Math 133 – Engineering Mathematics 1

Unit 8 – Applications of Derivatives 1

8.1 Graph Sketching

Very often, when we are presented with a function, 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥), we want to know what the shape of the
graph is. In this unit, we shall discuss the preliminary techniques to figure out the shape of the graph. To
find out the characteristics of the graph so that we know what the graph looks like, we shall take the
following steps:

[1] The domain of the function.

[2] The intervals of increase and decrease.
[3] Local (or Relative) extremum points, if any.
[4] The intervals of concavity.
[5] Inflection points, if any.

Think of having to perform the above steps this way. Imagine you are a detective and you are searching
for clues as to what the graph looks like. As with the real police detective work, your work as a graph
detective may be tedious but with lots of practice, you will be a pro at it in no time. I am sure of it.

8.1.1 The domain of a function

The domain of a function are the values the independent variables may possible be assigned such that the
function may return a real number value. For example, if we have a function

𝑦 = √𝑥

we can assign a non-negative number to x and the function will return a real number value. One example
is when we assign 𝑥 = 4. The function returns a value

√4 = 2

However, if we assign a negative number, say 𝑥 = −4, the function does not return a real number,

√−4

does not exist as a real number.

Therefore, we can conclude that the domain of

𝑦 = √𝑥

cannot include negative numbers.

The following are a few rules of thumb that we employ when we define the domains of functions:

[1] If the function has a factor

𝑛
√𝑓 (𝑥) , where n is even
Then the domain must include
𝑓(𝑥) ≥ 0

[2] If the function has a factor

1
𝑓(𝑥)
then the domain must include
𝑓(𝑥) ≠ 0

[3] If the function has a factor

log 𝑏 𝑓(𝑥) , where 𝑏 > 0
Then the domain must include
𝑓(𝑥) > 0

The above is not an exhaustive list. There are lots more but we shall keep tabs and build up this list as we
continue with our discussion on more functions in the course of our engineering program.

Examples: Find the domains of the following functions:

[i] 𝑦 = √𝑥 − 1

Solution: The domain is the solution of

𝑥−1≥0
⇒
𝑥≥1

1
[ii] 𝑦 = 1+𝑥 2

Solution: The domain is the solution to

1 + 𝑥2 ≠ 0
⇒
𝑥 2 ≠ −1

We know that 𝑥 2 ≥ 0 for all values we assign to x, i.e. 𝑥 2 ≠ −1 for all x. Therefore, the domain of the
above function is
−∞ < 𝑥 < ∞
[iii] 𝑦 = √ln 𝑥

Solution: The domain is the solution to

ln 𝑥 ≥ 0
which is
𝑥≥1

Note: We can check this out by looking at the graph of 𝑦 = ln 𝑥,

Graph of 𝑦 = ln 𝑥

8.1.2 Intervals of increase and decrease

𝑑𝑦
Let us recall part of our discussion in Unit 1 about the function 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) and its derivative 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑓′(𝑥).
(a) If f (x )  0 on an interval, then f is increasing on that interval.
(b) If f (x )  0 on an interval, then f is decreasing on that interval.

Let us think about it. The first derivative, f ( x ) , gives us the slope of the tangent line.
On the part of the curve where f (x )  0 , the tangent lines have +ve slopes. This means the orientation
of the curve is from the bottom left to the top right.

+ve slope
+ve slope

If we move from the left side of the curve to the right side, we will notice that the curve increases. That
is why we say the curve is increasing on that interval.

On the part of the curve where f (x )  0 , the tangent lines have -ve slopes. This means the orientation
of the curve is from the top left to the bottom right.

