NNC Chemistry 6 Water and The Intermolecular Forces

chapter 6
Water and the

intermolecular
forces
By the end of this chapter you will have covered the following material.
Science Understanding components is caused by the variation

of strength of the interactions between
Observable properties, including vapour atoms, molecules or ions in the mobile and
pressure, melting point, boiling point and stationary phases (ACSCH059)
solubility, can be explained by considering Water is a key substance in a range of
the nature and strength of intermolecular chemical systems because of its unique
forces within a substance (ACSCH055) properties, including its boiling point, density
The shapes of molecules can be explained in solid and liquid phases, surface tension,
and predicted using three-dimensional and ability to act as a solvent (ACSCH061)
representations of electrons as charge The unique properties of water can be
clouds and using valence shell electron pair explained by its molecular shape and
repulsion (VSEPR) theory (ACSCH056) hydrogen bonding between molecules
The polarity of molecules can be explained (ACSCH062)
and predicted using knowledge of molecular The solubility of substances in water,
shape, understanding of symmetry, and including ionic and molecular substances,
comparison of the electronegativity of can be explained by the intermolecular
elements (ACSCH057) forces between species in the substances
The shape and polarity of molecules can be and water molecules, and is affected by
used to explain and predict the nature and changes in temperature (ACSCH065)
strength of intermolecular forces, including
dispersion forces, dipole-dipole forces and
hydrogen bonding (ACSCH058)
Data from chromatography techniques
Shutterstock.com/Menna
(for example, thin layer, gas and high-

performance liquid chromatography) can
be used to determine the composition and
purity of substances; the separation of the
6.1 Water and
intermolecular forces
Water has unique physical and chemical properties. For a small molecule, it has a big influence
on life on Earth. Water’s unique properties arise partly from the strength of the intermolecular
forces between the water molecules. These forces are affected by the shape of the water molecules
and are important for some practical applications.
WOW
Small but powerful

Intermolecular forces are extremely small. Yet they are used by
geckos to perform amazing feats. A gecko can hang from a
polished surface, supporting its entire body weight, with only
one toe. Aristotle wrote about these feats 2300 years ago. Now
Science Photo Library/Paul D. Stewart

scientists think they have determined how they can happen.
There are 14 0 00 tiny ‘hairs’ called setae on every square
millimetre of a gecko’s footpad. Each individual seta has a
diameter of 5 micrometres, thinner than human hair. These
tiny setae have even smaller curved pads that create billions
of interactions between the gecko’s foot and the surface. This
explains why a 5 cm long gecko can support the equivalent
weight of a 9-year-old child.
The study of how geckos adhere to a surface has influenced
the design and fabrication of bio-inspired dry and reversible
adhesive surfaces. Figure C6.1
The feet and toes of gecko lizards use powerful
intermolecular forces to support their weight
Forces between molecules

Gecko You need to heat water to over 3000°C to break its covalent bonds and isolate hydrogen and
adhesive oxygen. When ice melts at 0°C and water vaporises at 100°C, water is merely changing state.
fit for These relatively low temperatures are evidence that covalent bonds are not breaking. The bonds
Spiderman between the water molecules, the intermolecular forces, are broken. The low melting point
Watch this video shows that the intermolecular forces are much weaker than the covalent bonds within the
to learn about molecule.
making new
adhesive materials Intermolecular forces between molecules are much weaker than covalent bonds
that don’t feel within molecules. The structure and composition of molecules determines which
sticky. intermolecular forces are present. These forces determine the properties of the
material.
6.2 Shapes of molecules

To explain the properties of materials, chemists need to understand their underlying structure.
Molecules exist in a three-dimensional space, but we generally represent molecules in two
dimensions. The structure and bonding in molecules is described by using either electron dot
formulas or valence structures.
Electron dot formulas

Atoms tend to be more stable when there are eight valence electrons around the central atom.
This is known as the octet rule. In electron dot formulas, each of the outer valence electrons is
shown as a dot (or ‘3’) around the chemical symbol, as shown in Figure C6.2 on page 259. Eight
valence electrons would be shown by four pairs of dots circling the central nucleus. They are not
shown as pairs until four positions are occupied. So, for the element nitrogen, there would be one
pair and three separate electrons.
258 N e l son C h e m i s t r y U n i t s 1 & 2 f o r t h e Aus t r a l i a n Cu r r i c u l um 9 7 8 0 17 0 2 4 6 6 4 4

Electron valence shell diagram Electron dot formula Valence structure* Physical models
F F F F
+ + Ball and stick
This indicates that only one

pair of electrons is shared. Non-bonding pair
Key: + Nucleus Key: Valence electron Key: Bonding pair

The nucleus and As for the electron Solid ball
Electron F inner-shell electrons F dot formula (space-filling)
of fluorine
* Chemists use the convention of representing the non-bonding pairs as pairs of dots, as shown. However, some books
represent them as strokes instead, or omit them from the diagram.
Figure C6.2
Representing the shape of molecules
In covalent bonds, the electrons shared between two atoms are called the bonding pair
of electrons, so the dots are placed between the symbols for the two elements. A single bond is
formed when one pair of electrons is shared. A double bond occurs when two pairs of electrons
(two sets) are shared between the two atoms. The pairs of valence electrons not involved with
bonding are called the lone pair or non-bonding pair of electrons. The lone pairs are shown
around the element as a pair of dots or crosses.
Figure C6.3
Electron dot formulas
Electron dot
H H H and valence structure

formula
for the molecules CH4,

H C H C C H C C H N N H2CCH2, HCCH and N2.
H H H Note that dots or ‘x’s
Bonding pair are used to distinguish
which electrons are from
the different atoms.
H H H
structure
Valence
H C H C C H C C H N N
H H H
Lone pairs
Formula
CH4 H2CCH2 HCCH N2
Valence structures
Valence structures can be used as an alternative to drawing electron dot formulas. A single
bond, shown by a line joining the two atoms, has one pair of electrons. A double bond, shown To revise covalent
by two short lines, has two pairs of electrons. A triple bond has three short lines or three pairs bonding and
of electrons. Lone pairs of electrons are drawn around the element as either two dots, a short multiple bonds, refer
to Chemistry section
line or another line that points away from the element. Valence structures have the advantage of
3.5 on page 178.
showing the structure of the molecules and are often called the structural formulas.
Electron dot formulas use pairs of dots to represent the bonding between atoms.
Valence structures use lines to show the bonding, and non-bonding or lone pairs
of electrons are shown as a pair of dots, crosses or a line and can be used to
represent the shape of molecules.
9 7 8 0 17 0 2 4 6 6 4 4 c h a p t e r 6 : W a t e r a nd t h e i n t e r mo l e c u l a r f o r c e s 2 5 9
a c t i v i t y 6 .1
R e p r e s e n t i n g mo l e c u l e s
Aim
To draw electron dot formulas and the valence structures for a range of molecules
What to do
1 Determine the maximum number of covalent bonds an atom of each of the following elements can
form: H, C, N, O, F, Ne, P, Cl
2 Draw electron dot formulas for fluorine (F2), hydrogen fluoride (HF), water (H2O), carbon tetrachloride
(CCl4), phosphine (PH3), carbon dioxide (CO2), hydrochloric acid (HCl), nitrogen dioxide (NO2) and
neon (Ne).
What did you discover?
Can you use the formula to predict the arrangement of atoms around the central atom? Which atoms are
more likely to be central to the molecules?
Predicting the shape of molecules

It is important to know the shape of molecules because the shape will determine the
intermolecular bonding and properties of the substance. The valence structure of water shows
a two-dimensional shape, in which oxygen is central to two hydrogen atoms. The three-
dimensional shape could be
a
the three atoms in a row, a V-shape molecule or two hydrogen atoms at right angles to the
central oxygen.
H O H Valence shell electron pair repulsion (VSEPR) theory has been used for over 50 years to
determine the shape and hence the function of many molecules. It gives an understanding of
how proteins may bond to an enzyme, essential for many medical applications.
b
Although the ‘R’ in VSEPR stands for the word ‘repulsion’, the theory is based upon the
Pauli exclusion principle, not electron repulsion. Pauli’s exclusion principle states that each
H H orbital can only have 0, 1 or 2 electrons. If two electrons are present, then they spin in opposite
directions around the nucleus. The discovery of this electron spin is fundamental to the Pauli
O exclusion principle. Two electrons of the same spin have a zero probability of being found in the
same location and will be found in locations as far apart as possible.
c
VSEPR (valence shell electron pair repulsion) theory is based upon the number
H of electron pairs surrounding the central atom. The electron pairs arrange
themselves as if they repel each other.
O H The three-dimensional structure of simple molecules depends upon the number of electron pairs
Figure C6.4 around the central atom. The electron dot formulas are used to indicate electron pairs. These
The possible shape of may be bonding and/or lone pairs. The electron pairs will be at a maximum distance from
the water molecule: a) each other. It helps to think of the electron pairs as points on a sphere with the central atom
two-dimensional shape,
b) V-shaped molecule in the middle.
and c) two hydrogens at
right angles. Which one Lone pairs are closer to the single nucleus and so occupy more space. Bonding pairs are
is correct? shared by two atoms and are attracted by the two nuclei. Hence, they occupy less space and
cause less repulsion than lone pairs.
The common shapes of molecules are summarised in Table C6.1 on page 262.

Chemistry Reviews, Volume 252, Issues 12–14,
a b c
Reproduced from R. J. Gillespie (2008) ‘Fifty
pp. 1315–27, with permission from Elsevier.

Years of the VSEPR Theory’. Coordination
1808
F Be F
Figure C6.5
The electron density surrounding molecules calculated by the VSEPR theory. a) ClF3; b) NH3;
c) PF3. Note that lone pairs take up more space than bonding pairs of electrons. H
109.58
C
To work out the shape of a molecule: H H
draw the electron dot formula H
count the lone pairs and bonding pairs. Remember that lone pairs are electron pairs that are not Figure C6.6
shared, while bonding pairs form the covalent bonds The molecule BeF2
is linear and CH4 is
treat the electrons in a covalent bond, whether a single, double or triple bond, as one set of tetrahedral.
electrons
use Table C6.1 on page 262 to predict the shape based upon the number of bonding and lone pairs.
The simplest example to show the application of the VSEPR theory is BeF2 (Figure C6.6).
N
Here the central Be atom has only two electron pairs, one to each F atom. The three atoms are H H
in a line, which means that the bonding pairs are at 180° from each other. The shape is linear. H 107.38
The carbon atom in methane (CH4) has four bonding pairs to the hydrogen atoms. The four
hydrogen atoms and their bonding pairs of electrons are furthest apart in a tetrahedral shape
(the angle between the bonds is 109.5°).
O
The nitrogen atom in ammonia (NH3) has four electron pairs, which includes three bonding H H
and one lone pair. The hydrogen atoms are at three corners of the tetrahedral and the lone pair 104.458
occupies the final spot. This results in a pyramid shape for ammonia (the angle between the
Figure C6.7
bonds is 107.3°) (see Figures C6.7 and C6.8). Ammonia is pyramid-
shaped and water is
bent or V-shaped.
This represents a pair of electrons around the oxygen

The 3 atoms make atom that is not shared with a hydrogen atom.
a V-shape. A tetrahedron is a pyramid with
a triangular base and four faces.
The oxygen atom is in the
centre of the tetrahedron.
This is the furthest apart that
adjacent pairs of electrons
can be, when there are 4 pairs
Each of the of electrons repelling each other.
hydrogen
atoms is on a In Chemistry
vertex of the Chapter 3, the
tetrahedron.
structure of pure
carbon in diamond
Figure C6.8 Figure C6.9 form was described
Explaining the pyramid shape of Explaining the V-shape of water
ammonia as tetrahedral, with C
atoms at each vertex
of the tetrahedron.
The electronic
Oxygen is the central atom in water. Oxygen has two lone pairs and two bonding pairs of
configuration of a
electrons. These four pairs are directed to the corners of the tetrahedron. Two of these are taken carbon atom is
up by oxygen’s lone pairs. This results in a V-shape for water molecules. Water is often called a 1s2 2s2 2p2.
bent molecule (see Figure C6.9).
Table C6.1 Shapes of molecules
Generic formula Number of electron Lone pairs on M Molecular shape

(M, X 5 atoms; E 5 pairs
lone pair of electrons)
MX 1 0 Linear
1808 HCl
MX2 2 0 Linear
1808 CO2
MX3 3 0 Trigonal planar
SO3
1208
MX2E 3 1 V-shaped
1158 NO2
MX4 4 0 Tetrahedral
109.58
CH4
MX3E 4 1 Trigonal pyramidal

NH3
107.38
MX2E2 4 2 V-shaped
H2 O
104.458
MX6 6 0 Octahedral
Cu(H2O)63+
VSEPR and the 3D

structures
Visit this website to see
the VSEPR structures
of some common
molecular geometries.

