FLUID MECHANICS I

MCE 205
Engr. Olamide O.O.
Engr. Anyanwu B.U.
2020/2021 ACADEMIC SESSION

1
Introduction to Fluid Dynamics
Meaning and importance of fluid dynamics to engineering and everyday life

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Introduction to Fluid Dynamics
• It takes little more than a brief look around for us to recognize that fluid
dynamics is one of the most important of all areas of physics.
• Life as we know it would not exist without fluids, and without the
behavior that fluids exhibit.
• The air we breathe and the water we drink (and which makes up most of
our body mass) are fluids.
• Motion of air keeps us comfortable in a warm room, and air provides the
oxygen we need to sustain life.
• Fluids greatly influence our comfort (or lack thereof); they are involved
in our transportation systems in many ways; they have an effect on our
recreation (e.g., basketballs and footballs are inflated with air) and
entertainment (the sound from the speakers of a TV would not reach our
ears in the absence of air), and even on our sleep (water beds!)
Introduction to Fluid Dynamics
• Engineers must have at least a working knowledge of fluid behavior to
accurately analyze many, if not most, of the systems they will encounter.

• It is the goal of this course to help students in the process of gaining an

understanding of, and an appreciation for, fluid motion—what can be
done with it, what it might do to you, how to analyze and predict it.

• We shall now see the importance of fluid dynamics to

i. Pure sciences
ii. Engineering
Importance of Fluids in Pure Sciences
1. Atmospheric sciences
(a) global circulation: long-range weather prediction; analysis of climate
change (global warming)
(b) mesoscale weather patterns: short-range weather prediction; tornado
and hurricane warnings; pollutant transport

2. Oceanography
(a) ocean circulation patterns: effects of ocean currents on weather and
climate
(b) effects of pollution on living organisms
Importance of Fluids in Pure Sciences
3. Geophysics
(a) convection (thermally-driven fluid motion) in the Earth’s mantle:
understanding of plate tectonics, earthquakes, volcanoes
(b) convection in Earth’s molten core: production of the magnetic field

4. Astrophysics
(a) galactic structure and clustering
(b) stellar evolution—from formation by gravitational collapse to death
as a supernovae, from which the basic elements are distributed
throughout the universe, all via fluid motion
5. Biological sciences
(a) circulatory and respiratory systems in animals
(b) cellular processes
7
Importance of Fluids in Engineering
1. Internal combustion engines
—all types of transportation systems

2. Aerospace
Turbojet, scramjet, rocket engines—aerospace propulsion systems

3. Waste disposal
(a) chemical treatment
(b) incineration
(c) sewage transport and treatment

4. Pollution dispersal
—in the atmosphere (smog); in rivers and oceans
Importance of Fluids in Engineering
5. Power generation
Steam, gas and wind turbines, and hydroelectric facilities for electric
power generation

6. Pipelines
(a) crude oil and natural gas transferral
(b) irrigation facilities
(c) office building and household plumbing
7. Fluid/structure interaction
(a) design of tall buildings
(b) continental shelf oil-drilling rigs
(c) dams, bridges, etc.
(d) aircraft and launch vehicle airframes and control systems
Importance of Fluids in Engineering
8. HVAC
Heating, ventilating and air-conditioning systems
9. Electronics
Cooling systems for high-density electronic devices—digital
computers from PCs to supercomputers
10. Renewable energy
Solar heat and geothermal heat utilization
11. Medicine
Drips, Injections, Surgery
12. Manufacturing processes
(a) spray painting automobiles, trucks, etc.
(b) filling of containers, e.g., cans of soup, cartons of milk, plastic
bottles of soda
Definitions
• Volumetric Flow rate or Discharge (Q): It is defined as the volume
of fluid passing a given cross-section in unit time (m3s– 1).
• Mass Flow Rate (m): It is defined as the mass of fluid passing a given
cross-section in unit time (kgs– 1).
• Mean Velocity: At any cross-section area, it is the ratio of volumetric
flow rate to the cross-sectional area.
• Control Volume: A control volume refers to a region in space and is
useful in the analysis of situations where flow occurs into and out of
the space.
• The boundary of a control volume is its control surface.
• The content of the control volume is called the system
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Definitions
• Cross-sectional area: This is the area of the two-dimensional shape
that is formed when a pipe conveying fluid is sliced perpendicular to
some specified axis at a point.
• Steady flow: When the properties of a fluid in motion does not change
with time, it is said to be in steady state.
• Transient or Unsteady flow: When a fluid is unsteady, its properties
vary with time as flow takes place.