-ve slope

-ve slope

If we move from the left side of the curve to the right side, we will notice that the curve decreases. That
is why we say the curve is decreasing on that interval.
8.1.2.1 The Local (or Relative) Maximum

Now, let us observe what happens when a continuous graph increases up to a point, at let us say 𝑥 = 𝑚,
and then decreases. What we have is a local (or relative) maximum and it can happen in any one of the
following two ways:
Local Maximum Local Maximum
Point: Tangent line is Point: Tangent
𝑑𝑦 line is undefined,
horizontal, or 𝑑𝑥 = 0,
𝑑𝑦
at 𝑥 = 𝑚 or 𝑑𝑥 does not
exist, at 𝑥 = 𝑚

Increases Decreases Increases Decreases

8.1.2.2 The Local (or Relative) Minimum

Next, we observe what happens when a continuous graph decreases down to a point, this time let us call
this point 𝑥 = 𝑛, and then it increases. What we now have is a local (or relative) minimum and it can
happen in any one of the following two ways:

Decreases Increases Decreases Increases

Local Minimum Point: Local Minimum

Tangent line is Point: Tangent
𝑑𝑦
horizontal, or 𝑑𝑥 = 0, line is undefined,
𝑑𝑦
at 𝑥 = 𝑛 or 𝑑𝑥 does not
exist, at 𝑥 = 𝑛

8.1.3 Critical Points and the First Derivative Test

At both the local minimum and the local maximum points, we have seen that the tangent line is either
horizontal or undefined. Let us now define what we shall call the Critical Point.
Let us consider a function 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) that is continuous at a point 𝑥 = 𝑐. This point is defined as a critical
point if
[1] The tangent line at 𝑥 = 𝑐 is horizontal, or 𝑓 ′ (𝑐) = 0.
[2] The tangent line at 𝑥 = 𝑐 is undefined, or 𝑓′(𝑐) does not exist.

We have seen in the above diagrams that at a local extremum point, we have a critical point. However,
this is a one-way street. A critical point is not necessarily a local extremum point. Let us take a look at
the following diagrams:

-ve slope,

-ve slope,
Not a local minimum nor a
local maximum,

+ve slope,

+ve slope,
Not a local minimum nor a
local maximum,
 +ve slope,

Not a local minimum nor a

local maximum,
does not exist.

+ve slope,

-ve slope,

Not a local minimum nor a

local maximum,
does not exist.

-ve slope,

We can also deduce from the above eight diagrams that we can determine if a critical point is a local
maximum or a local minimum or neither by analysing whether the function is increasing or decreasing
before and after the critical point. This gives us what is known as the First Derivative Test:
Suppose that 𝑥 = 𝑐 is a critical point of a continuous function 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥).
(a) If f  changes from +ve to –ve at c, then this critical point is a local maximum.
(b) If f  changes from –ve to +ve at c, then this critical point is a local minimum.
(c) If f  does not change sign at c, (for example, if f  is +ve on both sides of c or –ve on both
sides of c), then this critical point is not a local maximum nor a local minimum.

3
Example: Find and classify the extremum points, if any, of 𝑦 = 3 √𝑥 − 𝑥 using the First Derivative
Test.

3
Solution: First of all, we need to find the domain of the function 𝑦 = 3 √𝑥 − 𝑥.

We do not see any restrictions on the values that can be assigned to x, so we conclude that the domain
of the function is
−∞ < 𝑥 < ∞

We then proceed to find the critical points. In order to find the critical points, we need the first derivative
of the function
1
3
𝑦 = 3 √𝑥 − 𝑥 = 3𝑥 3 − 𝑥
2
1 2
𝑑𝑦 1 1 1−𝑥 3
⇒ 𝑑𝑥
= 3 (3 𝑥 3−1 ) − 1 = 𝑥 −3 − 1 = 2 −1 = 2
𝑥3 𝑥3

3
𝑑𝑦 1− √𝑥 2
⇒ 𝑑𝑥
= 3 Always simplify to one quotient form.
√𝑥 2

Critical points occur when

𝑑𝑦
[1] =0
𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑦
and [2] does not exist.
𝑑𝑥

𝑑𝑦
When = 0,
𝑑𝑥

3
1− √𝑥 2
⇒ 3 =0
√𝑥 2

3
⇒ 1 − √𝑥 2 = 0
3
⇒ √𝑥 2 = 1

⇒ 𝑥 2 = 13 = 1

⇒ 𝑥 = −1 or 𝑥 = 1

These two points are acceptable as critical points as they are on the domain.
 𝑑𝑦
When 𝑑𝑥
does not exist,

3
1− √𝑥 2
⇒ 3 does not exist,
√𝑥 2

3
⇒ √𝑥 2 = 0 When a quotient does not exist, we equate the denominator to zero. This
causes a division by zero, which in turn causes the function to not exist.
⇒ 𝑥=0

This critical point is also acceptable since it lies on the domain.