Act ivit y 6. 2
M o l e c u l a r mod e l s
Three-dimensional molecules are best viewed with the aid of models.
Aim
To produce a series of models that demonstrates the shape of molecules
You will need
Molecular model kits or straws and beads
Digital camera (optional)
What to do
1 Create a table with column headings HF, CO2, H2O, CH4, C2H6, C2H4, NH3, NO2.
2 a For each compound, draw the electron dot formulas.
b Note the number of bonding and lone pairs.
3 a Draw the valence structure.
b Note the number of lone pairs and bonding pairs.
4 Use the table to predict the shape of the molecules.
5 Make the model of the molecule.

Compare your model with your prediction. How did it compare? Was it easier to see in three dimensions?
Extension
Use the Internet, computer programs or tablet apps to find ‘ball and stick’ and space-filling
representations of the molecules. Why would chemists have so many ways to represent the molecules?
Q u e s t i o n s e t 6 .1
Remembering
1 What is the maximum number of covalent bonds the following atoms can form?
a Cl
b O
c N
d C
e H
f S
2 Why does oxygen always have two lone pairs of electrons?
3 Draw the electron dot formulas for HCl, NH3 and CH4 and answer the following.
a Identify how many bonding pairs and non-bonding pairs there are in each molecule.
b Describe the shape of each of these molecules.
c Explain why they have this shape.
Understanding
4 Explain why H2S has the same shape as H2O.
5 Give explanations for why a water molecule is V-shaped but carbon dioxide is linear.
Applying
6 Draw the electron dot and valence structures and then describe the shape you would expect for each of
the following molecules.
a SiH4
b CH3Cl
c H2O2
d CS2
e H2Se
f HCN
g COCl2
h CO
7 Phosphine (PH3) is a toxic gas that consists of only P and H.
a Predict the shape of phosphine by:
i writing the electronic configuration of P.
ii drawing the electron dot formula of P and hence deduce the formula for phosphine.
iii determining the number of bonding and non-bonding pairs.
iv predicting the shape of the phosphine.
b Why would this molecule have a different shape from PF5?
6.3 Uneven electron

sharing
In Chemistry 3, you considered molecules such as N2 or Cl2 made from the same non-metal
To revise element. In these molecules, the electrons in the covalent bonds are evenly shared between the
electronegativity, two atoms. This is not true with certain heteroatomic molecules that have more than one type
refer to Chemistry of element present. With molecules such as HCl, NH3 and H2O, the electrons are not evenly
section 1.4 on shared. That is because the three elements Cl, N and O tend to attract the electrons more, due
page 111.
to their electronegativity (electron-attracting power).
Bonding electrons in HCl molecules are strongly attracted to the chlorine nucleus because
chlorine is more electronegative than hydrogen. This means the electrons will spend more time
at the chlorine end of the molecule and this end of the molecule will be slightly more negative.
This is represented in diagrams with a delta negative sign (d2). The hydrogen end will be
slightly more positive and is represented by a delta positive sign (d1). This is shown in
Figure C6.10.
The hydrogen2chlorine bond is a polar covalent bond. The molecule is considered to be
a dipole: it has two poles of opposite charges at either end, rather like a magnet with a north
and a south pole. Diatomic molecules with a net dipole are considered to be polar. Non-polar
molecules such as hydrogen have a uniform charge over the whole molecule.
Common polar bonds are those between O-H, N-H, C-O and C-Cl. The most
electronegative elements in order of decreasing strength are:
d1 d2 F . O . N 5 Cl . Br . C 5 S 5 I . P 5 H . Si
H Cl Uneven sharing of bonding electrons can occur when H or C forms covalent bonds
Figure C6.10 with strong electronegative elements such as O, N, Cl and F. When this happens,
The polarity of the HCl the covalent bond is a polar covalent bond.
molecule

Polar and non-polar polyatomic Figure C6.11
The carbon dioxide
molecules
molecule is non-polar,
despite the presence of
polar covalent bonds.
For molecules with more than two The water molecule is
different atoms, the presence of a polar O polar. The dipoles add
together in water but
covalent bond does not necessarily mean
the molecule is polar. O C O H H cancel out in carbon
dioxide. The arrow
Carbon dioxide (CO2) is a linear points from the positive
104.458 end to the negative end
molecule with a central carbon atom and of the dipole.
oxygen on each side. The molecule is symmetrical. The C-O bond is polar, with the dipole
pointing towards the oxygen because it is more electronegative, but there is no net separation To determine
of charge in the overall molecule. Each oxygen will attract the electrons, but as they are on symmetry, it may
either end of the molecule, the charge is distributed over the whole molecule. It is like having an help to consider the
equally strong person on each end of a rope in tug of war; the rope doesn’t move as the pull from symmetry of your
each end is equal. The poles cancel each other out. Although the molecule has polar covalent body. Vertically you
bonds, there is no net separation of the charges so no net dipole. This molecule is non-polar. are symmetrical,
Contrast this with water as shown in Figure C6.11. In water, the O-H bond is polar. with an arm and
Oxygen is central and hydrogen is at the bottom of the L-shape. This means that the bottom leg on either side.
But horizontally
end of the molecule is slightly positive. Water is asymmetrical; there is a net dipole present so
above and below
water is polar. The presence of polar covalent OH bonds and a V-shape means that the water your waist you are
molecule is polar. not symmetrical
The ammonia (NH3) and tetrachloromethane (CCl4) molecules have different shapes and (asymmetrical).
polar bonds. NH3, a pyramidal-shaped molecule, is polar. The N atom at the top of the pyramid
is slightly negative due to its greater electronegativity. The hydrogen end of the
molecule is slightly positive. Due to the asymmetry, it is a polar molecule. CCl4 Cl
has polar bonds due to differences in electronegativity between C and Cl. It is
tetrahedral in shape with a central carbon. The dipole in each of the C–Cl bonds
N C
H H Cl Cl
points to the Cl atom. The negative regions on chlorine in CCl4 cancel themselves
out due to the symmetry of the molecule. CCl4 molecules are non-polar.
H 107.38 Cl
Figure C6.12
Molecules can be non-polar despite the presence of polar bonds. For the molecule The molecular shape
to be polar, there must be a polar bond present and there must be asymmetry in of ammonia (NH3) and
the molecular shape. tetrachloromethane
(CCl4)
Question set 6.2
Remembering
1 List the four elements that form polar covalent bonds with carbon or hydrogen.
2 Define the following terms.
a Dipole
b Polar covalent bond
c Polar
Understanding
3 The most electronegative elements in order of decreasing strength are F . O . N 5 Cl . Br . C 5 S 5 I .
P 5 H . Si. Consider the following pairs of elements: O – H, Cl – H, C – H, P– H, N – O, N – Cl, N – H, S – H, C – S, F– O,
Cl– O, C – O, P– O, C – Cl.
a In covalent bonds between these elements, indicate which element would be slightly more negative
and which would be more positive by labelling with d2 and d1 where appropriate.
b Classify the pairs of elements given above as highly polar, having some polarity or non-polar.
Applying
4 Consider the following molecules.
a SiH4
b CH3Cl
c CS2
d PH3
i Draw electron dot formulas and valence structures.
ii Determine the shape of the molecule.
iii Predict if the molecule has polar bonds.
iv Show the direction of the dipole, if present, by drawing an arrow towards the negative end of each
polar bond.
v State whether the molecule has a net dipole, making it polar.
5 Determine whether the following are polar.
a Ammonia
b Iodine chloride
c Dichloromethane (CH2Cl2)
d Nitrogen trichloride
e Sulfur difluoride
Analysing
6 Hydrogen peroxide is polar. Predict the shape of H2O2. Explain why at first this appears unusual.
6.4 Three types of

intermolecular forces
All bonding is due to attraction of opposites (electromagnetic attraction). There are three
types of intermolecular forces – dispersion forces, dipole–dipole forces and hydrogen
bonds. Intermolecular forces occur between the molecules. They can occur between molecules
of the same substance and between molecules of different substances.
Intermolecular forces are much weaker than the intramolecular forces that exist within
molecules. Intramolecular forces are generally considered to be covalent. Covalent, ionic and
metallic bonding are much stronger than the intermolecular forces.
The strength of intermolecular forces increases with increasing polarisation of molecules.
The weakest is the dispersion force, then the dipole–dipole force and then a special case of the
dipole–dipole force, the hydrogen bond.
Figure C6.13
Dipole–dipole attraction
between polar
Dipole–dipole forces
molecules of HCl Dipole–dipole attraction In polar molecules, there is a net dipole. One end of the molecule
is slightly negative while the other end is slightly positive.
Hydrochloric acid (HCl) is a polar molecule. The presence of dipoles
d1
d+ d2 d1 d2
creates an attraction between neighbouring molecules, a dipole–
dipole force, which is an attraction between two dipoles in two
The combination of individual molecules. Molecules line up so that the slightly positive
electrostatic attractions and (d1) end of one molecule attracts the slightly negative end (d2) of
repulsions will cause the d 2 d1 d2 d1 another molecule. The dipole–dipole force (dipole-dipole attraction)
molecules to align like this.
is relatively strong because the dipole is permanent.

Hydrogen bonds
Boiling and melting points give an estimation of the strength of the intermolecular forces
between molecules. Figure C6.14 shows a general increase in boiling points as you go down the
periodic table groups, if you could exclude period 2 hydrides.
Figure C6.14
150
Boiling point of hydrides
H2O of groups 14–17
100
Boiling point (8C)
50
HF
0 H2Te
H2Se SbH3
NH3 Hl
H2S
–50 AsH3 SnH4
HCI HBr
–100 PH3
GeH4
SiH4
–150 CH4
–200
1 2 3 4 5
Period
When nitrogen, oxygen or fluorine is attached to a hydrogen atom, the resulting molecule
has an unusually high boiling point. When these very electronegative elements bond to
hydrogen, a special type of dipole–dipole force occurs called a hydrogen bond. This is the
strongest of the weak intermolecular forces being about one-tenth the strength of a covalent
bond. In diagrams, it is shown as a dotted line between the molecules.
Hydrogen bonds are due to the hydrogen nucleus (a single proton) being extremely small.
When hydrogen is bonded to the most electronegative elements (fluorine, oxygen and nitrogen),
the charge over the polar covalent bond is at a maximum. Water displays hydrogen bonding.
Oxygen’s strong ability to attract electrons means that the electrons in the O–H covalent bond
are more attracted to oxygen. Oxygen becomes slightly negatively charged and hydrogen is
left with a slightly positive charge. The hydrogen atom is so small that it also means that two
molecules can get very close to each other. Similarly, in ammonia the nitrogen attracts the
electrons of the covalent bonds, leaving the hydrogen atoms more positive. These can attract
adjacent nitrogens. Hydrogen bonding then occurs between the hydrogen in –OH, –NH
or –FH and the lone pairs on nitrogen, oxygen or fluorine on the adjacent molecule.
The dipole–dipole force occurs when there is a permanent dipole present. The
hydrogen bond is a special case of the dipole–dipole force.
A hydrogen bond occurs when an H atom that is bonded to an O, N or F atom in
one molecule becomes attracted to the lone pair of electrons of N, O or F of an
adjacent molecule.
Figure C6.15
d1 Hydrogen bonding
H occurs between an H on
NH3 Hydrogen bonding one molecule and the
lone pair of electrons on
d2 between molecules
d1 N (or O or F) in another
H H
molecule.
H d1 d2
H2O
d1
Key: d1 H
Oxygen atom
Nitrogen atom
WOW
Shocking news: Hydrogen bond about
to be redefined?
The definition of a hydrogen bond may be about to change. It is not as clear cut or
simple as it appears. Scientists have found that hydrogen bonding is occurring in more
subtle situations. Solid hydrogen sulfide appears to have a structure resembling ice. Some
researchers have discovered evidence that hydrogen sulfide can form hydrogen bonds
with ethylene. Even more unusual is that non-polar substances such as methane and
krypton have been found to bond with hydrogen. But maybe the most controversial is the
evidence of shared electron density between hydrogen-bonded molecules. This means
that there is some covalent nature to this bond.
Dispersion forces
To see how
different types of Polar molecules can form dipole–dipole or hydrogen bonds between the molecules. Non-polar
intermolecular molecules cannot, so there must be some other force that enables non-polar molecules, such as
forces relate to dry ice, liquid nitrogen and oils and fats, to form liquids and solids. This force is a dispersion
the properties of force.
substances, refer to The simplest molecule, hydrogen (H2), can be used to explain this force. The force is
Context 3, ‘Water: extremely weak because hydrogen has an extremely low melting point. The hydrogen molecules
the vital substance’, have a cloud of electron density surrounding them. When the electrons are on one side of the
page 59. molecule there is, for an instant, a temporary dipole. One end of the molecule will be very
slightly more positive and the other end will be very slightly more negative. The temporary
Figure C6.17 positive end attracts a neighbouring molecule’s electrons, inducing them to come towards
Noble gases can the positive area. This forms the weak electrostatic attractions that are dispersion forces. The
explain how dispersion
forces occur through fluctuating changes in charge result in a very weak force between molecules.
instantaneous dipoles Dispersion forces must exist in every molecule, as every molecule has the rapidly fluctuating
induced due to the electrons orbiting the molecule. The force is due to the rapid movement of electrons in the cloud
movement of electrons.
of electron density surrounding the molecule.
Dispersion forces are much weaker than other intermolecular forces. When dipole–dipole or
He(A) He(B) hydrogen bonding is present, the effect of dispersion forces is discounted.
No polarisation Dispersion forces are also present in the noble gases (see Figure C6.17). Electrons in two
adjacent atoms occupy positions so that the atoms form temporary dipoles. With more electrons,
there are more chances for dispersion forces to occur. Molecules are electrically neutral, so when
d 2 d1 there are more electrons, there are more protons. So, increased molecular weight means an
increased chance of dispersion forces and a higher melting point. The electrons in larger atoms
He(A) He(B) are also further from the nucleus and more readily form temporary dipoles. This explains why
Instantaneous the larger noble gas argon has a boiling point of 2186°C, much higher than that of helium
dipole on atom A 2272°C. A similar trend of increasing dispersion forces with increasing molecular weight is seen
with the halogens.
d 2 d1 d2 d1
He(A) He(B) dd–