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Conservation Laws
• It is also important to understand that in order to analyse fluid motion,
one must have a fundamental understanding of fluid flow itself, from a
theoretical point of view.
• An actual fluid is made up of molecules with empty space between
them.
• However, in general, when one establishes the mathematical models, it
is convenient to assume that the fluid is a continuous medium— a
continuum.
• This is the approach we will follow, and in doing so we have
immediately begun to abstract about the actual makeup of the fluid and
are developing a model representation of the fluid itself.

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Conservation Laws
• In the study of fluid motion, we are concerned with four basic laws:
(a) Conservation of mass (Continuity)
(b) Conservation of momentum (Newton's second law of motion)
(c) Conservation of energy (the first law of thermodynamics)
(d) Second law of thermodynamics.
• These laws apply to a fixed quantity of matter (system) which maintains
its identity as it undergoes a change in conditions.
• One cannot meaningfully apply the basic laws until a definite system is
identified.

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Conservation Laws
• It is not usually convenient to identify and follow fixed quantities of
matter in the analysis of fluid motion.
• Rather, it is customary to adopt a field theoretic point of view and
identify a definite fixed region or volume in space called a control
volume.
• However, the four basic laws do not apply to fixed volumes but to
fixed quantities of matter.
• Thus our immediate task is to derive equations which apply to control
volumes from the known expressions for systems.

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Conservation of Mass
• The law of conservation of mass states that the mass within a system
remains constant with time disregarding relativity effects, dm/dt = 0.
• Continuity Equation: State that the time rate of increase of mass
within a control volume is just equal to the net rate of mass inflow to
the control volume.
• Fig. 1. will be used as reference in deriving the mathematical equation
for the conservation of mass
•

Fig 1. System moving through a control volume.

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Conservation of Mass

Fig. 1. Flow moving through a control volume.

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Conservation of Mass
• This simply states that matter cannot be created nor destroyed
and the inflows, outflows and change in storage of mass in a
system must be in balance.

• Assumptions:

(a) steady flow,

(b) velocities normal to the surfaces,
(c) velocity and density constant over the respective areas, and
(d) one exit and one inlet to the control volume.
19

•
Conservation of Mass
• Let us consider a certain quantity of matter at some time t enclosed by
the solid line.
• At some later time t + t, the boundary of the system has a new
physical location as represented by the dotted line.
• Considering the regions denoted by A, B, and C, we have the system
occupying the region A at time t and at time t + t, it occupies regions
В and A-C.
• Letting m represent the mass contained in the different regions and at
different times with the appropriate subscripts,

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Conservation of Mass
• Rearranging and dividing by t,

• Taking the limit as t —>· 0, the left side becomes

which becomes

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Conservation of Mass
• where V is the velocity vector. V is the magnitude of the velocity
vector and α is the angle between the velocity vector and the outward
normal.
• Then the continuity equation for the control volume becomes

• Since the control volume is fixed, the right side of the equation is zero
for steady flow ( = 0) giving

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Conservation of Mass
• Continuity in branching flow

Fig. 2. Continuity in branching flow

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Conservation of Mass
• Assuming that the velocity is normal to all surfaces where fluid crosses,

• If the densities and velocities are uniform over their respective areas,

• For a single pipe with no third exit the equation becomes

• Hence for an incompressible flow,

Q = V1A1 = V2A2

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Conservation of Momentum
• This equation is one of the most important mathematical relationships
of fluid motion.
• It enables us to deal with problems involving forces of fluids on solid
surfaces and on other fluids, such as force on a pipe bend, thrust of a
jet engine, lift and drag on an airplane wing, and many others.
• The net force F acting on a particle or system of particles of fixed mass
is given by Newton's second law

• where Μ is the total linear momentum of the system.