3
∴ The function 𝑦 = 3 √𝑥 − 𝑥 has three critical points, i.e. 𝑥 = −1, 𝑥 = 0 and 𝑥 = 1.
3
𝑑𝑦 1− √𝑥 2
To classify these critical points, we perform a sign analysis of the first derivative, 𝑑𝑥 = 3 , as follows:
√𝑥 2

𝑥 = −1 𝑥=0 𝑥=1
Intervals 𝑥 < −1 −1 < 𝑥 < 0 0<𝑥<1 𝑥>1
3
Sign of 1 − √𝑥 2 −𝑣𝑒 +𝑣𝑒 +𝑣𝑒 −𝑣𝑒
3
Sign of √𝑥 2 +𝑣𝑒 +𝑣𝑒 +𝑣𝑒 +𝑣𝑒
3
𝑑𝑦 1− √𝑥 2
Sign of = 3 −𝑣𝑒 +𝑣𝑒 +𝑣𝑒 −𝑣𝑒
𝑑𝑥 √𝑥 2
3
Orientation of 𝑦 = 3 √𝑥 − 𝑥 Decreases Increases Increases Decreases
Local Neither Local
Minimum Maximum

3
∴ The function 𝑦 = 3 √𝑥 − 𝑥 decreases on the interval 𝑥 < −1 and increases on the interval −1 <
𝑥 < 0 which means that 𝑥 = −1 is a local minimum point. This function also increases on the interval
0 < 𝑥 < 1 which means that 𝑥 = 0, although a critical point, is neither a local minimum nor a local
maximum point. Then, the function decreases on the interval 𝑥 > 1 which means that 𝑥 = 1 is a local
maximum point.

The function values at the critical points are calculated by assigning the critical values to the variable x in
3
the function 𝑦 = 3 √𝑥 − 𝑥, i.e

3
At 𝑥 = −1, then 𝑦 = 3√−1 − (−1) = −2 ⇒ There is a local minimum at (−1, −2).
3
At 𝑥 = 0, then 𝑦 = 3√0 − 0 = 0 ⇒ (0,0) is not a local extremum point.
3
At 𝑥 = 1, then 𝑦 = 3√1 − 1 = 2 ⇒ There is a local maximum at (1,2).
8.1.4 Inflection Points, Concavity and the Second Derivative Test

Let us consider a function 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥).

8.1.4.1 Concave Upwards

Suppose that on a particular interval, as x increases, the function turns leftwards. We will notice that in
this situation, the graph lies above all its tangent lines. When this happens, we say that on this interval,
the graph is concave upwards.

Examples of Concave Upward graphs

The slope at this part of the

graph is more +ve.
The graph lies above its
tangent lines.

The slope at this part of the

graph is less +ve.

The slope at this part of the

graph is more –ve.
The graph lies above its
tangent lines.

The slope at this part of the

graph is less –ve.
 The graph lies above its
tangent lines.
This part of the This part of the
graph has –ve graph has +ve
slope. slope.

Observation:
Notice that on an interval where the function is concave upward, as the variable x increases:
[1] The graph turns leftwards, and
[2] The slope of the tangent lines, i.e. the first derivative, increases as well.

8.1.4.2 Concave Downwards

Suppose that on another interval, as x increases, the function turns rightwards. We will notice that in this
situation, the graph lies below all its tangent lines. When this happens, we say that on this interval, the
graph is concave downwards.

Examples of Concave Downward.

The slope at this part of the

graph is less –ve.

The graph lies below its

tangent lines.

The slope at this part of the

graph is more –ve.
 The slope at this part of the
graph is less +ve.

