ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I express my sincere thanks to Mrs. ARUNA M VISVESSVAR,

Senior Principal/ Correspondent, for facilitating my value –
addition to this prestigious institution.

I sincerely thank Mr. VISESH AIYER, Dean of Academics for his

encouragement.

I express my sincere thanks to Mrs. MUTHUMALA, Principal for

her motivation.

I express my deep sense of gratitude to my English Teacher

Mrs. T. JANAKI for providing support, guidance, and valuable

ideas which have helped me to complete this project successfully.

Once again, I express my heartfelt thanks to all those who have

helped me in accomplishing my project.
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I am thankful to our Correspondent Mrs. Aruna M Visvessvar,

our Dean of Academics Mr. Visesh Aiyer and our Principal

Mrs. Muthumala for their continuous support and motivation.

I would like to express my sincere gratitude to my Biology teacher,

Mrs. Ananthi for her vital support, guidance and encouragement
without which this project would not have come forth.

I am also thankful to my parents and classmates for their constant

support.
 INDEX

S.No TOPICS Pg.No

1 Introduction 1

2 Types of Chromosomal Disorders 1

3 Genetic Cause 1
4 Clinical Manifestations 2

5 Diagnosis and Management 4

6 Psychosocial Impact 6

7 Conclusion 6

8 References 7
 Psychosocial Impact
Living with Turner Syndrome can present various

psychosocial challenges for affected individuals, including body

image issues, self-esteem issues, and feelings of social isolation.

Girls with Turner Syndrome may face teasing, bullying, or

discrimination due to their physical appearance or developmental

differences. Psychosocial support, counselling, and peer support

groups can help address these challenges and promote resilience

and wellbeing in individuals with Turner Syndrome.

Conclusion
Turner Syndrome is a complex genetic condition that affects

females and presents with a wide range of medical, developmental,

and psychosocial challenges. Despite these challenges, individuals

with Turner Syndrome can lead fulfilling and meaningful lives

with appropriate medical care, support, and advocacy. By raising

awareness, promoting early diagnosis and intervention, and

providing comprehensive multidisciplinary care, we can empower

individuals with Turner Syndrome to thrive and achieve their full

potential.
 References
Turner syndrome - NHS

Turner syndrome - Wikipedia

Turner syndrome - MedlinePlus

Turner Syndrome - StatPearls - NCBI Bookshelf

Turner syndrome - Symptoms & causes - Mayo Clinic

Turner Syndrome: What It Is, Causes, Symptoms - Cleveland Clinic

 CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that “M.Karthikaa” has successfully completed the

Annual Investigatory Project on the topic, “Chocolate Analysis” in the

academic year 2024-2025 as per the CBSE syllabus for Chemistry in

CLASS XII in Adhyapana School CBSE, Madurai.

Internal Examiner External Examiner

Chief Superintendent
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I am thankful to our Correspondent Mrs. Aruna M Visvessvar and

our Dean of academics Mr. Visesh Aiyer and our Principal

Mrs. Muthumala for their continuous support and motivation.

I would like to express my sincere gratitude to my Chemistry teacher,

Mrs. Sinu Danny for her vital support, guidance and encouragement
without which this project would not have come forth.

I am thankful to my parents and classmates for their constant support.

 INDEX

S.No TOPICS Pg.No

1 Introduction:
Varieties 1
Manufacture 1
History 1
Good & Bad effects
2
2 An Analysis on Chocolates: 2
Test for Carbohydrates 3
Test for Calcium 3
Test for Proteins 4
Test for Iron 4
Test for Fats 5

4 Result 6

3 References 6
 Chocolate: A Sweet Delight
Chocolate is a yummy treat loved by many around the world. It
comes in different types, each with its own unique taste and texture.
Let's explore more about this delicious delight!

Varieties
There are various types of chocolate, such as dark chocolate, milk
chocolate, and white chocolate. Dark chocolate has a rich and intense
flavour, while milk chocolate is creamy and sweet. White chocolate is
smooth and has a mild taste.

Manufacture
Chocolate is made from cocoa beans, which grow in tropical
regions. The beans are harvested, fermented, dried, roasted, and then
ground into a paste called chocolate liquor. This paste is then processed
to make different types of chocolate.

History
Chocolate has a long history dating back to ancient civilizations
like the Mayans and Aztecs, who used cocoa beans to make a bitter
drink. Later, Europeans added sugar and milk to create the chocolate
we know today.
The Good and the Bad Effects
Chocolate isn't just delicious; it can also have some good effects
on our health. Dark chocolate, in particular, is rich in antioxidants,
which can help protect our bodies from damage. It may also improve
heart health and even boost mood by releasing feel-good chemicals in
the brain.