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Conservation of Momentum
• This equation is one of the most important mathematical relationships
of fluid.
• If we assume that the force is constant over a time t, we may write

• Based on Fig. 1.

• Rearranging and dividing by t,

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Conservation of Momentum
• as t —>· 0, the first term on the right becomes

• and the second term becomes

• where is the momentum associated with the mass that has

crossed the boundary into region В in time t. is the time rate at
which momentum is crossing the surface into region В at time t. 27
Conservation of Momentum
Thus,

The total force F is made up of the total surface force Fs (pressure and
shear) and a body force В which is a force per unit volume. The
momentum equation for a control volume becomes

For steady flow and negligible body forces,

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Conservation of Momentum
Further, if we assume that the density and velocity are uniform over the
areas where the fluid is crossing the control surface, for one entrance 1 and
one exit 2, we have

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Energy
• The mathematical statement of the first law of thermodynamics is
Q-W= E
where Q = heat added to the system
W = work done by the system
E = change in energy of the system.
• Heat and work of equation involve an interaction of the system with other systems.
Energy, however, is energy associated with the mass of the system and is
customarily separated into three parts,
Ε = U + ½ mV2 +mgz
where U = internal energy associated with molecular and atomic behavior
½ mV2 = kinetic energy
mgz = potential energy
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ENERGY EQUATION FOR AN IDEAL FLUID
FLOW
Consider an elemental stream tube in motion
• F = Pressure x Area= PA=ma
 dv 
PdA  P  dP dA  gdAds cos   dAds 
 dt 
 dv 
 dP  gds cos   ds 
 dt 
dv  dv  dv ds dv
 v  since  
dt ds
  dt dt ds

• divide through by g, and dv2 = 2vdv:

• This equation is called Euler equation of motion

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Conservation Laws
Continuity, momentum and energy

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Equation of Continuity
• The equation of continuity results from the principle of conservation of
mass.
• For steady flow, the mass of fluid passing all sections in a stream of
fluid per unit of time is the same.
• This can be evaluated as

(N/S)
For incompressible fluids,
Q= (m3/s)

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Energy & Head
• Energy is defined as the ability to do work.
• Work is the result of the application of a force through a distance and
is generally defined mathematically as the product of a force and the
distance traversed in the direction of application.
• Both energy and work can therefore be expressed in units of ft-lb or N-
m. One N-m is a joule (J).
• Moving fluids possess energy. In analyzing fluid flow problems, three
forms of energy must be considered: potential, kinetic, and pressure
energy. These will be considered separately.

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Energy & Head
• Consider the fluid element within the conduit shown below. The element is located
a distance z above a reference datum and has a velocity V and pressure p.

• Potential energy refers to the energy possessed by the element of fluid due to its
elevation above a reference datum. Potential energy (PE) is
determined quantitatively by multiplying the weight (W) of the element by the
distance the element is located above the reference datum (z).
Therefore, PE = W z
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Energy & Head
• Kinetic energy refers to the energy possessed by the element of fluid due
to its velocity.
• Kinetic energy (KE) is determined quantitatively by multiplying the
mass (m) of the element by the square of the velocity (V) and taking
half the product. Therefore,
KE = ½ mV2
• The mass term (m) may be replaced by W/g (where W is weight and g is
the acceleration of gravity), giving

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Energy & Head
• Pressure energy, sometimes called flow energy, is the amount of work
required to force the element of fluid across a certain distance against
the pressure.
• The pressure energy (FE) can be evaluated by determining the work
done in moving the fluid element a distance equal to the segment's
length (d).
• The force causing work is the product of pressure (p) and cross-
sectional area (A) of the element.
• Hence,
FE = pAd

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Total Energy
• Term Ad is, in fact, the volume of the element, which can itself be
replaced by W/γ, where γ is the specific weight of the fluid. Hence,
FE = pW/ γ
• Total energy (E) is the sum of PE, KE, and FE:
(N.m)
• It is convenient to work with energy expressed as a "head"—i.e., the
amount of energy per unit weight of fluid.
• The total energy can be modified to express total energy as a "head"
(H) by dividing each term on the right-hand side of the equation by W,
the weight of the fluid.
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Total Energy
• This gives

• The term z is known as the elevation head; V2/2g is known as the velocity
head; and p/ is known as the pressure head.
• Each term is expressed in length units such as feet or meters.