The graph lies below

its tangent lines.
The slope at this part of the
graph is more +ve.

This part of the

graph has +ve This part of the
slope. The graph lies below its graph has –ve
tangent lines. slope.

Observation:
Notice that on an interval where the function is concave downward, as the variable x increases:
[1] The graph turns rightwards, and
[2] The slope of the tangent lines, i.e. the first derivative, decreases in this case.
8.1.4.3 The Second Derivative Test

Recall that for a function 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥), the sign of its first derivative depends on
𝑑𝑦
[1] When 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) increases, then 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑓′(𝑥) is positive.
𝑑𝑦
[2] When 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) decreases, then = 𝑓′(𝑥) is negative.
𝑑𝑥

𝑑𝑦
Let us go one notch higher. Do not forget that the first derivative, = 𝑓′(𝑥), is also a function in its own
𝑑𝑥
right and its orientation is observed in the sign of its second derivative,
𝑑𝑦 𝑑2 𝑦
[3] When 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑓′(𝑥) increases, then 𝑑𝑥 2 = 𝑓′′(𝑥) is positive.
𝑑𝑦 𝑑2 𝑦
[4] When 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑓′(𝑥) decreases, then 𝑑𝑥 2 = 𝑓′′(𝑥) is negative.

Now, combining the above and the results of our discussion on concavity, we have the following:
𝑑𝑦 𝑑2 𝑦
• When 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) is concave upward, then = 𝑓′(𝑥) increases and = 𝑓′′(𝑥) is positive.
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 2
𝑑𝑦 𝑑2 𝑦
• When 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) is concave downward, then = 𝑓′(𝑥) decreases and = 𝑓′′(𝑥) is negative.
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 2

8.1.4.4 Inflection Points

An inflection point is a point on a smooth plane curve at which the concavity changes either
• from concave upwards to concave downwards, or
• from concave downwards to concave upwards.

𝑑2 𝑦
In other words, an inflection occurs at a point where the curve is smooth, and where 𝑑𝑥 2 = 𝑓′′(𝑥) changes
sign either
• From positive to negative, or
• From negative to positive.

Thus, inflection points may occur at a smooth point and

𝑑2 𝑦
• When = 0, or
𝑑𝑥 2
𝑑2 𝑦
• When 𝑑𝑥 2 does not exist.

𝑑2 𝑦 𝑑2 𝑦
However, we also note that if 𝑑𝑥 2 = 0 or if 𝑑𝑥 2 does not exist at a smooth point, this point may not
necessarily be an inflection point. The reason is that the value of the second derivative may just be zero
or does not exist momentarily at that particular point but reverts back to its sign before this point.

3
Example: Find the inflection points, if any, for the function 𝑦 = 3 √𝑥 − 𝑥.

Solution: This is the same function in the earlier example. The domain is −∞ < 𝑥 < ∞, and its first
derivative is
𝑑𝑦 2
= 𝑥 −3 − 1
𝑑𝑥
Its second derivative is
 𝑑2 𝑦 2 2 2 5 2
2
= − 𝑥 −3−1 − 0 = − 𝑥 −3 = − 5
𝑑𝑥 3 3
3𝑥 3
⇒
𝑑2 𝑦 2
2
=− 3
𝑑𝑥 3√𝑥 5

Inflection points may occur

𝑑2 𝑦
• When 𝑑𝑥 2 = 0, or
𝑑2 𝑦
• When 𝑑𝑥 2 does not exist.

𝑑2 𝑦 2
We can see that =− 3 cannot be zero as the numerator is a constant non-zero.
𝑑𝑥 2 3 √𝑥 5

𝑑2 𝑦 2
When =− 3 does not exist, we have
𝑑𝑥 2 3 √𝑥 5

3
3√𝑥 5 = 0

⇒ 𝑥=0

We note that the first derivative is

𝑑𝑦 1 1
= 2−1 = 3 −1
𝑑𝑥 √𝑥 2
𝑥3

That does not exist at 𝑥 = 0. However, just because the derivative does not exist at this point, it does not
mean the curve is not smooth there. We need to check the left limit and the right limit of the first
derivative as 𝑥 → 0. And we calculate,