Induced dipole
on atom B Instantaneous dipole
dd+ dd– dd+ These minute, temporary

Figure C6.16
charges are given the
The dispersion forces Dispersion forces symbols dd+ and dd–,
between hydrogen the double use of the
molecules in solid dd– dd+ lower-case Greek letter
hydrogen, showing delta, d, indicating how
instantaneous dipole– tiny the charge is.
dipole interactions

Dispersion forces are due to instantaneous temporary dipoles that occur with the A gecko’s amazing
movement of electrons. The more electrons present (the larger the molecular ability of their toes
weight), the bigger the dispersion force will be between the molecules. to stick to almost
anything relies on
dispersion forces
Table C6.2 Boiling points of noble gases and halogens between each seta
and the surface. With
Noble gas Boiling point (°C) Halogen Boiling point (°C) a large surface area
Helium 2269 Fluorine 2188 for dispersion forces
to occur, the overall
Neon 2246 Chlorine 234.6 force can be strong.
Argon 2186 Bromine 58.8
Krypton 2152 Iodine 183
Xenon 2108 Astatine 337 Intermolecular

forces and
Radon 262 boiling points
Visit this website
to learn how
6.5 The importance intermolecular forces

affect boiling points.
of bonding
Bonding is responsible for many of the properties of materials and biomolecules. The nucleic
acids in the DNA double helix are held together by hydrogen bonds. This allows them to unzip To learn more about
easily, enabling replication and transcription. Hydrogen bonding helps maintain the structures in the interaction
of proteins, enzymes, ribosomes and cell membranes. between molecules,
Analytical techniques such as chromatography work because of surface interactions and refer to Chemistry
section 8.2 on page
the intermolecular bonds of different substances to different surfaces or solvents. Utilising this
346.
knowledge allows chemists to determine the organic substances in mixtures.
Water and hydrogen bonding

There are three types of bonding in water. Strong covalent bonding exists between the There is a negative
H and O within the molecule. Hydrogen bonding and dispersion forces occur between the correlation between
water molecules. Hydrogen bonding is responsible for the unique properties of water. intermolecular
The unique properties of water include unusual melting and boiling points, density in solid force strength and
and liquid phases, surface tension and an ability to act as a very good solvent. Hydrogen vapour pressure.
bonding explains all the properties that relate to temperature. You need a relatively large amount Compounds
of energy to break the bonds in water, which is why water has a relatively high boiling point, that have strong
100°C. For a certain amount of energy, fewer molecules escape into the air. The fewer vaporised intermolecular forces
will have low vapour
water molecules means lower vapour pressure, the downwards pressure exerted by the gas
pressure.
molecules on the surface of the liquid.To change state from liquid to gas (high latent heat) or to
increase the average temperature of the water (high specific heat) energy must be absorbed. The
change is endothermic.
The surface tension of water is high as hydrogen bonding occurs in all directions and is
relatively strong. It holds the molecules together.
The cohesive nature of water helps plants take up nutrients from the soil. Root hairs draw
up water containing dissolved nutrients such as nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium from the
soil. Capillary action helps the water to move up the xylem of the plant to the leaf surface.
Capillary action relies on the adhesion of water molecules to the sides of the xylem vessel and
the cohesive properties of water. The cohesion of water molecules means dissolved nutrients are
pulled all the way up tall trees, defying gravity.
Figure C6.18
In the bulk of liquid H2O H2O H2O H2O H2O H2O
water, each molecule
has forces operating in
all directions. However,
on the surface, there H2O H2O H2O H2O H2O H2O
is an imbalance – the
liquid molecules are
attracted to each other
and exert a net force H2O H2O H2O H2O H2O H2O
that pulls them together.
H2O H2O H2O H2O H2O H2O
H2O H2O H2O H2O H2O H2O
Capillary action is due to three main forces. These are the:

cohesive force – the intermolecular force between molecules in a substance that helps to
maintain a certain shape of the liquid.
surface tension – this is due to the cohesive forces at the surface of material and results in the
surface of the fluid being under tension
To see how hydrogen adhesive force – these are the forces of attraction between unlike molecules.
bonding affects Capillary action can be seen when part of a towel is dipped in water – the whole towel
water, refer to eventually gets soaked. Capillary action can also be seen in narrow glass vessels, where adhesive
Context 3, ‘Water: forces between water molecules and the surface of the glass and cohesive forces in water cause
the vital substance’,
the surface of the water to curve to form a meniscus. The water continues to be drawn up,
page 67.
until gravity overcomes the adhesive force.
I n v e s t i g at i o n 6 .1
C a p i l l a r y a c t i on
Aim
To determine the relationship between the diameter of a tube and the height of the water column
What do you need

Beaker with coloured water
Glass tubes with diameters in the range 1–4 mm
Capillary
tube
Retort
stand
Beaker
Coloured Figure C6.19

water Experimental set-up for testing capillary action

What to do
1 Complete the following risk assessment to identify any risks that may occur during the investigation and
ways to reduce them. Ask your teacher to check your risk assessment before you proceed.
What are the risks in doing this investigation? How can you manage these risks to stay safe?
2
Place the glass tubes upright in the beaker of coloured water. The water should be drawn up the surface
of the tubes.
3 Measure the height of the water column.

1 Was there a correlation between the size of the capillary tube and the height of the water column?
2 Did you always notice the water curving up to form a meniscus? Was the surface tension always strong
enough to support a column of water defying gravity?
Extension
Use the Internet and other resources to investigate why mercury has a concave meniscus. How do solutes in
water affect capillary action?
As with all substances, as water cools, its particles slow down and pack closer together so the
density increases. Therefore, cooler water has a higher density than warmer water. When the
temperature is less than 4°C, the molecules do not have as much kinetic energy and no longer
To revise how the
move between the spaces, but form more hydrogen bonds, as shown in Figure C6.20. The density of water
shape of the water molecule means a regular hexagonal shape is formed. Water has the unique and ice influences
property of expanding as it freezes. The density decreases as it cools from 3°C to 0°C. Ice is the physical and
about 8% less dense than water. biological processes
Another property of water is its ability to act as a solvent. Pure water is liquid from 0°C to on Earth, refer to
100°C. This means that it can act as a solvent over this temperature range. Water dissolves and Context 3, ‘Water,
transports a range of material across the whole planet and also through each cell of a living the vital substance’,
page 63.
organism. Water does this by forming hydrogen bonds or ion–dipole bonds with a wide range
of substances from salts to organic molecules such as proteins.
Figure C6.20
Ice Water Steam The structure of ice
compared to that of
liquid water and steam
showing hydrogen
bonding
Key: Oxygen atom Hydrogen atom H bonding
An understanding of
hydrogen bonding,
Water of crystallisation
dipole–dipole and Water of crystallisation occurs when water molecules are attracted to the ions of a salt. Many
dispersion forces is ionic compounds that crystallise out of an aqueous solution include water molecules in a regular
important because array through the crystal lattice. The water molecules are in set ratio to the ionic substance.
it allows chemists to These compounds are called hydrated. For example, CuSO4.5H2O has five water molecules
predict properties of crystallisation per unit of copper(II) sulfate. The bonds between the ions and water are
such as melting
called ion–dipole bonds; the ion and the dipole in the water molecules form a weak bond.
and boiling points
and whether one Water or other molecules that form dipole bonds to a metal atoms are referred to as ligands.
substance will The water ligands take the positions around the central ion and will follow the VSEPR theory.
dissolve in another CuSO4.5H2O is an octahedral shape. The central ion is a cation, so the negative oxygen of water
substance. points towards the Cu21 as shown in Figure C6.21.
Figure C6.21
The crystals of copper(II)
sulfate consist of an
octahedral arrangement
of water molecules and
sulfate ions around the
central copper ion.
Key: Oxygen atom Hydrogen atom Sulfur atom Copper atom Ion–dipole bond
The water of crystallisation can be evaporated by heating the hydrated compound. When all
the molecules have been removed, the compound is said to be anhydrous. To do this, a known
mass of the hydrated compound is heated so that the mass of water removed can be determined.
From this, the empirical formula of the hydrate can be calculated.
Ex p e r i m e n t 6 .1
Wat e r o f c r y s ta l l i s at i on
Aim
To determine the number of water molecules of crystallisation of hydrated sample
Materials
Hydrated samples (2–3 g) of sodium carbonate, barium chloride, calcium chloride, copper(II) sulfate,
magnesium sulfate
Crucible and lid
Desiccator
Matches
Balance
Bunsen burner
Pipe clay triangle
Tripod
Crucible tongs
Heatproof mat

What are the risks in How can you manage these risks to stay safe?
doing this experiment?
A hot crucible retains Avoid inhaling fumes when heating. Use tongs to handle the crucible; place
heat, especially if its the hot crucible on the heatproof mat.
contents have significant Do not touch the hot crucible. If you burn yourself, place the affected part
mass. under cold running water for 10 minutes and inform your teacher.
The Bunsen burner will Do not use the Bunsen burner if the gas tube is damaged. Ensure long hair is
get hot. tied back and the flame is away from flammable material. If you burn yourself,
place the affected part under cold running water for 10 minutes and inform
your teacher.
Barium salts are Avoid breathing fine dust. Wear safety glasses and wash your hands after the
moderately toxic. experiment. Dispose of all chemicals according to your teacher’s directions.
Do not pour them down the sink.
Copper(II) sulfate is slightly Wear safety glasses and wash your hands after the experiment. Dispose of all
toxic chemicals according to your teacher’s directions. Do not pour them down
the sink.
Ammonium chloride is Use in a well-ventilated area. Wear safety glasses and wash your hands after
slightly toxic. experiment. Dispose of all chemicals according to your teacher’s directions.
Do not pour them down the sink.
Sodium carbonate may Wear safety glasses and wash your hands after the experiment.
be a slight skin irritant.
In your write-up, add any more risks you can think of, as well as ways to manage them.
Procedure
1 Heat the clean, dry crucible and lid strongly for 5 minutes over a Bunsen flame. Place the crucible in the
desiccator and allow it to cool.
2 Weigh the cooled crucible and lid on an accurate balance. Add 2–3 g of your hydrated crystals and
immediately reweigh the crucible.
3 Place the lid on the crucible, leaving a small gap, and heat it for 5 minutes in a low flame. Then heat it
strongly for 20 minutes. Allow the crucible to cool in the desiccator and then reweigh it.
4 Heat the crucible strongly for a further 5 minutes, cool it in the desiccator and reweigh it. Repeat until
constant weight has been obtained; that is, to within 1–2 mg.
Results
Record your results in a table like the one below.
Mass of crucible and lid