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Energy Equation
• The energy equation results from application of the principle of
conservation of energy to fluid flow.
• The energy possessed by a flowing fluid consists of internal energy and
energies due to pressure, velocity, and position.
• In the direction of flow, the energy principle is summarized by the
general equation

• This equation, for steady flow of incompressible fluids in which the

change in internal energy is negligible, simplifies to

• This equation is known as the Bernoulli theorem 40

Application of the Bernoulli Theorem
• Application of the Bernoulli theorem should be rational and systematic.
Suggested procedure is as follows.
(1) Draw a sketch of the system, choosing and labeling all cross
sections of the stream under consideration.
(2) Apply the Bernoulli equation in the direction of flow. Select a
datum plane for each equation written. The low point is logical in
that minus signs are avoided and mistakes reduced in number.
(3) Evaluate the energy upstream at section 1.
(4) Add, in meters of the fluid, any energy contributed by mechanical
devices, such as pumps.

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Application of the Bernoulli Theorem
(5) Subtract, meters of the fluid, any energy lost during flow.
(6) Subtract, in meters of the fluid, any energy extracted by
mechanical devices, such as turbines
(7) Equate this summation of energy to the sum of the pressure
head, velocity head, and elevation head at section 2
(8) If the two velocity heads are unknown, relate them to each other
by means of the equation of continuity.

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Power
• Power is calculated by multiplying the number of pounds (or newtons)
of fluid flowing per second ( Q) by energy H in m. There result the
equations
P = Q H (N.m/s or W)
P= QH
Horsepower = P/550

43
Example 1
• When 0.03 m3/s flows through a 300-mm pipe that later reduces to a
150-mm pipe, calculate the average velocities in the two pipes.

44
Example 2
• A gas flows through a square conduit. At one point along the conduit,
the conduit sides are 0.100 m, the velocity is 7.55 m/s, and the gas's
mass density is (for its particular pressure and temperature) 1.09 kg/m3.
At a second point, the conduit sides are 0.250 m and the velocity is
2.02 m/s. Find the mass flow rate of the gas and the gas's mass density
at the second point.

45
Viscous flow
Flow with friction

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Introduction
• Fluid flows are commonly divided into two broad categories, namely,
inviscid and viscous flows.
• In an inviscid or ideal fluid the effects of viscosity are completely
ignored, i.e., the fluid is assumed to have no viscosity, and the flow is
considered to be non-turbulent.
• Inviscid flows are smooth and orderly, and the adjacent fluid layers
can easily slip past each other or against solid surfaces without any
friction or drag.
• Fluid viscosity is a molecular property which is a measure of the
internal resistance of the fluid to deformation. All real fluids, whether
liquids or gases, have finite viscosities associated with them.

47
Viscous flow
• If the surface is at rest, the fluid motion right at the surface must also
vanish.
• This is called the no-slip boundary condition, which is also applicable at
the interface of the two fluids with widely different densities (e.g. water
and air).
• Within the fluid flow, viscosity is responsible for the frictional
resistance between adjacent fluid layers.
• The resistance force per unit area is called the shearing stress, because it
is associated with the shearing motion (variation of velocity) between
the layers.

48
Viscous flow
• A simple demonstration of this is provided by the smooth, streamlined,
laminar flow between two large parallel planes, one fixed and the other
moving at a slow constant speed Uh , which are separated by a small
distance h
• Newton found the relationship that shearing stress is proportional to
the rate of strain or velocity gradient (fluids following a linear
relationship between the stress and the rate of strain are known as
Newtonian fluids), that is,
•

• Where the coefficient of proportionality is

called the dynamic viscosity of the fluid.
49
Viscous flow
• For three-dimensional flows,

• in which the first member of the subscript to denotes the direction

normal to the plane of the shearing stress and the second member
denotes the direction of the stress.