𝑑𝑦 1 1
lim− = lim− ( 3 − 1) = − 1 = +∞
𝑥→0 𝑑𝑥 𝑥→0 √𝑥 2 +𝑣𝑒 𝑛𝑜. 𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑦 𝑐𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑒 𝑡𝑜 𝑧𝑒𝑟𝑜

𝑑𝑦 1 1
lim+ = lim+ ( 3 − 1) = − 1 = +∞
𝑥→0 𝑑𝑥 𝑥→0 √𝑥 2 +𝑣𝑒 𝑛𝑜. 𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑦 𝑐𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑒 𝑡𝑜 𝑧𝑒𝑟𝑜

We conclude that since

𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦
lim− = lim+ = +∞
𝑥→0 𝑑𝑥 𝑥→0 𝑑𝑥
therefore
𝑑𝑦
lim = +∞
𝑥→0 𝑑𝑥

3
∴ The graph of 𝑦 = 3 √𝑥 − 𝑥 is smooth at 𝑥 = 0 with a vertical tangent line.

Note: This test for smoothness at a particular point is not necessary if the first derivative exists at this
point as a real number. If the derivative exists as a real number at a particular point, it indicates the
function is smooth at this point.
Let us continue with our problem at hand.

Therefore, 𝑥 = 0 is acceptable as a possible inflection point as it is on the domain and the graph is smooth
at this point. To check whether it is indeed an inflection point, we need to see if the concavity of the
function changes at this point. We do this by performing a sign analysis of the second derivative.

𝑥=0
Intervals 𝑥<0 𝑥>0
3
Sign of √𝑥 5 −𝑣𝑒 +𝑣𝑒
𝑑2 𝑦 2
Sign of 𝑑𝑥 2 = − 3 +𝑣𝑒 −𝑣𝑒
3 √𝑥 5
3
Concavity of 𝑦 = 3 √𝑥 − 𝑥 Concave Upward Concave Downward
Inflection
Point

3
∴ The function 𝑦 = 3 √𝑥 − 𝑥 is concave upward on the interval 𝑥 < 0 and concave downward on
𝑥 > 0. Since there is a change of concavity at 𝑥 = 0 and the function is smooth at this point, we conclude
that this point is an inflection point.

3
At 𝑥 = 0, we have 𝑦 = 3√0 − 0 = 0. Thus, (0,0) is an inflection point.

8.1.5 The Second Derivative Test in classifying Critical Points

Let us consider a function 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) with a critical point 𝑥 = 𝑐. Let us also consider these two possibilities:

[1] Suppose the function is concave upward at the point 𝑥 = 𝑐 or the second derivative at this point
takes a positive value. We can see then that 𝑥 = 𝑐 must be a local minimum.

Graph is concave
upward
Decreases Increases

Local Minimum
Point: Tangent line is
horizontal at 𝑥 = 𝑐
[2] Suppose the function is concave downward at the point 𝑥 = 𝑐 or the second derivative at this
point takes a negative value. We can see then that 𝑥 = 𝑐 must be a local maximum.

Local Maximum
Point: Tangent line is
horizontal at 𝑥 = 𝑐

Increases Decreases
Graph is concave
downward

We can conclude the Second Derivative Test for classifying Critical Points as follows:

Suppose 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) is continuous at the point 𝑥 = 𝑐.

a. If f (c ) = 0 and 𝑓 ″ (𝑐) > 0, then f has a local minimum at c.
b. If f (c ) = 0 and 𝑓 ″ (𝑐) < 0, then f has a local maximum at c.
c. If f (c ) = 0 and 𝑓 ″ (𝑐) = 0 or 𝑓 ″ (𝑐) does not exist, then f may have a local minimum or a
local maximum or an inflection point at c. The first derivative is used to classify this critical
point.

𝑑𝑦
Note: If the critical point is found using the criteria that 𝑑𝑥 does not exist, the second derivative test
does not work either. The first derivative test is used to classify this critical point.

