of pipe bedding and the
manner in which the backfill is to be made in accordance with the conditions
used in the design

iv) Checking each pipe for structural defects before installation and making sure
that only sound pipes are installed

v) Ensuring by adequate inspection and engineering supervision that all trench

widths, sub grade work, bedding, pipe laying and backfilling are in
accordance with design assumptions as set forth in the project specifications.

Proper design and adequate specifications alone are not enough to ensure protection from
dangerous or destructive overloading of pipe. Effective value of these depends on the degree
to which the design assumptions are realized in actual construction. For this reason, thorough
and competent inspection is necessary to ensure that the installation conforms to the design
requirements and specifications.

EXCRETA DISPOSAL
Safe disposal of excreta, so that it does not contaminate the environment, water, food or
hands, is essential for ensuring a healthy environment and for protecting personal health. This
can be accomplished in many ways, some requiring water, others requiring little or none.
Regardless of method, the safe disposal of human faeces is one of the principal ways of
breaking the faecal–oral disease transmission cycle. Sanitation is therefore a critical barrier to
disease transmission
Within a community, several different sanitation options may be required, with varying levels of
convenience and cost (sometimes called a sanitation ladder).

Technologies for excreta disposal

Pit latrines
In most pit latrine systems, faecal matter is stored in a pit and left to decompose. Unless
specifically designed, pit latrines do not require periodic emptying; once a pit is full it is sealed
and a new pit dug. If faecal matter is left to decompose in dry conditions for at least two years,
the contents can be safely emptied manually and the pit reused.
Indeed, some pit latrines are designed to allow faecal matter to compost and be reused in
agriculture. Other designs use two alternating pits, reducing the need for new pits. Some pit
designs are meant to be completely dry, while some use small quantities of water. Ventilation
to remove odours and flies is incorporated into certain designs, while others are very basic and
use traditional materials and approaches.
The VIP (ventilated improved pit) latrine is designed to overcome some of the problems with
traditional latrine designs, but it is more expensive. It has a vent pipe from the pit to above the
roof of the building. When air flows across the top of the vent pipe, air is drawn up the pipe
from the pit and fresh air is drawn into the pit from the building. Offensive odours from the pit
thus pass through the vent pipe and do not enter the building. The location of VIP latrines is
important: unless a clear flow of air is maintained across the top of the vent, the ventilation
system may not be effective. VIP latrines should therefore be located away from trees or high
buildings that may limit airflow. A dark vent pipe also helps the air to rise. The top of the pipe is
usually covered with mosquito meshing.
When the VIP latrine is constructed and used properly, it provides great improvements in fly
and odour control, but may not eliminate either completely..

Twin pits may also be used to facilitate emptying and composting. When one pit is full, the
other can be emptied and reused..
Pour–flush latrines
A pour–flush latrine is a type of pit latrine where small volumes of water (commonly 1–3 litres)
are used to flush faeces into the pit. They are most appropriate where people use water to
clean themselves after defecating and where people have access to reliable water supplies
close to the home. Solid materials should not be disposed of into pour–flush latrines, as this
could block the pipe and even cause it to break.
A pour–flush latrine has a small collection pan set in a slab. Wastes are disposed of through a
section of pipe bent into a U shape (a U-bend) to maintain a water seal for reducing fly and
odour problems.

The pit of a pour–flush latrine may be located directly beneath the slab or set to one side, but
offset pits may require more water to prevent blockages. The pit is usually connected to a
soakaway to allow liquids to infiltrate the soil, leaving solid waste to decompose.
Septic tanks
A septic tank is a form of on-site sanitation that provides the convenience of a sewerage
system. It is usually linked to flush toilets and can receive domestic wastewater (or sullage).
Since flush toilets tend to use large amounts of water, septic tanks are usually appropriate only
for households with water piped into the home. The tank is offset from the house and linked to
the toilet and domestic wastewater by a short drain. It is designed to hold solids and is linked
to a soakaway to dispose of liquid waste (effluent).

Septic tanks generally require relatively large amounts of land and periodic emptying by
vacuum tankers. This is often expensive and the trucks will need easy access to the tank.
Septic tanks thus tend to be high-cost solutions for improving sanitation. They are commonly
used only by communities whose members have access to water supply within the home, have
land available and who can afford the cost of emptying the tanks.
Aquaprivies

An aqua-privy has a watertight tank immediately under the latrine floor. Excreta drop directly
into the tank through a pipe. The bottom of the pipe is submerged in the liquid in the tank,
forming a water seal to prevent escape of flies, mosquitos and smell. The tank functions like a
septic tank. Effluent usually infiltrates into the ground through a soakpit. Accumulated solids
(sludge) must be removed regularly. Enough water must be added to compensate for
evaporation and leakage losses.

Its drawback is that water must be added each day to maintain the water seal, and this is often
difficult to do unless water is piped into the home. The tank is connected to a soakaway to
dispose of effluent. Unlike a septic tank, the aquaprivy tank is located directly below the house,
but it, too, requires periodic emptying and must be accessible to a vacuum tanker. Aquaprivies
are expensive and do not offer any real advantages over pour–flush latrines.

Sewerage systems
Sewerage systems are designed to collect excreta and domestic wastewater and transport
them away from homes to a treatment and/or disposal point. All sewerage systems require
water for flushing waste away. Conventional sewerage is a high-cost sanitation option; it is
usually deep-laid and must be maintained professionally. Such a system is thus appropriate
only where funds are available for operation and maintenance
All sewerage systems should be linked to a treatment plant, as the raw faeces they carry
represent a public health risk. Modified sewerage systems are also designed to transport
waste away from the home, but work on different principles from conventional sewerage
systems.

Composting toilet
Composting toilet is a type of dry toilet that treats human excreta by a biological process
called composting. This process leads to the decomposition of organic matter and turns human
excreta into compost-like material but does not destroy all pathogens. Composting is carried
out by microorganisms (mainly bacteria and fungi) under controlled aerobic conditions.[2] Most
composting toilets use no water for flushing and are therefore called "dry toilets".
In many composting toilet designs, carbon additives such as sawdust, coconut coir, or peat
moss is added after each use. This practice creates air pockets in the human excreta to
promote aerobic decomposition. This also improves the carbon-to-nitrogen ratio and reduces
potential odour.
Composting toilets, together with the secondary composting step, produce a humus-like end
product that can be used to enrich soil if local regulations allow this. Some composting toilets
have urine diversion systems in the toilet bowl to collect the urine separately and control
excess moisture.
Composting toilets do not require a connection to septic tanks or sewer systems unlike flush
toilets. Common applications include national parks, remote holiday
cottages, ecotourism resorts, off-grid homes and rural areas in developing countries.

The Composting toilets differ from pit latrines which use less controlled decomposition and
may not protect groundwater from nutrient or pathogen contamination or provide optimal
nutrient recycling.

Composting toilets can be suitable in areas such as a rural area or a park that lacks a
suitable water supply, sewers and sewage treatment. They eliminate the need for a septic
tank system to reduce environmental effects.
These types of toilets can be used for resource recovery by reusing sanitized faeces and urine
as fertilizer and soil conditioner for gardening or ornamental activities.