Mass of crucible, lid and hydrated salt
Mass after heating of crucible, lid and salt
Analysis of results
1 Calculate the mass of hydrated compound used (e.g. MgSO4.nH2O).
2 Calculate the mass of anhydrous compound remaining after heating, and the mass of water removed.
3 Refer to a table of relative atomic masses to calculate the molar mass of compound (e.g. MgSO4 and
water H2O).
4 Calculate the amount of substance of water removed (i.e. n(H2O)).
5 Calculate n(sample); for example, n(MgSO4), remaining after heating.
6 Determine the ratio of salt to water: n(MgSO4):n(H2O) as a simple whole number ratio. Hence, write the
empirical formula of hydrated compound in the form MgSO4.xH2O and state the degree of hydration of
the sample.
Discussion
1 What are the main sources of error in your experiment?
2 If your class analysed different compounds, collate the results for the whole class to determine the water of
crystallisation for each compound.
4 Compare the experimentally derived formulas with the known values.
5 Which experimentally derived formulas were further from the known values?
6 Brainstorm reasons why there was a range of discrepancies; for example, did this correlate with the main
sources of errors? Did the discrepancy correlate with the number of moles of samples each person had?
Question set 6.3
Remembering
1 Name the three:
a strong bonding forces.
b weak intermolecular forces.
2 Recall what causes dipole–dipole interactions and dispersion forces.
3 What are the common groups that exhibit hydrogen bonds?
Understanding
4 Explain why you should not put full water bottles in the freezer.
5 Rank the three intermolecular forces from weakest to strongest. Explain how polarity influences this order.
6 What are the two factors influencing a molecule’s polar character?
Applying
7 If water did not exhibit hydrogen bonding, at what temperature should water boil?
8 Explain why H2S, a heavier molecule with more electrons, has a lower boiling point than water.
Analysing
9 Water has the second highest specific heat capacity of all known substances. It takes a lot of energy to
heat 1 gram of water by 1 degree. This is due to the strength of the intermolecular forces within water.
Liquid ammonia has the highest specific heat. Explain why ammonia has a higher specific heat capacity
than water.
10 Oxygen levels in water are higher near the surface. Oxygen is more soluble in colder water. These two
facts do not contradict each other. Why?
Reflecting
11 Geckos have utilised dispersion forces to allow them to support their full weight with just one toe. If
scientists could replicate the extraordinary ability of the gecko to attach and detach to smooth surfaces,
explain how that knowledge could benefit our society.
2 74 N e l son C h e m i s t r y U n i t s 1 & 2 f o r t h e Aus t r a l i a n Cu r r i c u l um 9 7 8 0 17 0 2 4 6 6 4 4

6.6 Solutes
Water is considered to be the universal solvent. This is due to its polarity. Solutes are substances
that dissolve in a solvent. The solution that is formed from a solute dissolving in a solvent is
homogeneous (uniform), as the particles are too small to be seen.
Substances that readily dissolve in water are called hydrophilic (‘water loving’). These
include ionic compounds and polar substances such as some polar organic substances.
Substances that don’t dissolve in water are hydrophobic (‘water hating’). These tend to be
gases or non-polar substances.
Substances may dissolve in water if they are polar or charged. The solute may form an ion–
dipole, dipole–dipole or hydrogen bond with water.
When a salt dissolves in water, ion–dipole bonds are formed. The positive part of the water
molecule is attracted to the anion of the salt. More water molecules surround the anion until it
is perfectly hydrated. The negative part of water is attracted to the cation and a similar process
occurs until the ionic bonds within the salt crystal are broken and the salt has dissolved.
Water is polar and can dissolve polar substances by forming ion–dipole,

dipole–dipole or hydrogen bonds with the substance.
There are also water

molecules above and
– + – + – + This ion is being pulled
away from the solid lattice.
below the ions.
+ – + – + – –
– + – + – +
+ – + – + –
The H atoms have a build-up of
– + – + – positive charge, so they orientate
+ towards a negative ion.
+ – + – + –
– + – + – + The O atoms have a build-up
of negative charge, so they
orientate towards a positive ion.
This is now called a hydrated
cation or an ‘aquo-cation’.
Key: – +
Cl– ion Na+ ion Water molecule H atom O atom Ion–dipole
which has become attraction
a water ligand
Figure C6.22
A simplified model of the solution process for a sodium chloride crystal in water
Organic compounds as solutes
Most organic molecules are non-polar and hydrophobic. When polar groups are attached to the
carbon chain, the hydrophobic nature of organic molecules decreases. Groups that give polarity
are –OH, C5O and –NH.
To revise how oil and If a large proportion of these polar groups is present, then organic substances such as
water don't mix, refer glucose, amino acids, vitamins, enzymes and hormones may dissolve in water. As you discovered
to Context 3, ‘Water, earlier, ethanol dissolves in water because it has a polar end due to the OH group. Because it
the vital substance’, also has a non-polar end due to the CH3, ethanol will also dissolve in organic solvents. Larger
page 65. alcohol molecules that have longer carbon chains are not able to dissolve in water because the
hydrophobic carbon chain predominates.
Non-polar substances dissolve in non-polar solvents but do not dissolve in polar

solvents. Polar substances dissolve in polar solvents but do not dissolve in non-
polar solvents.
Figure C6.23 a b CH2OH

a) Ethanol and b) H H H
glucose molecules H O OH
are polar due to the H C C O
presence of polar OH H
regions. H H OH H
H OH
Act ivit y 6. 3
D i sa p pe a r i n g act
Aim
To discover what happens when two liquids mix
You will need
2 accurately measured identical volumes of ethanol and water
Large measuring cylinder
What to do
1 There are three options of what could happen on mixing the two liquids. The total volume could stay
the same as the combined individual volumes, it could be greater or it could be less. For example, if
50 mL of ethanol and 50 mL of water are combined, is the final volume 100 mL, more or less? Predict
what you think will happen.
2 Carefully pour the water and ethanol into a measuring cylinder.
What did you observe?

1 How many of the class accurately predicted the result?
2 Would you expect the same result if ethanol was poured first, or poured faster or slower. What causes
any bubbles you may have seen? Can you repeat the experiment without bubbles?
3 Was this a chemical reaction? What must occur for it to be a chemical reaction? Did you have any
evidence for this?
4 What interaction could occur between the molecules?
5 Summarise what must have happened as the two liquids mixed.

Other factors influencing solubility
For polar substances to dissolve in water, the energy required to separate the particles has to be
less than the energy released when the particles are hydrated. The temperature of the solution
alters both the rate at which a substance will dissolve and the amount that can dissolve. If a
substance reacts with water, then the solubility is higher.
Figure C6.24
Solubility depends on the: The role of energy
factors in controlling
the solubility of ionic
+ – + – + compounds
–
+
+
–
–
+
+
–
–
+
d2
d1 d1 + –
– + – + –
energy released as the released charged ions become
energy required to hydrated; that is, water molecules are attracted to them by
separate ions from the ion–dipole attraction. The H2O molecules form a ‘sheath’ around
lattice. the ions, moving through the solution with them as a stable entity.
This depends on the This depends on the
strength of the ionic bonding strength of the ion–dipole attraction
which depends on the which depends on the
spatial arrangement of the ions in sizes of the ions

the lattice charges on the ions
sizes of the ions geometry of the ions, if polyatomic.
charges on the ions.
The more energy released compared with the

energy needed, the more soluble is the salt.
Solutions equations (ionic The equations have
and molecular)
to be balanced
for charge and
number of atoms
You can tell a lot about what is happening in a reaction from the states in a chemical equation. of each element.
When salts dissolve, chemists don’t generally write the ions separately. For example, dissolved The solid has no net
sodium chloride is written as NaCl(aq). The state aqueous (aq) indicates that the ions have charge, so the total
dissociated. The Na1 and Cl2 ions are separated, and surrounded by water molecules, as you combined charge of
saw in Figure C6.22. As these are charged ionic particles, the solution can conduct electricity; it the dissociated
is an electrolytic solution. Two examples for the dissociation of salts are: ions has to be zero.
HO
NaCl(s) 2 Na1(aq) 1 Cl2(aq)
Cu(NO3)2(s) H2O Cu21(aq) 1 2NO32(aq)
When molecular substances such as carbon dioxide, hydrochloric acid (HCl) or
glucose (C6H12O6) dissolve, the state is aqueous. When acids such as HCl ionise in water, they
are written as HCl(aq). This means that the solution contains separate H1 and Cl2 ions.
H2O
C12H22O11(s) C12H22O11(aq)
H2O
HCl(aq) H1(aq) 1 Cl2(aq)
You will learn more After a substance becomes aqueous, further reactions may take place. Carbon dioxide has to
about the reactions dissolve in water before it can react with the water. The reaction with water is written separately.
that occur when Oxygen has to dissolve for fish and other aquatic organisms to be able to use it.
substances such as The ability to dissolve in water may indicate that the substance has polar regions or a that
HCl or CO2 dissolve reaction has occurred with water. Typical reactions are ionisation or dissociation reactions.
in water in Chemistry
Chapter 7.
A solute dissolves when the energy of the bonds it forms with water is lower than
the energy of the bonds between water molecules or between the water molecules
and ions of the substance being dissolved. The energy difference explains why
some polar salts dissolve in water and some don’t.
Question set 6.4
Remembering
1 Draw a diagram that shows sodium chloride (NaCl) dissolving in water.
2 Write the formula for:
a lithium bromide (LiBr) crystallising as a dihydrate.
b calcium nitrate (Ca(NO3)2) crystallising as a tetrahydrate.
c magnesium nitrate (Mg(NO3)) crystallising as a hexahydrate.
Understanding
3 Hydrogen bromide and methane are small covalent molecules. Explain why methane does not dissolve
in water but hydrogen bromide does.
4 Describe what happens when sugar is added to a cup of coffee. Identify the solute and solvent.
5 KBr dissolves in water by dissociation.
a What is meant by this statement?
b Write an ionic equation to show what happens.
c Would this solution be called an electrolyte?
6 Describe what happens on the molecular level when water and ethanol mix. Explain by using the terms
‘solute’ and ‘solvent’. What bonds are broken and what ones are formed? Write an equation that shows
this.
Applying
7 Copy and complete the following table.
Bonding type Solubility in water Examples
Ionic Most are soluble a
b Soluble if hydrogen bonds possible Ethanol, glucose
Soluble by reacting with water HCl, HNO3, NH3

Otherwise insoluble Dichloromethane
Non-polar molecular c O2, I2

Most are insoluble d
Very large molecules Insoluble if highly structured e
f Starch, glycogen, enzymes
g h Diamond, SiO2
Metals i j
Unless they react with water Li, Na, K, Ca, Ba

8 Classify the following as either soluble in water or not soluble. Explain your reasoning.
a HBr
b MgCl2
c CS2
d ZnCl2
e H2SO4
f SiCl4
g Glucose (a sugar, C6H12O6)
h C8H18
i NH2CONH2
Analysing
9 A student was determining the water of crystallisation of magnesium sulfate. Unfortunately, he couldn’t
read his initial weights. In his rush to share the results with his prac partners he introduced errors.
His calculations and results are shown below. What are the errors and what was the initial weight for the
anhydrous sulfate?
Mass of anhydrous magnesium sulfate 5 ? Dried weight 5 1.65 g
Empirical 1.65 3.228 convert mass to moles

:
formula: 120 138
0.13749 : 0.02339 simplest ratio
1 1.7 whole number ratio
2 3 2MgSO4.3H2O
Reflecting
10 Enzymes are denatured when their shape changes with high temperatures. However, some organisms
can survive at temperature above 60°C. Enzymes in all organisms are made from the same building
blocks (amino acids). What differences would be expected in the structure and bonding of these
enzymes?
6.7 Measuring solubility

The amount of a substance that dissolves depends upon temperature. The solubility of a
solute is the maximum amount in grams that can dissolve in 100 g of the solvent at a given
temperature.
When adding sugar to a cup of water, there reaches a point at which no more sugar can
dissolve at a particular temperature. The extra sugar stays at the bottom of the cup. The solution
is said to be saturated with sugar. Before this point was reached, it was an unsaturated
solution.
If the water is heated, then more sugar will dissolve. If this heated solution is allowed to cool,
crystals will start to precipitate again. The temperature at which this happens is the temperature
at which the solution is saturated. A solution can become supersaturated. This means that
there is more solute dissolved than in a saturated solution at the same temperature. If
this supersaturated solution is bumped, a sugar crystal is added or the side of the glass is
scratched, then the extra sugar will precipitate out again. This is because the solution is unstable.
Toffee is a supersaturated solution of sugar. To stop the toffee crystallising, a mixture of sugars
or the addition of some fats can be used to stabilise the solution.
100 Solubility curves
90 3 A graph showing how much of a solute such as
NO
Na a salt can be dissolved at a particular temperature
80
provides useful information on the solubility of a
Solubility (g of salt/100 g water)
substance. Generally, as temperature increases more
7
70
O
Cl 2
O3
r2
salt will dissolve. This graph is called a solubility
2C
Ca )2
KN
K
60 O3 curve, as shown in Figure C6.25. The amount of
( N
Pb solute is measured in grams of solute in 100 grams
50 of water.
I
KC
40
NaCl
IO 3
30 KC
20
10
Ce2(SO4)3
0 Figure C6.25
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 A selection of solubility curves
Temperature (8C) for various salts
W o r k e d e x a m p l e 6 .1
Refer to the solubility curve in Figure C6.25.
a How much potassium dichromate (K2Cr2O7) will dissolve at 20°C?
b How much extra will dissolve at 80°C?
Answers Logic
a At 20°C, approximately 12 g of Find the curve for K2Cr2O7 on the graph. Draw a line from 20°C up to
K2Cr2O7 will dissolve in 100 g of the potassium dichromate curve. Then draw a line from this point
water. across to the y -axis. This will indicate the amount that will dissolve
at 20°C.
b The extra amount that would Similarly, if the temperature is increased to 80°C, approximately 58 g
dissolve at 80°C is 46 g. of the substance will dissolve in 100 g (or 100 mL) of water.
58 2 12 5 46 g
This is also the amount that would crystallise out of solution if the
temperature of the saturated solution was cooled from 80°C to 20°C.
Figure C6.26 100