3
Example: Classify all critical points of the function 𝑦 = 3 √𝑥 − 𝑥 using the 2nd derivative test.

Solution: The domain of the function is −∞ < 𝑥 < ∞. We have also found that the first
derivative is
3
𝑑𝑦 1 − √𝑥 2
= 3
𝑑𝑥 √𝑥 2

From which we found the critical points to be 𝑥 = −1, 𝑥 = 0 and 𝑥 = 1.

The second derivative is

𝑑2 𝑦 2
2
=− 3
𝑑𝑥 3√𝑥 5
However, we can only use the second derivative test to classify 𝑥 = −1 and 𝑥 = 1 as these were found
𝑑𝑦
using the criteria 𝑑𝑥 = 0. The classification of the critical point 𝑥 = 0 must be done using the 1st derivative
test.

𝑑2 𝑦 2
At 𝑥 = −1, we have 𝑑𝑥 2 = − 3 = +𝑣𝑒 ⇒ 𝑥 = −1 is a local minimum.
3 √(−1)5

𝑑2 𝑦 2
At 𝑥 = 1, we have 𝑑𝑥 2 = − 3 = −𝑣𝑒 ⇒ 𝑥 = −1 is a local maximum.
3 √15

These are the same results that we obtained using the 1st derivative test as shown in an earlier example.

In conclusion,
3
At 𝑥 = −1, then 𝑦 = 3√−1 − (−1) = −2 ⇒ There is a local minimum at (−1, −2).
3
At 𝑥 = 1, then 𝑦 = 3√1 − 1 = 2 ⇒ There is a local maximum at (1,2).

8.1.6 Piecing the pieces together and sketch the graph

3
We have now gathered the following information about the function 𝑦 = 3 √𝑥 − 𝑥 :
[1] We have determined the domain of the function.
[2] We have determined the intervals of increase and decrease and classified the critical points.
[3] We have determined the intervals of concave up and concave down and also determined the
inflection point.
[4] We take note that this function has no asymptotes.

3
Piecing together the above information, we can conclude that the graph of the function 𝑦 = 3 √𝑥 − 𝑥 is:

Local maximum

Concave down
Decrease
Increase

Increase Inflection point

Decrease
Concave up

Local minimum
8.2 Absolute extrema of a continuous function on a closed interval

The techniques we have learnt can also be used to determine the absolute extrema of continuous
functions defined on closed intervals. A closed interval is one where both endpoints are clearly defined.

8.2.1 The Closed Interval Method

Let us consider a continuous function 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) defined on a closed interval 𝑎 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 𝑏. We want to know
what is the largest function value and what is the smallest function value on this interval.

We shall take the following steps:

Step 1: Find the critical points of 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) on the open interval 𝑎 < 𝑥 < 𝑏.
Step 2: Calculate the function values of 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) at the critical points and the endpoints.
Step 3: The largest function value is the absolute maximum and the smallest function value is the absolute
minimum.

More often than not, based on the situation at hand, we need to generate the function and the interval
on which it is defined ourselves. We shall see this in the example below:

Example: A rectangular piece of cardboard measuring 3 metres by 2 metres has its corners cut out
and the resulting flaps folded up to form an open top box. What is the box with the largest volume that
can be obtained?

Solution: It is always a good idea to spend a minute or two to draw diagrams depicting the situation
so that we get an idea of the function we need to generate. Let x be the side of the square we need to
cut out.
x

x
x

2m 2 − 2𝑥 ⇒

2 − 2𝑥

3m

Now, we generate our function. Let V be the volume of the box,

𝑉 = 𝑥(2 − 2𝑥)(3 − 2𝑥) = 2𝑥(1 − 𝑥)(3 − 2𝑥)

To determine the interval on which this function is defined, we take note that the dimensions of the box
must be non-negative, i.e.
𝑥 ≥ 0 , 3 − 2𝑥 ≥ 0 and 2 − 2𝑥 ≥ 0

Otherwise, the volume of the box will be negative.