While chocolate can be a tasty treat, eating too much of it may

not be great for our health. Some chocolates contain a lot of sugar and
fat, which can lead to weight gain if eaten in excess. Additionally, some
people may be allergic to chocolate or sensitive to its caffeine content,
experiencing headaches or other discomfort.

In conclusion, chocolate is a wonderful indulgence that comes in

many forms and flavours. Enjoyed in moderation, it can

bring pleasure and even some health benefits. So go ahead, savour a

piece of chocolate and treat yourself!

An Analysis of Chocolates

Aim: To study the presence of Carbohydrates, Calcium, Proteins, Iron

and Fats in Dark and Milk chocolates.

Requirements:
 Test tubes, Test tube holders, Bunsen burner, Fehling's A and B
soln., Benedict's Reagent, Tollen's Reagent, NH4Cl, NaOH, CuSO4,
conc. HNO3, Millon's Reagent, H2O, Filter Paper, AgNO3, conc. HCl,
and Dark & Milk chocolates.
Test for Carbohydrates:
Experiment

1. Fehling’s Test
To the aq. soln. of the chocolate sample, add 1:2 ml of Fehling’s A and B soln. and heat it.

Red ppt. should be formed.

2. Benedict’s Test
To the aq. soln. of the chocolate sample, add 1-2 ml of Benedict’s Reagent and heat it.

Red ppt. should be formed.

3. Tollen’s Test
To the aq. soln. of the chocolate sample, add 1-2 ml of Tollen’s Reagent and heat it.

Silver Mirror in the test tube should be formed.

.
DARK CHOCOLATE MILK CHOCOLATE

Observation Inference Observation Inference

Test for Calcium:

Experiment

To the aq. soln. of the chocolate sample, add NH4OH and (NH4)2CO3

White ppt. should be formed.

 Observation Inference Observation Inference

Test for Proteins:

Experiment

1. Biuret Test
To the aq. soln. of the chocolate sample, add Biuret Reagent (NaOH + 1% CuSO4).

Bluish - white colouration should be observed.

2. Xanthoproteic Test
To the aq. soln. of the chocolate sample, add conc. HNO3 and heat it.

Yellow ppt. should be formed.

3. Millon’s Test
To the aq. soln. of the chocolate sample, add Millon’s Reagent.

White ppt. should be formed which changes brick red on heating.

DARK CHOCOLATE MILK CHOCOLATE

Observation Inference Observation Inference

Tests for Iron:

Experiment
To the aq. soln. of the chocolate sample, add NH4Cl and NaOH.

Brown ppt. should be formed.

 DARK CHOCOLATE MILK CHOCOLATE
Observation Inference Observation Inference

Test for Fats:

Experiment

1. Solubility Test

To the aq. soln. of the chocolate sample, add few ml of water.

The soln. should be immiscible.

To the aq. soln. of the chocolate sample, add few ml of ethyl alcohol.

The sample forms in the lower layer which dissolves on heating.

To the aq. soln. of the chocolate sample, add few ml of ethyl alcohol.

The soln. should be miscible.

2. Translucent Spot Test

Rub the chocolate in a filter paper.

A Translucent spot appears on the paper.

DARK CHOCOLATE MILK CHOCOLATE

Observation Inference Observation Inference
Result:

Substance Present/Absent
Dark chocolate Milk chocolate
Carbohydrates
Calcium
Proteins
Iron
Fats

References:
www.foodhealthinnovation.com
www.todaysedition.com
www.teagasc.ie/research.com
www.byjus.com

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I am thankful to our Correspondent Mrs. Aruna M Visvessvar,

our Dean of Academics Mr. Visesh Aiyer and our Principal
Mrs. Muthumala for their continuous support and motivation.

I would like to express my sincere gratitude to my Physics teacher,

Mrs. Dhanalakshmi for her vital support, guidance and
encouragement without which this project would not have come
forth.

I am also thankful to my parents and classmates for their constant

support.

INDEX
S.No TOPICS Pg.No
1 Introduction 1

2 Holes and Electrons 1

3 Band Theory 3
4 Conduction and Valence Bands 4

5 Properties 6

6 Types 8

7 Application 16

8 Conclusion 17
9 References 17

Semiconductors
Introduction
 Semiconductors are materials which have a conductivity

between conductors and non-conductors or insulators .

Semiconductors can be compounds, such as gallium arsenide, or

pure elements, such as germanium or silicon. Physics explains

the theories, properties and mathematical approach related to

semiconductors.