Calculating the amounts of
potassium dichromate (K2Cr2O7) that
90
can dissolve at 20°C and at 80°C.
The difference is how much extra or
how much potassium dichromate 80
Solubility (g of salt/100 g water)
will crystallise out of the solution on

7
r2 O
lowering the temperature from 80°C 70

2C
to 20°C.
K
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Temperature (8C)

Try these yourself
a What mass of the following solutes will dissolve in 100 mL of water?
i K2Cr2O7 at 50°C
ii NaCl at 100°C
iii NaNO3 at 10°C
b Determine which of K2Cr2O7, NaCl and NaNO3 is most soluble in water at 15°C.
c At 30°C, what mass of KCl and NaCl would just dissolve in 100 mL of water. For this mass at this temperature,
would the solution be saturated, unsaturated and supersaturated?
The solubility of a substance in a particular solvent is the maximum amount of that

substance that can dissolve at a particular temperature.
A saturated solution is one in which no more of a particular solute can dissolve in a given
quantity of solvent. A solution with less than this amount is an unsaturated solution.
A supersaturated solution is unstable and has more than the maximum amount of
solute dissolved in a given quantity of solvent. It has a higher amount of solute than
the saturated solution.
Ex p e r i m e n t 6 . 2
D e r i v i n g t h e so l ub i l i t y c u r v e o f a mmon i um
c h lo r i d e
Aim
To gather data to draw a solubility curve of ammonium chloride
Materials
250 mL beaker 0–100°C thermometer
10 mL measuring cylinder Stirring rod
Large test tubes Distilled water
Bunsen burner Balance
Tripod Weighing bottle
Retort stand Safety glasses
Bosshead and clamp
What are the risks in doing this How can you manage these risks to stay safe?
experiment?
Ammonium chloride is slightly toxic. Work in a well-ventilated area. Wear safety glasses and wash your
hands after the experiment. Dispose of all chemicals according to
your teacher’s directions. Do not pour them down the sink.
The Bunsen burner will get hot. Do not use the Bunsen burner if the gas tube is damaged. Ensure
long hair is tied back and the flame is away from flammable material.
If you burn yourself, place the affected part under cold running water
for 10 minutes and inform your teacher.
Broken glassware will cut. Inspect and discard any chipped or cracked glass wear, no matter
how small the damage. Sweep up broken glass with a brush and
dustpan; do not use your fingers.
In your write-up, add any more risks you can think of, as well as Thermometer Stirring rod
ways to manage them.
Procedure Test tube
1 Carefully weigh out the amount of ammonium chloride
assigned to your group.
2 Place the weighed ammonium chloride into a test tube.
3 Add 10 mL of distilled water.
4 Half-fill the beaker with tap water, clamp the test tube Ammonium
securely into the beaker so that it is immersed in the water. chloride solution
5 Warm the beaker, stirring the contents of the test tube with Water
the stirring rod. Continue until the ammonium chloride has
dissolved completely.
6 Allow the test tube to cool. Continue to stir it until tiny
flakes of ammonium chloride start to appear. Note the
temperature at which this occurs.
Bunsen burner
Figure C6.27
Experimental set-up for determination
of a solubility curve
Results
Copy and complete the following table.
Group Mass of Mass of Temperature of Solubility

ammonium water (g) recrystallisation (oC) (g/100 g H2O)
chloride (g) (x-axis) (y -axis)
1 4.00 10.00
2 4.50 10.00
3 5.00 10.00
4 5.50 10.00
5 6.00 10.00
6 6.50 10.00
Analysis of results
1 Use the class results to plot a graph of solubility against temperature. Plot the temperature along the
horizontal x-axis (0–100°C).
2 From the graph, predict the solubility of ammonium chloride at 20°C, 40°C, 60°C and 80°C.
Discussion
1 Describe what happens to the solubility of ammonium chloride as temperature increases.
2 At the point the crystals first appear, the solution is saturated. What does ‘saturated’ mean?
3 At what temperature would 10 g of ammonium chloride saturate 50 g of water?
4 If a saturated solution of ammonium chloride at 90°C is cooled to 10°C, how many grams of ammonium
chloride would crystallise out of 100 g of water?
5 If the theoretical value for the solubility of ammonium chloride at 50°C is 50 g/100 g, what percentage error
does your experiment have?
experimental value 2 true value
Percentage error 5 3100
true value
6 List possible sources of errors in your experiment.
Taking it further
Describe modifications to the experiment that could improve the accuracy.

Gas solubility curves In section 1.9 on
page 127, you
The solubility of a gas can also be shown with a solubility curve. The solubility curve for oxygen looked at ppm for a
and carbon dioxide was shown in Context 3 (page 71). As temperature increases, the solubility calibration curve of
of non-polar gases generally decreases. Solubilities are generally much lower than for solids and atomic absorption
typically the values are shown in parts per million (ppm). spectroscopy. The
unit ppm is very useful
Concentration units when referring to the
amount of the solute
Solubility curves use the unit grams of solute per 100 g of water. This can also be called % w/w. at very low levels.
If you are weighing the amount of salt added to 100 g of a food, then the % w/w is the easiest to
use.
Two other similar units use volumes (% v/v) or a combination of weight and volume (% w/v). In section 7.2 on
The units you use depend on what you are measuring. For example, you may wish to page 312, you will
investigate the alcohol content of drinks. Ethanol is a liquid, so it is easier to measure its volume learn about another
than its weight. The unit to use is % v/v. The alcoholic content of wine, beer and spirits is measured way to measure
in volume of ethanol in 100 mL of drink. Note that the volume is 100 mL not 1 litre, which is concentration that
the standard volume of measurement in chemistry. Having a different unit means that we can use uses moles and
molarity.
percentage values. This is useful for different-sized containers such as a 750 mL or 1.25 L bottle.
Concentration is a measure of the amount of solute present. There are a variety of

units in general use; g/100 g, % v/v (per cent by volume), % w/w (per cent by weight),
% v/w, ppm (parts per million, grams of solute in one million grams of solution.)
Worked ex ample 6.2

a Red wine has an alcohol content of approximately 13 v/v %. In a 750 mL bottle, what amount of alcohol
is present?
b A hair sample was found to have a copper level of 41 ppm. It should be less than 2.5 mg % w/w. Is this an
acceptable level?
Answers Logic
a 97.5 mL of ethanol in 750 mL of red Total volume 3 percentage alcohol
wine
750 mL 3 13 mL 5 97.5 mL
100 mL
b No; 41 mg % w/w is too high. 1 Convert to an amount in grams.
41 ppm 5 41 g per 10 6 g
41 3 100
5
10 6
41
5
104
2 The legal limit has the % w/w as a mg value so convert to
milligrams.
5 41 3 10 –6 3 100 % w/w
41 3 10 –6 3 100 3 1000 5 4.1 mg % w/w
No, level is too high.
Try these yourself
a 200 mL of a sport drink has 6% w/v of sugar. What amount of sugar is present? It is helpful to
b A 300 mL glass of champagne contains 36 mL of alcohol. What is the concentration remember that
(v/v) of alcohol? ppm 5 mg L21 5
µg g21
c A solution has a cadmium ion level of 500 ppm. How much cadmium would be
present in 100 mL of this solution?
Act ivit y 6. 4
S p o r t d r i nks : h ow mu c h s a lt c a n you d r i nk ?
Too much salt in our diet can cause health problems. Salt is a common additive in many foods and
drinks. Sport drinks are designed to replace salts lost in sweat. If the salt level in the drink is too low, then
the drink is hypotonic. If the salt level is too high, then the drink is hypertonic.
Aim
To determine the minimum amount of salt that you can detect in a glass of water.
You will need
6 clean glasses
Table salt (NaCl)
Electronic balance
Tap water
Spoon
Bucket or waste container
Marker pens or coloured stickers
All equipment must be food grade and not the general laboratory supplies.
What to do
1 Do not perform this activity in a laboratory because it requires you to taste the samples.
2 Prepare six separate 500 mL water samples that have a range of salt levels from 0 to 5 g of added salt.
For a comparison, brackish water has 3 g L21 and sea water 35 g L21. Ensure that the salt is completely
dissolved in each sample. Use marker pens or stickers to distinguish the samples.
3 Pour small amounts of each sample into glasses. Give the samples to your partner in order from no salt
to most salt or from high salt to low salt. Make sure that the amounts that they consume are very small,
typically less than a few millilitres. Have fresh water to drink in between if required. Do not swallow the
sample but spit it into the bucket or waste container for disposal.
1 Did different people have different detection limits?
2 Do you think that people were influenced by what they observed or the order they were given?
3 Which samples could you drink readily?
4 Convert the amounts in your samples to % w/v and ppm.
5 Why is the unit % w/v better to use than % w/w in this case?
Taking it further
1 Repeat the experiment with sugar. What is the minimum of sugar that can be detected?
2 Research why and how manufacturers chase the ‘bliss point’ in food.

Question set 6.5
Remembering
1 When a solvent holds as much of a solute as it normally can at a given temperature, we say the solution
is . When a solvent has less dissolved solute than it normally can at a given
temperature, we say the solution is .
Applying
2 Samples of brackish waters were found to have 30 g L21 of salt. How much salt can be obtained from:
a 50 mL?
b 300 mL?
3 Bottles containing 40 mL of brand X, a liquid plant food, contains 3.2 g of seaweed extract. What is the
percentage concentrate of seaweed extract in the plant food?
4 The fluoride concentration of drinking water should be less than 1 ppm on a mass to volume basis. A
500 mL sample of water was found to contain 0.3 mg of fluoride ions.
a Calculate the concentration of fluoride ions in the water in % w/v and parts per million.
b Is this below the recommended level?
5 How many grams of potassium nitrate would be needed to saturate 50 g of water at 20°C?
6 Sodium thiosulfate will dissolve in water readily. At 25°C, a saturated solution will have 120 g of
Na2S2O3.5H2O for each 100 g of water.
a You take a test tube and add a crystal of sodium thiosulfate to 2 cm3 of water. Is it likely to be
saturated?
b You take another test tube and add a similar amount of water and then add crystals until no more
dissolves. What term describes this?
c In a third test tube, you add 2 cm3 of crystals and a few drops of water. Why would you not expect all
the crystals to dissolve?
d You heat it until the solution is clear and then cool it back to room temperature. What would happen
if a crystal were now added to the test tube?
7 A 20 g solution of a pesticide contains 0.5 g of active ingredient. What is the concentration in % w/w
and ppm.
8 On the bottle of every sport drink is a label detailing the amount of salts and sugars present, usually in
1 litre of product. Compare sport drinks compositions. If you had to make 750 mL of a sport drink, what
and how much would you add to 750 mL of water?
9 A 200 mL sample of tap water was found to contain 0.2 mg of fluoride ions.
a Calculate the concentration of fluoride ions in the water as ppm.
b As the limit should be between 0.7 and 1.2 ppm, does this concentration exceed the recommended
limit of 1 ppm?
c The recommended maximum daily intake of fluoride is about 10 mg/day. How many cups would a
person need to drink to reach this limit? Assume that water is the only source of fluoride.
Reflecting
10 A gluten-free diet is considered to be the only treatment for people with coeliac disease. Australian
manufacturers of gluten-free products must ensure that no detectable amounts of gluten are present.
Manufacturers are pushing the regulators to make Australian standards the same as those in Britain and
Europe – a maximum of 20 mg of gluten per kilogram. Why is this so important for a person with coeliac
disease?
6.8 Practical applications
For some examples Many practical uses of water rely on its high surface tension and ability to act as a solvent. These
of the benefits of the applications rely on the surface interaction and intermolecular forces between polar and non-
practical applications polar substances.
of water, refer to
Context 3, ‘Water,
the vital substance’, Surfactants: polar and non-polar
pages 66 and 69. Oils and water don’t mix; non-polar liquids will not mix with polar solvents. These two
substances are immiscible; they are unable to be mixed. When a surfactant is added to the
mixture, the tension between the oil and water is reduced. They appear to dissolve in each other.
The result is an emulsion, a mixture of the two immiscible substances. The compound that
helps form the emulsion is called an emulsifier. Eggs are a good emulsifier for oil and vinegar.
The resultant emulsion is called mayonnaise. Milk is considered to be an ‘oil in water’ emulsion.
When whipped sufficiently, it turns into a ‘water in oil’ emulsion, called butter. The excess water
is separated in the process.
Act ivit y 6. 5
Emu l s i ons , c o l l o i ds a nd sus p e ns i ons