Solving the above three inequalities, we have

[i] 𝑥≥0

[ii] 3 − 2𝑥 ≥ 0
⇒ 2𝑥 ≤ 3
3
⇒ 𝑥≤2

[iii] 2 − 2𝑥 ≥ 0
⇒ 1−𝑥 ≥0
⇒ 𝑥≤1

Combining the three inequalities above, we have the interval we are looking for:

0≤𝑥≤1

This is a closed interval so we can use the Closed Interval Method outlined above.

Step 1: Find the critical points.

From 𝑉 = 2𝑥(1 − 𝑥)(3 − 2𝑥)

𝑑𝑉
⇒ 𝑑𝑥
= 2(6𝑥 2 − 10𝑥 + 3)

Critical points occur when

𝑑𝑉
[i] 𝑑𝑥
=0

⇒ 2(6𝑥 2 − 10𝑥 + 3) = 0

−𝑏±√𝑏2 −4𝑎𝑐 −(−10)±√(−10)2 −4(6)(3) 10±√28 10±√(4)(7) 10±2√7 5±√7

⇒ 𝑥= = = = = =
2𝑎 2(6) 12 12 12 6

5+√7 5−√7
⇒ 𝑥= 6
≈ 1.274292 or 𝑥 = 6
≈ 0.392375

Of these two points, only 𝑥 ≈ 0.392375 is on the interval 0 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 1, whereas the other is outside this
interval. So we shall accept only this point as the critical point.

𝑑𝑉
[ii] 𝑑𝑥
does not exist.

This criteria does not yield any critical points because the derivative is a polynomial so it exists everywhere
on its defined interval.

This function has only one critical point 𝑥 ≈ 0.392375 on the closed interval 0 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 1.
Step 2: Calculate the function values at the endpoints and the critical point.

The function for the volume of the box is 𝑉(𝑥) = 2𝑥(1 − 𝑥)(3 − 2𝑥).

𝑥 𝑉(𝑥)
Endpoint 0 0
Critical Point 0.392375 1.056306
Endpoint 1 0

Step 3: Comparing the function values, 𝑉(𝑥) .

We see that the largest volume we can possibly obtain is

𝑉𝑚𝑎𝑥 ≈ 1.056306 𝑚3

Obtained when we cut out squares of length 𝑥 ≈ 0.392375 𝑚 from each corner of the cardboard piece.

8.3 Absolute extrema of a continuous function on an open interval

Sometimes, we may be faced with situations where the interval on which a function is defined is not
closed which renders the method we just discussed unusable. However, if there is only one critical point
on the defining interval, we can make use of the Unique Extremum Theorem to find the absolute minimum
or absolute maximum for the function.

8.3.1 The Unique Extremum Theorem

Let us consider a continuous function defined on an interval. This interval may be open or closed. If there
is only one critical point on the interval and
[i] If this critical point is a local minimum, then it is also the absolute minimum.
[ii] If this critical point is a local maximum, then it is also the absolute maximum.

Example: Find the absolute maximum or the absolute minimum of the function

1
𝑦= + ln 𝑥
𝑥

on its entire domain.

Step 1: Find the domain

1
There is a reciprocal function, 𝑥, so we need 𝑥 ≠ 0.

There is also a logarithmic function, ln 𝑥, so we need 𝑥 > 0.

Combining the above, we conclude the domain is 𝑥 > 0.

Step 2: Find the critical points.

1
From 𝑦 = 𝑥 + ln 𝑥

𝑑𝑦 1 1 1 𝑥 𝑥−1
⇒ 𝑑𝑥
= − 𝑥2 + 𝑥 = − 𝑥2 + 𝑥2 = 𝑥2

Critical points occur when

𝑑𝑦 𝑥−1
[i] 𝑑𝑥
= 𝑥2
=0

⇒ 𝑥−1=0

⇒ 𝑥=1

This is acceptable as a critical point as it is on the domain.

𝑑𝑦
[ii] 𝑑𝑥
does not exist

𝑥−1
⇒ does not exist
𝑥2

⇒ 𝑥2 = 0

⇒ 𝑥=0

This is not on the domain so it is not acceptable as a critical point.