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Laminar and Turbulent flow
• All viscous flows can broadly be classified as laminar and turbulent
flows.
• A laminar flow is characterized by smooth, orderly, and slow motion in
which adjacent layers (laminae) of fluid slide past each other with very
little mixing and transfer (only at the molecular scale) of properties
across the layers. (Re < 2000)
• Turbulent flows are highly irregular, almost random, three-dimensional,
highly rotational, dissipative, and very diffusive (mixing) motions. (Re

51
Flow Through Pipes
Friction factor, loss of energy in pipes, pipes in parallel and series

52
Introduction
• Laminar and turbulent flow have been discussed
• When the Reynold number is less than 2000 for pipe flow, the flow is
known as laminar flow
• When the Reynold number is more than 4000, the flow is known as
turbulent flow.
• The flow of fluid through pipes running full will be considered in this
section.
• The flow is under pressure which is higher than atmospheric pressure
in most cases.

53
Loss of Energy in Pipes
• When a fluid is flowing through a pipe, the fluid experiences some
resistance due to which some of the energy of fluid is lost. This loss in
energy is classified as: Energy Losses

1. Major Energy Losses 2. Minor Energy Losses

This is due to
This is due to friction and it is
calculated by the following (a) sudden expansion in pipes
formulae: (b) sudden contraction in pipes
(a) Darcy-Weisbach Formula (c) Bend in pipe
(b) Chezy’s Formula
(d) Pipe fittings
(e) An obstruction in pipe

54
Loss of Energy Due to Friction
• The Darcy-Weisbach Formula
• The loss of head or energy in pipes due to friction is calculated from Darcy-
Weisbach equation.
• This is an empirical equation in fluid mechanics named after Henry Darcy and
Julius Weisbach. The Darcy Weisbach Equation relates the loss of pressure or
head loss due to friction along the given length of pipe to the average velocity
of the fluid flow for an incompressible fluid.

Uniform horizontal pipe with a steady flow of fluid

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Derivation - Darcy-Weisbach
• Step 1 (Assumptions):
• Consider a uniform horizontal pipe with fixed diameter d and cross-sectional
area A, which allows a steady flow of incompressible fluid.
• The two sections, S1 and S2 of the pipe are separated by the distance L.
• At all the point of S1, The pressure is P1, velocity is V1.
• At all the point of S2, the pressure is P2 and velocity is V2.
• The pressure at S1 is greater than the pressure at S2 i.e., (P1>P2) This pressure
difference makes the fluid flow along the pipe.
• When fluid flows there will be the loss of energy due to friction. Thus we can
apply Bernoulli’s principle.

56
Derivation - Darcy-Weisbach
• Step 2 (Apply Bernoulli’s principle):
•

• (1)
• =0, =0, (head loss due to friction). Thus,
• (2)
• For horizontal pipe (That is, the inlet of pipe and the outlet of the pipe are at
the same level from the reference plane):
• =
• Here, the diameter is uniform, for uniform diameter:
• =

57
Derivation - Darcy-Weisbach
• Equation (2) becomes
• (3)
• Then,
•

• (4)

58
Derivation - Darcy-Weisbach
• Step 3 (Find frictional resistance):
• Due to the combined effect of wet surface and surface roughness, the
resistance is offered to the flow of fluid due to friction.
• As a result, speed is reduced. The Froude was the first person to observe the
dependency of frictional resistance with surface roughness.
• The frictional resistance is well expressed through Froude’s formula.
• Let be the frictional resistance per unit area(wet) per unit velocity.
• Frictional resistance F = × wet area × (velocity)2

(6)
• Where P is the wetted perimeter

59
Derivation - Darcy-Weisbach
• Step 4 (Net force acting on the fluid at section S1 and S2):
• The net force is the sum of Forces due to pressure at S1, S2, and Fluid friction.
• Pressure at S1:
Since , then

• Pressure at S2:

• Fluid friction: it is a resistive force, thus the direction as -ve.