When substances are added to a liquid they do not always form a solution. They may form an emulsion, a
colloid or a suspension.
1 What distinguishes these three mixtures?
2 What are the common uses of these mixtures? Give examples that you may see around your home.
Detergents: surfactants that clean

Soaps and detergents are everyday examples of surfactants. One end of a surfactant is
hydrophilic and the other is end hydrophobic. Soap has a polar head (typically a sodium ion)
attached to a non-polar long hydrocarbon chain tail. Soap forms micelles, sub-microscopic
clusters in water, which have polar ends on the outside and hydrophobic tails in the middle
where they can avoid water. The long tail of the soap dissolves into the grease because of
dispersion forces. There is an ion–dipole interaction between the polar head and the water
molecules. More and more hydrophobic tails of the soap molecules will tunnel into the grease
droplet, eventually incorporating it into the water.
Figure C6.28 Grease droplet

Soap molecules surrounded by the
interacting with grease. hydrophilic heads of
Over time, more and Micelle of soap the micelles
more soap molecules Soap molecule in water
are incorporated into
the grease molecule. Hydrophobic tail The molecules insert
Eventually, a small the hydrophobic tail
grease droplet is inside the grease.
surrounded by the
hydrophilic heads of the Hydrophilic head
soap molecules, forming
a micelle.

The surface tension of water can be lowered by dissolving surfactants such as soap or
detergent. When present, the surfactant breaks the hydrogen bonding between the molecules
and the water spreads out onto the surface (wets the surface) rather than remaining in a droplet.
Figure C6.29
Surface tension
Wettability: a liquid will
wet a surface if there is
strong intermolecular
attraction between the
liquid and the surface.
A liquid will bead on
the surface if there
u u are stronger cohesive
forces within the liquid
than the adhesive
Surface attraction forces Gravitational force forces between liquid
When attractive forces to the surface Liquid on a non-wettable surface; and the surface. The
exceed surface tension, the liquid surface tension dominates attractive contact angle (u) is a
wets the surface. forces on the surface. way of measuring the
wettability.
Act ivit y 6.6
W e t ta b i l i t y
Aim
To determine the difference in bonding of water to various substrates such as plastic, glass and
nanotechnology cloth and how this bonding is affected by detergents
You will need
Dropper
Clean glass
Plastic
Water-resistant nanotechnology material
Detergent
What to do
1 Place a few drops of water onto each of the surfaces and notice the shape of the droplet.
2 Add a single drop of detergent to each drop of water.
3 Record what happens.

Describe what happened when you added the detergent to each drop.
Soap is one of the oldest surfactants. It is made from fatty acids in animal and vegetable oils.
The sodium or potassium salts of these fatty acids have the general formula RCOO2Na1, where
R represents a long carbon chain. Sodium stearate is a soap made from the fat of cattle or sheep
reacting with a strong base such as NaOH. The saponification reaction is:
heat
C17H33COOH 1 NaOH R—COONa1 1 R′OH
Fatty acid (oleic acid) Base soap Alcohol
The soap formed has a polar head (COONa1) and a long non-polar hydrocarbon tail (R). The
polar head is strongly attracted to the water molecules and the long tail is hydrophobic. The tail
will dissolve into the grease or oil. Detergents are used in hard water rather than soap, which
does not form a lather. Detergents have an ionic head based upon sulfate ions. These sulfate ions
do not precipitate the calcium or magnesium ions in hard water as soap does. Detergents are
classified according to the charge on their polar head (Figure C6.30). Anionic detergents have
a negatively charged sulfate ion. Cationic detergents have a positively charged end. Non-ionic
detergents do not have any ionic groups.
Anionic detergent Cationic detergent

O CH3
CH3CH2CH2CH2CH2CH2CH2CH2CH2CH2CH2 O S O2 Na1 1
CH3(CH2)15 N CH3 Cl2
O CH3
Trimethylhexadecylammonium chloride
Sodium lauryl sulfate
H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H
H H H H H H O H
C C C C C C C C C H
H H H H H C
C C G C C C S H H
H C C C C C C H Na1 C C C C C C C C N H
H H H H H H O H H H H H H H H C H
H H H H H H H H H H H H H
C
H H
H H
Non-ionic detergent
O CH2 OH
CH3(CH2)14 C O CH2 C CH2 OH
CH2 OH
Pentaerythrityl palmitate
H
O H
H H H H H H H H H
C
H O
H H H H H H H C H H
C C C C C C C
H O C C
C C C C C C C C C H
C H
H H H H H H H H H
H
H H H H H H H O O
H
Non-polar Polar
Figure C6.30
The three types of detergent: anionic, cationic and non-ionic. What enables these molecules
to dissolve in water?
WOW
No need to bathe or wash again?

Nanotechnology offers many advantages in a world becoming more concerned about
water availability. By changing the surface of materials, there may be no need to clean
them. Sweat or dirt will just not stick. A surface that beads the water, which then runs
off, offers advantages to the builders of high-rise buildings, who may be daunted at the
prospect of cleaning windows 40 floors up. Car paint companies are looking at applying
nanotechnology to the outside of cars to remove the need to clean the car. Clothing
companies are some of the biggest users of nanotechnology.
Surfactants such as detergents interrupt the surface tension of water. Surfactants

have both polar and non-polar regions.

6.9 Chromatography
Knowledge of how solutes dissolve in solvents and interact with the surface of materials is
the basis of the analytical techniques of chromatography. There are three main techniques: To see applications of
thin-layer chromatography, gas chromatography and high-performance liquid chromatography in
chromatography. forensic testing, refer
to Context 1, ‘Matter in
The chemical basis for these techniques is that different substances will adsorb onto a
the universe’, page 11.
surface and desorb into a solvent at different rates. This difference is due to many factors of the
substance being tested (analyte), including:
the different types of polar groups
the amount of charged and polar chemical groups present
its molecular weight To see applications
its geometry of chromatography
in blood and water
the positions and numbers of carbon–carbon double bonds.
testing, refer to
By altering the solvent (mobile phase) and the surface (stationary phase), chemists can Context 3, ‘Water:
separate a mixture of solutes. the vital substance’,
pages 73 and 74.
Chromatography is the name of the group of techniques that separate
substances based upon differential distribution between a stationary phase
and a mobile phase.
I n v e s t i g at i o n 6 . 2
C h r om at o g r a p h y o f p l a n t p i g m e n t s
The plant pigment chlorophyll absorbs the light energy used in photosynthesis. When trying to discover how
chlorophyll works, chemists had to first isolate chlorophyll, find out how many different types there are and
determine whether all plants had the same pigment.
Aim
To separate plant pigments using chromatography
What will you need?

You will need to design a method to separate the plant pigments in plants by chromatography. Hint: Plant
pigments will dissolve best in an ethanol and water mixture. Filter paper or chalk can be used to separate the
pigments. Sand can help to break open the cells by grinding the plants. Calcium carbonate can neutralise
acid released from the cells as they are crushed.
Complete the risk assessment to show any risks in undertaking this investigation and ways to reduce them.
Ask your teacher to check your risk assessment before you proceed.
What are the risks in doing this How can you manage these risks to stay safe?
investigation?
Heating a mixture of ethanol and If you burn yourself, place the affected part under cold running water
water will cause the beaker to get for 10 minutes and inform your teacher.
hot.
Ethanol is a toxic and flammable Only directly heat solutions that have less than 50 % v/v of ethanol.
liquid. Keep bottles away from flames and heat sources.
Do not come into contact with the liquid or breathe the fumes.
Plants may be poisonous.
Glassware
Filter paper
CH2CH3 CH3
H3C O
N N
CO2CH3
Mg
N N H
H
H2C = CH
CH2CH2CO2CH2CH = C(CH2CH2CH2CH2CH)3CH3
CH3 H CH3 CH 3 CH 3
Chlorophyll a
O CH2CH3 CH3
H—C O
N N CO2CH3
Mg
H
N N
H
H2C = CH CH2CH2CO2CH2CH = C(CH2CH2CH2CH2CH)3CH3
CH3 H CH3 CH3 CH3
Chlorophyll b
Figure C6.31
Pigments in plant cells g-Carotene
absorb light energy.
There are many different
pigment molecules,
each a different colour.
Four are shown here.
Questions to get you started

1 How will you carry out your investigation? Which method will you try first?
2 Will large pieces of plant interfere with your technique? If so, what should you do?
3 How long will you boil the plants for? How will you judge whether you have
achieved the maximum extraction?
4 How will you use the filter paper or chalk to separate the pigments from the
solvent?
5 How fine will the plant pieces have to be? What factors would increase the
amount of pigment released?
6 How will you analyse your results?
After the experiments

1 How well did you manage to extract plant pigments?
2 Did other students succeed in extracting plant pigments? Compare the
effectiveness of their method with yours.
Ideas for improvement

1 What were some of the problems encountered? What errors were encountered?
2 How would you refine this method? How will the refined method provide more
consistent results?
3 If you suspected that one of the components was chlorophyll, how would you
confirm this?

Thin-layer chromatography
Thin-layer chromatography (TLC) is used to separate and analyse a wide variety of molecular
mixtures. It is used to analyse the presence of particular drugs and amino acids; TLC is faster
and provides more separation than paper chromatography.
The TLC plate typically consists of a 0.1-mm-thick layer of absorbent material bonded to
a glass or plastic support. The absorbent material consists of many microscopic plates. These
surfaces provide a large surface area for chromatographic separation. This is the stationary
phase. The origin line is drawn in pencil about 1 cm from the base. This is where the samples
are placed.
Separation is achieved by the solvent (mobile phase) moving up the stationary phase. This
movement is due to capillary action. The solvent moves through the samples towards the top of
the plate. The faint wavy line seen is called the solvent front. The samples will desorb into the
solvent and travel up the plate with the solvent. If all components spent the same amount of
time in the solvent, then they would all travel at the same rate. They don’t because components
have differences in chemical structure, which alters the adsorption and desorption rates. The
particles most attracted to the stationary phase move the slowest. The particles that are most
strongly attracted to the solvent move the fastest.
In TLC, you measure the distance the spot has moved from the origin compared to the
distance the solvent has moved from the origin. This ratio is called the retardation factor or R f .
The R f value must be between 0 and 1 and is defined as the distance travelled by the sample
from its origin divided by the distance of the solvent front from the sample origin. A substance
that does not migrate from the sample origin has an R f 5 0, while one that is not adsorbed at all
(migrated with the front) has a R f 5 1. The R f value is characteristic for a particular substance
with a given absorbent and solvent system. The R f value cannot be greater than 1.
The separation of the components depends upon the length of time the plate is in contact
with the solvent. If this is too short, then there is only a small separation. If this is too long,
then all the spots would eventually make it to the top. A longer plate and a reasonable time will
provide the best separation. It is not always possible to identify all the components of a sample
with one TLC plate. Some samples may have very similar R f values. Different solvent mixtures
and stationary phases can be tried to achieve better separation.
Position of solvent front when