We take note that this function is continuous on its domain , it has only one critical point on the domain
and thus, the Unique Extremum Theorem applies.

Step 3: Find out if this critical point is a local minimum or a local maximum or neither.

Let us see if we can use the 2nd Derivative Test to classify this critical point.

𝑑𝑦 1 1
From 𝑑𝑥
= 𝑥 − 𝑥2

𝑑2 𝑦 1 2𝑥 1 2
⇒ 𝑑𝑥 2
= − 𝑥 2 − (− (𝑥 2 )2 ) = − 𝑥 2 + 𝑥 3

Plugging in the critical point, 𝑥 = 1, we have

𝑑2 𝑦 1 2
2
= − 2 + 3 = 1 = +𝑣𝑒
𝑑𝑥 1 1

We conclude that this critical point is a local minimum.

Since it is the only critical point and the function is continuous on the domain, we further conclude that
this local minimum is also the absolute minimum.

1
∴ The absolute minimum value of the function 𝑦 = 𝑥 + ln 𝑥 occurs when 𝑥 = 1.

1
𝑦𝑚𝑖𝑛 = + ln 1 = 1 + 0 = 1
1

8.4 Related Rates

Let us consider an equation in two or more variables. We want to find the rate of change of one variable
when there are changes in the other variables. Since a rate of change involves time, we need to
differentiate the equation with respect to time, t. We will then have, for example, the rate of change of
𝑑𝑥
the variable x denoted as .
𝑑𝑡

Important: If the variable is decreasing, then its rate of change takes a negative value. If the variable
is increasing, then its rate of change takes a positive value.

As before, more often than not, we will need to generate the equation relating all the variables in play.

Example: A ship, the Amethyst, is sailing north at a constant speed of 35 km/h. Another ship, the
Byzantine, is sailing east at a constant speed of 40 km/h. Currently, the Byzantine is 100 km west of the
Amethyst. At what rate is the distance between the two ships changing two hours from now?

Solution: Once again, we advise drawing a diagram of the situation so that we have a pretty good
idea of what is going on. Let point A be the location of the Amethyst and point B be the location of the
Byzantine. Let D be the distance between the two ships after two hours.

Distance, D y
After two (2)(35)
hours = 70 𝑘𝑚
⇒

B A B
100 km x
100 − (2)(40)
= 20 𝑘𝑚
Let 𝑥 = ℎ𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑧𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑏𝑒𝑡𝑤𝑒𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑡𝑤𝑜 𝑠ℎ𝑖𝑝𝑠
𝑦 = 𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑏𝑒𝑡𝑤𝑒𝑒𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑡𝑤𝑜 𝑠ℎ𝑖𝑝𝑠
Using Pythagoras’ Theorem, 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 = 𝐷2

𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝐷
⇒ 2𝑥 𝑑𝑡 + 2𝑦 𝑑𝑡 = 2𝐷 𝑑𝑡 ; Differentiating implicitly with respect to time, t.

𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝐷
⇒ 𝑥 𝑑𝑡 + 𝑦 𝑑𝑡 = 𝐷 𝑑𝑡

𝑑𝑦
We are told that the Amethyst’s constant speed is 𝑑𝑡
= 35 𝑘𝑚/ℎ

𝑑𝑥
And the Byzantine’s constant speed is 𝑑𝑡
= −40 𝑘𝑚/ℎ , since x is decreasing.

After two hours, 𝑥 = 20 𝑘𝑚, 𝑦 = 70 𝑘𝑚 and

𝐷 = √𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 = √202 + 702 = √400 + 4900 = √5300 = 10√53 𝑘𝑚

Plugging all these into the differential equation, we have

𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝐷
𝑥 +𝑦 =𝐷
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
⇒
𝑑𝐷
(20)(−40) + (70)(35) = (10√53)
𝑑𝑡
⇒
𝑑𝐷
1650 = (10√53)
𝑑𝑡
⇒
𝑑𝐷 165
= ≈ 22.664493 𝑘𝑚/ℎ
𝑑𝑡 √53

∴ The distance between the two ships is increasing at the rate of 22.664493 𝑘𝑚/ℎ.