Resolving along the horizontal,

(7)
60
Derivation - Darcy-Weisbach
• By substituting equations (4) and (6) into (7), we have:
× ×
(8)
• On rearranging:
(9)

But

Coefficient of friction,

Equation (9) becomes:

(10) 61
Chezy’s Formula
• From equation (9):
,
The hydraulic mean depth or hydraulic radius denoted by m can be defined.

Substituting for m in equation (9) gives:

Making V2 the subject of the equation:

62
Derivation - Chezy’s Formula
(11)

• Let where C is known as the Chezy’s constant and where is

loss of head per unit length of pipe.
• Substituting these parameters into equation (11) gives
(12)
• Equation (12) is known as the Chezy’s formula.
• The value of m for a pipe is always equal to d/4
• The coefficient of friction can be found based on the Reynold number of the flow.
for Re < 2000
.
/ for Re > 4000 to 106 63
Example 1
Find the head lost due to friction in a pipe of diameter 300 mm and length
50 m through which water is flowing at a velocity of 3 m/s using (i) Darcy
formula
(ii) Chezy’s formula for which C = 60

Solution: Given:
Diameter of pipe d = 300 mm = 0.30 m
Length of pipe L = 50 m
Velocity of flow V = 3 m/s
Chezy’s constant C = 60
Kinematic viscosity v = 0.01 stoke = 0.01 cm2/s
= 0.01 x 10-4 m2/s 64
Example 1 Solution
(i) Darcy Formula is given as
Calculate Re,

Since the value of Re is above 4000,

/ /

Head lost,

65
Example 1 Solution
(i) Chezy’s Formula is given by
Where C = 60, m = d/4 = 0.30/4 = 0.075 m.
We the calculate using appropriate substitutions:

66
Assignment Part 1
1. Find the diameter of a pipe of length 2000 m when the rate of flow of
water through the pipe is 200 litres/s and the head lost due to friction
is 4 m. Take C = 50 in Chezy’s formula
2. A crude oil of kinematic viscosity 0.4 stoke is flowing through a pipe
of diameter 300 mm at the rate of 300 litres per sec. Find the head lost
due to friction for a length of 50 m of the pipe.
3. Calculate the discharge through a pipe of diameter 200 mm when the
difference of pressure head between the two ends of a pipe 500 m
apart is 4 m of water. Take for the Darcy-Weisbach
equation.

67
Minor Energy (Head) Losses
• The loss of head or energy due to friction in a pipe is known as major
loss while the loss of energy due to change of velocity is known as
minor loss.
• Minor losses include the following cases:
1. Loss of head due to sudden enlargement
2. Loss of head due to sudden contraction
3. Loss of head at the entrance to a pipe
4. Loss of head at the exit of a pipe
5. Loss of head due to an obstruction in a pipe
6. Loss of head due to bend in a pipe
7. Loss of head in various pipe fittings

68
Loss of Head Due to Sudden Enlargement
• Consider a liquid flowing through a pipe which has sudden
enlargement.
• p1 = pressure intensity at section 1-1
• V1= velocity of flow at section 1-1
• A1= area of pipe at section 1-1
• p2 = pressure intensity at section 2-2
• V2= velocity of flow at section 2-2
• A2= area of pipe at section 2-2

69
Loss of Head Due to Sudden Enlargement
• Due to sudden change of diameter from D1 to D2, the liquid flowing from the
smaller pipe is not able to follow the abrupt change of the boundary.
• Thus the flow separates from the boundary and turbulent eddies are formed.
• The loss of head takes place due to the formation of these eddies
• Let = pressure intensity of the liquid eddies on the area (A2 – A1)
= loss of head due to sudden enlargement
Applying Bernoulli’s equation to section 1-1 and 2-2 gives:

For an horizontal pipe, z1 = z2:

70
Loss of Head Due to Sudden Enlargement
(i)
Consider the control volume of liquid between sections 1-1 and 2-2. Then
the force acting on the liquid in the control volume in the direction of the
flow is:

Experimentally, it is found that

(ii)
Momentum of liquid/sec at section 1-1 = mass X velocity

71
Loss of Head Due to Sudden Enlargement
• Momentum of liquid/sec at section 2-2:

Therefore the change of momentum/sec =

From continuity equation, we have

So change of momentum/sec
=
(iii)

72
Loss of Head Due to Sudden Enlargement
• Now net force acting on the control volume in the direction of flow
must be equal to the rate of change of momentum.
• Equating equations (ii) and (iii),

• Dividing through by g:

73
Loss of Head Due to Sudden Enlargement
• Substituting the value of in equation (i),

The loss in head due to sudden enlargement is:

74
Loss of Head Due to Sudden Contraction
• Consider a liquid flowing in a pipe which has a
sudden contraction as shown in the figure on
the slide.
• Consider two sections 1-1 and 2-2 before and
after contraction.
• As the fluid flows from the large pipe to small
pipe, the area of the flow goes on decreasing
and becomes minimum at section C-C.
• This section C-C is called Vena-contracta.
• After section C-C a sudden large enlargement of
the area takes place
75
Loss of Head Due to Sudden Contraction
• Let Ac = Area of flow at section C-C
Vc = Velocity of flow at section C-C
A2 = Area of flow at section 2-2
V2 = Velocity of flow at section 2-2
hc = Loss of head due to sudden contraction

• Now hc = actually loss of head due to enlargement from section C-C,

to section 2-2 and is given by the following equation.
(i)
• From continuity equation, we have
or
/ 76
Loss of Head Due to Sudden Contraction
• Substituting the value of in (i),

, where
If the value of Cc is assumed to be equal to 0.62, then

.
Then becomes as
If the value of Cc is not given then the head loss due to contraction is taken as

77
Example 2
Find the loss of head when a pipe of diameter 200 mm is suddenly
enlarged to a diameter of 400 mm. The rate of flow water through the
pipe is 250 litre/s.
Given:
Diameter of smaller pipe, D1 = 200 mm = 0.20 m.
Therefore, Area
Diameter of large pipe, D2 = 400 mm = 0.40 m.
Therefore, Area
Discharge, Q = 250 litres/s = 0.25 m3/s

78
Example 2 Solution
.
• Velocity,
.
.
• Velocity,
.

The loss of head due to sudden enlargement,

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Example 3
• A horizontal pipe of diameter 500 mm is suddenly contracted to a
diameter of 250 mm. The pressure intensities in the large and smaller
pipe is given as 13.734 N/cm2 and 11.722 N/cm2 respectively. Find the
loss of head due to contraction if Cc =0.62. Also determine the rate of
flow of water.
• Given:
Diameter of large pipe, D1 = 500 mm = 0.5 m
Area, A1 = m2
Diameter of smaller pipe, D2 = 250 mm = 0.25 m
Area, A2 = m2
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Example 3 Solution
Pressure in the large pipe, p1 = 13.734 N/cm2 = 13.743 X 104 N/m2
Pressure in the smaller pipe, p2 = 11.772 N/cm2 = 11.772 X 104 N/m2
Cc = 0.62
Head lost due to contraction,
.

From continuity equation,

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Example 3 Solution
• Applying Bernoulli’s equation before and after contraction,

For an horizontal pipe, z1 = z2:

But and
Substituting these values into the Bernoulli’s equation,

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Example 3 Solution

.
Head loss due to contraction,
Rate of flow of water, Q = A2V2 = 0.04908 X 5.467 = 0.2683 m3/s = 268.3 lit/s
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Assignment Part 2
1. The rate of flow of water through a horizontal pipe is 0.25 m3/s. The
diameter of the pipe which is 200 mm is suddenly enlarged to 400 mm.
The pressure intensity in the smaller pipe is 11.772 N/cm2. Determine:
(i) Loss of head due to sudden enlargement
(ii) Pressure intensity in the large pipe

(iii) Power lost due to enlargement

2. A 150 mm diameter pipe reduces in diameter abruptly to 100 mm

diameter. If the pipe carries water at 30 litres per second, calculate the
pressure loss across the contraction. Take the coefficient of contraction as
0.6.
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