the paper is removed
Distance travelled
by solvent front in
the time that the
component moved We measure across from
3.0 cm = 6.2 cm the midpoint of the spot.
This chromatogram
shows that ink 1 has 2
coloured components, ink 2 has 3
Distance travelled by component
coloured components and Ink 3 has 2 = 3.0 cm
coloured components. Here we show 3.0
[ Rf = = 0.48 (no units)
how the Rf of the faster moving 6.2
component of ink 3 has been
Figure C6.32
determined for that Determining the Rf from
Ink 1 Ink 2 Ink 3 Starting line, or origin
solvent system. a chromatogram
The proportion of time an analyte spends adsorbed compared with desorbed is consistent
for that mobile and stationary phase. A material with an R f of 0.5 will move 2.5 cm when the
solvent front has moved 5 cm. If a second plate was allowed to run for longer, then the same
sample will move 5 cm when the solvent has moved 10 cm. Therefore, you can consider the
samples to be the same when the R f values are the same.
You can confirm the identity of an unknown compound by running a pure sample of the
compound (a standard) under the same conditions. If the substances are the same, then the
R f values should be the same.
Ex p e r i m e n t 6 . 3
T h i n - l ay e r c h r om at o g r a p h y
Thin-layer chromatography (TLC) is an invaluable technique used in chemistry and biochemistry for the
separation and analysis of a wide variety of molecular mixtures.
In this experiment, two different solvent systems will be used to separate a mixture of dyes on a TLC plate. The
solvent should be allowed to move up about half the distance of the plate. The dye molecules contain different
types and amounts of charged and polar chemical groups. They also have different molecular weights, geometry
and positions and numbers of carbon–carbon double bonds.
After the experiment is completed and the plate is partially dry, a faint wavy line can be observed at the last
location of the leading edge of the solvent in the absorbent stationary phase.
Aim
To use TLC to separate mixtures of dyes to determine their composition
Materials
2 TLC plates (5 cm 3 10 cm)
5 different-coloured food dyes
Distilled water
Methylated spirits
2 3 250 mL beakers
5 capillary tubes
Pencil
What are the risks in doing this experiment? How can you manage these risks to stay safe?
Methylated spirits is a toxic, flammable liquid. Keep bottles away from flame and heat sources.
Do not come into contact with the liquid or breathe
the fumes.
Glassware
In your write-up, add any more risks you can think of, as well as ways to manage them. In particular, expand on
the two risks listed to identify specific risks involved with each. Ask your teacher to check your risk assessment
before you proceed.
Procedure
1 Measure 1 cm up from an edge on each plate and lightly draw a straight line across with a pencil. Do not
press hard or you will scrape the cellulose off its support. This line will be the sample origin.
2 Place the end of a capillary tube into one of the dyes. Allow the liquid to move into the tube and then
remove it from the dye.
3 Hold the tube vertically and touch the end of the tube to the pencil line, allowing a small amount of dye to
be adsorbed onto the film.
4 Repeat this for the second piece of film.
5 Repeat steps 2 and 3 for different dyes. Use a new capillary tube for each different dye.
6 Pour distilled water into one of the beakers to a depth of approximately 5 mm.
7 Place the bottom edge of one of the plates in the beaker. Make sure the water level is below the pencil line.
8 Repeat steps 6 and 7 with methylated spirits.
9 Allow the plates to stand in the solvent for approximately 10 minutes.
10 Withdraw the plate, place it on a piece of paper towel and, using a pencil, mark the solvent front.
11 Measure the distance from the pencil line to the solvent front for each solvent and record this measurement.
12 Measure the distances each of the dye components has travelled from the origin in each solvent and
record this in a results table.

Results
Copy and complete the following results table.
Dye Distance for Rf Distance for Rf

distilled water methylated spirits
Analysis of results
Calculate the Rf values for each of the dyes and their components by dividing the distance travelled by the
dye component by the distance travelled by the solvent.
Discussion
1 Compare the Rf values of the dyes in both solvents.
2 Which dye was adsorbed most strongly in:
a water?
b methylated spirits?
3 Which solvent was the best for separating the dyes?
4 TLC can be one of several methods used to help identify an unknown compound. Explain how this might be
accomplished using the dyes as an example.
Gas chromatography
Gas chromatography (GC) is a separation technique for small organic molecules
To revise calibration
that can withstand relatively high temperatures. Blood alcohol levels are measured by curves, refer to
gas chromatography. Chemistry section 1.9
The gas chromatograph consists of a gas bottle, an oven, a column, a detector and a recorder. on page 127.
The sample is injected into the oven where the gas pushes the sample into the long, thin column.
In the column, smaller particles and those that adsorb onto the stationary phase the least leave
the column first. Larger particles and those that adsorb more readily take longer to leave the
column.
The time the sample takes to elute (leave the column) is characteristic for the substance.
This time is called the R t, the retention time. The Rt value is used to identify the component, as
R f is in TLC and paper chromatography.
a Sample
injection
point Detector p
Chart recorder
B D
10
9
Peak height (cm)
A C
6
Column
Oven
Carrier gas (usually nitrogen) Retention time (min)
Figure C6.33
A schematic diagram of: a) a gas chromatograph and b) a hypothetical gas
chromatogram
This technique can also measure the amount of the analyte. If a wine is thought to contain
12% alcohol, then a series of standards with alcohol ranging from 5% to 20% is run through the
Learn more gas chromatograph and the peak areas are measured. A calibration curve is drawn and the unknown
about HPLC value is read off. It is important that the unknown value lies within the range of the standard values.
The Rt value will be the same for each standard. What is different is the height of the peak.
Watch this video to
learn more about The peak area will alter in proportion to the amount of the substance present. A calibration
HPLC. curve is plotted and the unknown wine’s peak area is used to determine the amount of
alcohol present.
High-performance liquid
chromatography
High-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) is used for larger organic molecules. It can
be used for substances that are unstable to heat because there is no oven. The stationary column
is shorter than in the gas chromatograph. The mobile phase is a liquid not gas. A pump is used
because pressure is required to move the liquid through the column. As with GC, Rt values
are used to identify compounds, standards are run to confirm the identity (same Rt) and a
calibration curve is used to determine the amount of the substance present.
Figure C6.34
A schematic diagram a Syringe for
of: a) a high- injecting sample
performance liquid Liquid mobile phase
chromatograph
and b) a high-
performance liquid
chromatogram of Pump
pigments extracted Column Solid
from a Dianella plant stationary
phase
Recorder
Detector
Waste
b
9.3
F1 (1-1)
F2 (2-2)
F3 (3-3)
F4 (4-4)
F5 (5-5)
F6 (6-6)
F7 (7-7)
F8 (8-8)
F9 (9-9)
F10 (10-10)
F11 (11-11)
F12 (12-12)
F13 (13-13)
8.0
7.0
6.0
5.0
4.0
3.0
2.0
1.0
0.0
–1.0
–2.4 Min
10.21 11.00 12.00 13.00 14.00 15.00 16.00 17.00 18.00 19.40

Table C6.3 Summary of chromatography techniques
Technique Basis Stationary Mobile Measures Uses

phase phase
Gas Carrier gas is mobile Long, thin Inert gas Rt indicates what Small,
chromatography phase. Sample is column such as N2, the sample is. heat-stable
injected into oven. CO2 or He Area under peak organic
The gas moves the indicates amount compounds
vaporised particles of substance such as
through a fine long present. ethanol
column. The smallest
Standards are
solutes that adsorb the
used to confirm
least, elute first.
identity (qualitative)
Rt depends on and to prepare a
temperature, length of calibration curve
column and flow rate for calculations
as well as chemical of amounts
structure (quantitative
analysis)
High-performance Similar to GC but mobile Short column Water– Rt indicates what Larger
liquid phase is a liquid. Unlike (particle size methanol the sample is. organic
chromatography the gas in GC, the liquid of stationary or water– Area under peak compounds
plays an important phase is acetonitrile indicates amount
role in adsorption and extremely mixes of the substance
desorption. small, present.
Needs a pump to push allowing
Standards are used
the liquid through better
to confirm identity
the denser packed separation)
(qualitative) and
column to prepare a
calibration curve
for calculations
of amounts
(quantitative
analysis)
Thin-layer Solvent moves over Fine powder Solvent may Rf is characteristicOrganic
chromatography stationary phase on glass or be organic for each sample mixtures
by capillary action. plastic or water at the same such as
Components adsorb mixture conditions. plant
and desorb at different Standards are used pigments
rates due to chemical to confirm identity and drugs
structure and ability (qualitative)
to form intermolecular
bonds to the stationary
phase and mobile
phase.
Question set 6.6
Remembering
1 List the differences between soap and a detergent. Describe why detergents work with hard water but
soaps don’t.
2 Figure C6.35 represents a thin-layer chromatogram of drug samples confiscated by the police. Included
on the plate are commercial drugs, labelled X, Y and Z.
Solvent front
20
units
3.3
units
Origin
Drug X Drug Y Drug Z Sample
Figure C6.35
a Why do chemists include commercial drugs on the same plate as the samples from the police?
b Does the confiscated sample contain any of the commercial drugs? Justify your answer using the
data provided.
3 Describe the basic structure of a gas chromatograph.
4 How are compounds identified in GC and HPLC?
Understanding
5 Explain how a gas chromatogram is produced.
6 Figure C6.36 shows the gas chromatogram for a sample of common pesticides. Predict which of
compounds 1–5 is the smallest? Explain your reasoning.
1 1 lindane
2 heptachlor
2 3 aldrin
3 4 dieldrin
5 DDT
4
Figure C6.36
0 5 10 Gas chromatograms for some
Time after injection (min) common pesticides

Applying
7 A mixture of pesticides was run through a gas chromatograph. The trace showed a very large peak at
4 minutes after injecting the sample, and smaller peaks between 1 and 3 minutes. What do you conclude
about the composition of the sample?
8 Honeys vary in their composition. Honey consists generally of the disaccharides maltose and sucrose,
and the monosaccharides glucose and fructose.
HPLC is commonly used to analyse honey and to find out which sugars are present and in what
percentage. The chromatogram in Figure C6.37 was obtained when a sample of Australian honey was
tested.
B
10 D
9
Peak height (cm)
C
A
6
Retention time (min) Figure C6.37
a Which molecule spent most time in the stationary phase? Explain how you determined this.
b What is the percentage of C in the mixture?
c Why was HPLC used in preference to GC in this analysis?
d It is suspected that peak C is fructose. How can this be verified?
9 Table C6.5 gives the retention times and peak areas for a series of ethanol standards and a sample of
champagne when they were run through a gas chromatograph.
Table C6.5
% Ethanol (w/v) Relative peak area Rt

8.4 4 343 500 0.90
9.8 5 820 300 0.89
10.6 6 858 600 0.90
12.2 8 117 900 0.89
Champagne sample 5 324 750 0.90
a Construct a calibration curve for the ethanol and use it to determine the percentage of ethanol in
the champagne.
b If the density of ethanol is 0.785 g mL–1, express your answer as % v/v.
c Explain why you need a calibration graph and not just peak areas.
d Explain why this calibration curve would not be suitable to find the alcohol content of a low alcohol
wine that typically has a value of around 7% v/v.
10 A student’s notebook was messy and it was hard to read the practical instructions on how to separate the
individual dye components of food colouring. Not only was the order strange, but there were errors. The
instructions were as follows.
I Using a gel pen, draw a reference line 2 cm from the bottom of a strip of chromatography paper.
II Put more drops of the food colouring over the first to make a concentrated spot that is at least
15 mm in diameter so that it has adequate contact with the paper and can be easily seen.
III Allow the drop to dry.
IV Carefully place a drop of food colouring on the line.
V Place solvent in the bottom of a tall jar.
VI Hang the strip of chromatography paper in the jar, making sure that the spot of colouring is
completely covered by the solvent.
VII Allow the paper to remain in contact with the solvent until a solvent front has almost reached the top
of the paper.
VIII Observe the separation of the coloured components of the food colouring. Note that the
component that absorbs most strongly to the paper pulls itself furthest up the paper.
IX Calculate an Rf value for each spot on the chromatogram.
X Identify the components of the food colouring by comparing the Rf value with those of known dyes.
a Identify the correct order for the instructions (I–X).
b Identify three fundamental errors in the instructions and in each case explain how the error
should be corrected.
c Explain how Rf values are calculated.
Reflecting
11 What challenges and opportunities have arisen from the development of HPLC and GC methods in the
detection of drugs and other banned substances in sport?