Examples : Gallium arsenide (solar cells, laser diodes), silicon

(electronic circuit fabrication) and germanium are some of the

most commonly used semiconductors.

Holes and Electrons

These are the types of charge carriers accountable for

the flow of current in semiconductors. Holes (valence electrons)

are the positively charged electric charge carrier,

whereas electrons are the negatively charged particles. Both

electrons and holes are equal in magnitude but opposite in

polarity.

Mobility of Electrons and Holes

 In a semiconductor, the mobility of electrons is higher than

that of the holes. It is mainly because of their different band

structures and scattering mechanisms.

Electrons travel in the conduction band, whereas holes travel

in the valence band. When an electric field is applied, holes cannot

move as freely as electrons due to their restricted movement. The

elevation of electrons from their inner shells to higher shells

results in the creation of holes in semiconductors. Since the holes

experience stronger atomic force by the nucleus than electrons,

holes have lower mobility.

The mobility of a particle in a semiconductor is more, if

• The effective mass of particles is lesser

• The time between scattering events is more

For intrinsic silicon at 300 K, the mobility of electrons is 1500

cm2 (V∙s)-1, and the mobility of holes is 475 cm2 (V∙s)-1.

band to jump into the conduction band on receiving any

external energy.
Conduction Band
It is the lowest, unoccupied band that includes the energy

levels of positive (holes) or negative (free electrons) charge

carriers. It has conducting electrons resulting in the flow of

current. The conduction band possess a high energy level and is

generally empty. The conduction band in semiconductors accepts

the electrons from the valence band.

What is the Fermi level in semiconductors?

The Fermi level (denoted by EF) is present between the

valence and conduction bands. It is the highest occupied

molecular orbital at absolute zero. The charge carriers in this state

have their own quantum states and generally do not interact with

each other. When the temperature rises above absolute zero, these

charge carriers will begin to occupy states above the Fermi level.

In a p-type semiconductor, there is an increase in the density

of unfilled states. Thus, accommodating more electrons at the

lower energy levels. However, in an n-type semiconductor, the

density of states increases, therefore, accommodating more

electrons at higher energy levels.

Properties
Semiconductors can conduct electricity under preferable

conditions or circumstances. This unique property makes it an

excellent material to conduct electricity in a controlled manner as

required.

Unlike conductors, the charge carriers in semiconductors arise

only because of external energy (thermal agitation). It causes a

certain number of valence electrons to cross the energy gap and

jump into the conduction band, leaving an equal amount of

unoccupied energy states, i.e., holes. The conduction due to

electrons and holes is equally important.

• Resistivity: 10-5 to 106 Ωm

• Conductivity: 105 to 10-6 mho/m

N-Type Semiconductor

• Mainly due to electrons

 • Entirely neutral

• I = Ih and nh >> ne

• Majority – Electrons and Minority – Holes

When a pure semiconductor (silicon or germanium) is doped by

pentavalent impurity (P, As, Sb, Bi), then four electrons out of five

valence electrons bond with the four electrons of Ge or Si.

The fifth electron of the dopant is set free. Thus, the impurity

atom donates a free electron for conduction in the lattice and is

called a “Donar”.

Since the number of free electrons increases with the addition

of an impurity, the negative charge carriers increase. Hence, it is

called an n-type semiconductor.

Crystal as a whole is neutral, but the donor atom becomes an

immobile positive ion. As conduction is due to a large number of

free electrons, the electrons in the n-type semiconductor are the

majority carriers, and holes are the minority carriers.

P-Type Semiconductor
 • Mainly due to holes

• Entirely neutral

• I = Ih and nh >> ne

• Majority – Holes and Minority – Electrons

When a pure semiconductor is doped with a trivalent impurity

(B, Al, In, Ga), then the three valence electrons of the impurity

bond with three of the four valence electrons of the

semiconductor.

This leaves an absence of electron (hole) in the impurity.

These impurity atoms which are ready to accept bonded

electrons are called “Acceptors”.

With an increase in the number of impurities, holes (the

positive charge carriers) are increased. Hence, it is called a p-

type semiconductor.

Crystal, as a whole, is neutral, but the acceptors become an

immobile negative ion. As conduction is due to a large number of

 The microprocessor used for controlling the operation of

space vehicles, trains, robots, etc., is made up of transistors and

other controlling devices, which are manufactured by

semiconductor materials.

Conclusion
• They are highly portable due to their small size

• They require less input power

• Semiconductor devices are shockproof

• They have a longer lifespan

• They are noise-free while operating

References
Semiconductor - Wikipedia

https://byjus.com

www.britannica.com