Chapter checklist
You should know:
molecules can be represented by electron dot formulas and valence structures
VSEPR theory can be used to help determine the structure of molecules and some ion complexes
polarity is due to the presence of a permanent dipole in molecules and asymmetry in the molecule
intermolecular forces of dispersion, dipole–dipole and hydrogen bonding are present in molecules
dipole–dipole interactions occur when there is an unequal sharing of electron density between different
elements
hydrogen bonding is a special case of dipole–dipole interactions. It is due to the uneven sharing of
electrons between hydrogen and a strongly electronegative element (N, O and F)
dispersion forces exist between all molecules and non-metal atoms
hydrogen bonding in water is responsible for the unique properties of water
water is the universal solvent
surfactants and detergents affect surface tension
the interactions between molecules are the basis for practical applications such as the chromatography
techniques TLC, GC and HPLC
chromatography techniques (HPLC, GC and TLC) rely on absorption onto a stationary phase and
desorption back into a mobile phase
by running a standard under the same conditions, calculation of the Rf and Rt can identify the species
present
the use of calibration curves of the amount under the peak at a particular Rt can be used to determine the
amount present in a sample.
You should be able to:
predict whether a molecule will have dipole–dipole, hydrogen bonding or dispersion forces between the
molecules
link the intermolecular bonding present to properties such as solubility
draw electron dot formulas and valence structures of compounds and simple molecules
determine the shape of the compounds and simple molecules using the VSEPR model
determine whether a solution is saturated, unsaturated or supersaturated by using a solubility curve
determine the concentration of solutes in the units ppm, % w/w, % w/v and % v/v
interpret chromatograms, including the use of Rf and Rt for particular components
use calibration curves to determine the amount of a component in a chromatograph
know which instrument (HPLC or GC) to choose for a particular application.
Chapter glossary
adhesive force the electrostatic force of attraction capillary action the process in which a liquid is
between unlike particles as displayed between water drawn up a narrow tube
molecules and glass cationic positively charged; for example, Na1
adsorb to be attracted to the surface of a material; cohesive force the electrostatic force of attraction
the opposite of desorb between like particles, which causes water molecules
analyte the substance being analysed to stick to each other
anhydrous contains no water colloid a mixture in which tiny clusters of particles
anionic negatively charged; for example, Cl2 are dispersed through another substance; colloids do
not settle out due to gravity and the particles are too
bonding pair a pair of electrons shared by two
small to be filtered
atoms to form a covalent bond
desorb the action of the substance moving from the mobile phase the phase that carries solutes through
stationary phase into the mobile phase the stationary phase
dipole a permanent build-up of negative charge non-ionic detergent a surfactant with a non-charged
at one end, and positive charge at another end, of a hydrophilic part
covalent bond or molecule origin in chromatography, the line that samples
dipole–dipole force the attraction between are placed on; the distance the solvent moves is
molecules with permanent dipoles measured from here
dissociated when ionic salts in a solvent dissolve, Pauli exclusion principle an orbital can contain 0,
ions of opposite charge no longer associate with 1 or 2 electrons
each other and move freely polar a molecule with a separation of charge; one
dispersion force the weak attractive force between end positive, another region negative
atoms and molecules caused by an instantaneous polar covalent bond a covalent bond that has a
temporary change in dipole moment, arising from the separation of charge
movement of orbiting electrons
Rf retardation factor; the distance a solute moves
electrolytic solution a solution that can conduct compared to the distance the solvent has moved
electricity due to the presence of ions
Rt retention time; the time it takes for a solute to elute
electromagnetic attraction the attraction of from the column in GC and HPLC
oppositely charged particles
saponification the production of soap by mixing fats
electronegativity the ability of an atom to attract with strong alkali
electrons
saturated solution a solution that has the most
elute movement of a mobile phase through a solute possible at a particular temperature
column
solubility the amount of solute that can dissolve in
emulsion a mixture of two substances that would not 100 g of water (solvent)
normally mix
solubility curve a graph showing how solubility
hard water water that contains high levels of Ca21 changes with temperature
and Mg21 ions, which interferes with the action of
stationary phase the substance that is fixed in place
soaps
during chromatography, to which the solute absorbs
heteroatomic a molecule containing more than one
structural formula a chemical formula that shows
type of element
how atoms are linked
hydrogen bond the intermolecular attraction
supersaturated solution an unstable solution that
between hydrogen in –OH, –NH or –FH and the lone
has more solute than possible at that temperature;
pairs on nitrogen, oxygen or fluorine on an adjacent
it is formed from dissolving solute into the solution at
molecule
a higher temperature and then allowing it to cool.
hydrophilic ‘water-loving’, a particle with polar The extra solute is still in solution but can readily be
regions that bond to water crystallised out
hydrophobic ‘water-hating’, a particle with mostly surface tension the force that arises from the
non-polar regions that do not bond with water attraction of the surface molecules to the bulk of the
immiscible liquids that do not mix material
intermolecular forces forces between individual surfactant a chemical that lowers the surface
particles (molecules, ions, atoms) of a substance tension of a liquid
ion–dipole attraction between the charge on one suspension a cloudy, heterogeneous mixture
ion and a dipole in another molecule containing solid particles that will eventually settle out
ligand an ion or molecule attached to a metal atom unsaturated solution a solution into which more
(or larger molecule) by dipole bonding solute can dissolve
lone pair a pair of valence electrons that are not valence structure a diagram of the arrangement of
involved in bonding atoms around a central atom
meniscus the shape of the surface of a liquid near vapour pressure pressure exerted down by a vapour
the edge of a container onto its liquid form
micelle small spherical cluster of surfactant
molecules suspended in a liquid

Chapter review questions
Remembering
1 What are the two types of bonding in liquid propane?
2 Draw a diagram showing the bonding in ice.
3 A mixture of two substances is separated by paper chromatography. The substance with the
greater Rf value:
A moves further and is more strongly adsorbed on the paper.
B moves further and is less strongly adsorbed on the paper.
C moves less and is more strongly adsorbed on the paper.
D moves less and is less strongly adsorbed on the paper.
4 Draw the electron dot formula for the following and indicate the number of bonding and non-bonding
pairs of electrons.
a NO2–
b CO
c CH4
5 Draw valence structures for the following molecules and indicate whether they are polar or non-polar.
a CO2
b F2O
c CH4
d PF3
6 Ethanol (CH3CH2OH) and glucose (C6H12O6) can dissolve in water. Write the chemical equations that
represent this.
7 Describe what happens when an ionic substance such as potassium iodide dissolves in water.
8 Formamide is a liquid with a very high surface tension, which wets glass. If the end of a thin glass capillary
is dipped into a beaker of formamide, what would be observed?
Understanding
9 In a mixture of alcohols, each component can be identified by HPLC. The alcohol with the longest retention
time will be the one that:
A is the most soluble in the mobile phase.
B has the smallest molar mass.
C will emerge first from the column.
D adsorbs most strongly on the stationary phase.
10 Explain the existence of the property of the surface tension of a liquid in terms of the interactions between
the molecules.
11 You are asked to perform a simple experiment to determine which has the greater surface tension,
water or diesel.
a Describe the method you would use.
b Describe the results you would expect to observe.
c Provide an explanation for these results.
12 Explain why a needle can float on water in a Petri dish until a drop of detergent is added.
13 Calculate the total volume of alcohol in a small bottle (375 mL) of wine when the alcohol content is 8.5% v/v.
14 Hydrogen peroxide is a strong bleach used for hair and whitening teeth. Would you expect it to be soluble
in water? Explain with the use diagrams the forces that might operate between the molecules of peroxide
and water.
15 Use Figure C6.25 on page 280 to determine the mass of potassium nitrate that will dissolve in:
a 100 g of water to form a saturated solution at 20°C.
b 50 g of water to form a supersaturated solution at 30°C.
c 80 g of water to form a saturated solution at 10°C.
16 Serotonin (C10 H12N2O) is a compound that conducts nerve impulses in the brain and muscles. A sample of
spinal fluid was found to contain a serotonin concentration of 1.5 ng L21. How much serotonin is there in 1 mL
of spinal fluid?
Applying
17 Which one of the following is a property of a ‘water in oil’ emulsion?
A It feels greasy to the touch.
B It mixes readily with water.
C Its electrical conductivity is higher than that of an ‘oil in water’ emulsion.
D It can be coloured by the addition of a water-soluble dye.
18 Describe the trend in boiling points of the noble gases and halogens in Table C6.2. How does this relate to
intermolecular bonding?
19 Figure C6.25 on page 280 shows the solubility curve of potassium chloride, KCl.
a Use diagrams to model how KCl would dissolve in water.
b Write a balanced equation for the dissolution of KCl in water.
c How much KCl would just dissolve in 50 mL of water at 80°C?
d If the solution in part c was cooled to 10°C, would it be saturated, unsaturated or supersaturated? Justify
your answer.
e What temperature would you need to heat 100 g of water so that 40 g of KCl would dissolve completely?
If you cooled this to 10°C, how much KCl would precipitate out of solution?
20 A commercial liquid medication is known to contain 400 mg of magnesium hydroxide per 10.0 mL of the
medication. Express this as % w/v and ppm. (Assume that 1 mL of medication 5 1 gram.)
21 Explain why different solutes travel through a gas chromatograph at different rates.
Analysing
22 Steroids do not circulate in the blood system by themselves. Infer the polarity of steroid hormones.
Dopamine can travel through the blood system easily. What does this indicate about the polarity of
dopamine? Which of these is more likely to be injected directly into the veins?
23 Compare and contrast ammonia (NH3) and methane (CH4). Highlight the bonding so that you can explain
to another student how to determine which one is soluble in water.
24 Reorganise the data in Table C6.1 on page 262 to clearly show the relationship between the generic
formula and the lone pair of electrons.
Reflecting
25 Theories such as VSEPR have enabled scientists to develop a greater understanding of molecular
structures. Representations have changed from valence structures to three-dimensional representations
of electrons as charged clouds. Explain how theories and models generally develop over time, using this
specific theory.

NNC Chemistry 6 Water and The Intermolecular Forces

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chapter 6

Water and the

Science Understanding components is caused by the variation

(for example, thin layer, gas and high-

Small but powerful

Science Photo Library/Paul D. Stewart

Forces between molecules

6.2 Shapes of molecules

Electron dot formulas

258 N e l son C h e m i s t r y U n i t s 1 & 2 f o r t h e Aus t r a l i a n Cu r r i c u l um 9 7 8 0 17 0 2 4 6 6 4 4

This indicates that only one

Key: + Nucleus Key: Valence electron Key: Bonding pair

H H H and valence structure

for the molecules CH4,

CH4 H2CCH2 HCCH N2

Predicting the shape of molecules

260 N e l son C h e m i s t r y U n i t s 1 & 2 f o r t h e Aus t r a l i a n Cu r r i c u l um 9 7 8 0 17 0 2 4 6 6 4 4

pp. 1315–27, with permission from Elsevier.

This represents a pair of electrons around the oxygen

Generic formula Number of electron Lone pairs on M Molecular shape

MX3 3 0 Trigonal planar

MX3E 4 1 Trigonal pyramidal

VSEPR and the 3D

262 N e l son C h e m i s t r y U n i t s 1 & 2 f o r t h e Aus t r a l i a n Cu r r i c u l um 9 7 8 0 17 0 2 4 6 6 4 4

What did you discover?

6.3 Uneven electron

264 N e l son C h e m i s t r y U n i t s 1 & 2 f o r t h e Aus t r a l i a n Cu r r i c u l um 9 7 8 0 17 0 2 4 6 6 4 4

Question set 6.2

6.4 Three types of

266 N e l son C h e m i s t r y U n i t s 1 & 2 f o r t h e Aus t r a l i a n Cu r r i c u l um 9 7 8 0 17 0 2 4 6 6 4 4

He(A) He(B) dd–

dd+ dd– dd+ These minute, temporary

268 N e l son C h e m i s t r y U n i t s 1 & 2 f o r t h e Aus t r a l i a n Cu r r i c u l um 9 7 8 0 17 0 2 4 6 6 4 4

Argon 2186 Bromine 58.8

Krypton 2152 Iodine 183

Xenon 2108 Astatine 337 Intermolecular

6.5 The importance intermolecular forces

Water and hydrogen bonding

H2O H2O H2O H2O H2O H2O

H2O H2O H2O H2O H2O H2O

Capillary action is due to three main forces. These are the:

What do you need

Coloured Figure C6.19

270 N e l son C h e m i s t r y U n i t s 1 & 2 f o r t h e Aus t r a l i a n Cu r r i c u l um 9 7 8 0 17 0 2 4 6 6 4 4

What did you discover?

Key: Oxygen atom Hydrogen atom H bonding

272 N e l son C h e m i s t r y U n i t s 1 & 2 f o r t h e Aus t r a l i a n Cu r r i c u l um 9 7 8 0 17 0 2 4 6 6 4 4

Mass of crucible and lid

Question set 6.3

2 74 N e l son C h e m i s t r y U n i t s 1 & 2 f o r t h e Aus t r a l i a n Cu r r i c u l um 9 7 8 0 17 0 2 4 6 6 4 4

Water is polar and can dissolve polar substances by forming ion–dipole,

There are also water

Non-polar substances dissolve in non-polar solvents but do not dissolve in polar

Figure C6.23 a b CH2OH

What did you observe?

276 N e l son C h e m i s t r y U n i t s 1 & 2 f o r t h e Aus t r a l i a n Cu r r i c u l um 9 7 8 0 17 0 2 4 6 6 4 4

This depends on the This depends on the

strength of the ionic bonding strength of the ion–dipole attraction

which depends on the which depends on the