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73 views67 pages

AerospaceSampler Wiley

Uploaded by

Tahmineh Raoofi
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
Available Formats
Download as PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
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SAMPLER

Including:

Flight Theory and Aircraft Propulsion: Mechanics of


Aerodynamics: A Cleaner, Leaner, and Aircraft Structures,
Practical Guide for Greener, Third Edition. Third Edition.
Operational Safety,
Chapter 1: Introduction to Characteristics of
Fourth Edition.
the Flight Environment Aircraft Structures and
Chapter 1: Introduction to Materials
By Saeed Farokhi
the Flight Environment By C. T. Sun and
Ashfaq Adnan.
By Joseph R. Badick and
Brian A. Johnson.
1 Introduction to the Flight Environment

AL
CHAPTER OBJECTIVES

RI
After completing this chapter, you should be able to:

• Define basic units of measurement used in the introduction to aerodynamics in flight and convert

TE
from one unit of measurement to another.
• Identify the four forces on an airplane in constant altitude, unaccelerated flight.
• Calculate the mass of an aircraft.
MA
• Define vector addition and apply to an aircraft in a climb.
• Describe Newton’s laws of motion and recognize how they apply to an introduction to
aerodynamics.
D
• Define the purpose of linear motion in relation to constant acceleration, and then calculate aircraft
acceleration, takeoff distance, and takeoff time.
TE

• Describe the difference between energy and work and calculate the potential and kinetic energy of
an aircraft in flight.
GH

• Calculate the equivalent horsepower of an aircraft from a known thrust and speed.
• Define friction as it applies to an aircraft.
RI

A basic understanding of the physical laws of nature that affect aircraft in flight and on the ground is a
PY

prerequisite for the study of aerodynamics. Modern aircraft have become more sophisticated, and more
automated, using advanced materials in their construction requiring pilots to renew their understanding
of the natural forces encountered during flight. Understanding how pilots control and counteract
CO

these forces better prepares pilots and engineers for the art of flying for harnessing the fundamental
physical laws that guide them. Though at times this textbook will provide a quantitative approach to
various principles and operating practices with formulas and examples using equations, it is more
important that the reader understand WHY a principle of flight theory is discussed and how that subject
matter intertwines with other materials presented; thus a qualitative approach is used throughout this
textbook.
Perhaps your goal is to be a pilot, who will “slip the surly bonds of earth,” as John Gillespie Magee
wrote in his classic poem “High Flight.” Or you may wish to build or maintain aircraft as a skilled

Flight Theory and Aerodynamics: A Practical Guide for Operational Safety, Fourth Edition.
Joseph R. Badick and Brian A. Johnson.
© 2022 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Published 2022 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Companion website: www.wiley.com/go/badick/flight_theory_aerodynamics

1
2 INTRODUCTION TO THE FLIGHT ENVIRONMENT

technician. Or possibly you wish to serve in another vital role in the aviation industry, such as manager,
dispatcher, meteorologist, engineer, teacher, or another capacity. Whichever area you might be
considering, this textbook will build on what you already know and will help prepare you for a successful
aviation career.

INTRODUCTION

This chapter begins with a review of the basic principles of physics and concludes with a summary of linear
motion, mechanical energy, and power. A working knowledge of these areas, and how they relate to basic
aerodynamics, is vital as we move past the rudimentary “four forces of flight” and introduce thrust and
power-producing aircraft, lift and drag curves, stability and control, maneuvering performance, slow-speed
flight, and other topics.
You may already have been introduced to the four basic forces acting on an aircraft in flight: lift, weight,
thrust, and drag. Now, we must understand how these forces change as an aircraft accelerates down the
runway, or descends on final approach to a runway and gently touches down even when traveling twice
the speed of a car on the highway. Once an aircraft has safely made it into the air, what effect does weight
have on its ability to climb, and should the aircraft climb up to the flight levels or stay lower and take
“advantage” of the denser air closer to the ground?
By developing an understanding of the aerodynamics of flight, and of the ways in which design, weight,
load factors, and gravity affect an aircraft during flight maneuvers from stalls to high-speed flight, the pilot
learns how to control the balance between these forces. This textbook will help clarify these concepts among
others, leaving you with a better understanding of the flight environment.

BASIC QUANTITIES

An introduction to aerodynamics must begin with a review of physics, and, in particular, the branch of
physics that will be presented here is called mechanics. We will examine the fundamental physical laws
governing the forces acting on an aircraft in flight, and what effect these natural laws and forces have
on the performance characteristics of aircraft. To control an aircraft, whether it is an airplane, helicopter,
glider, or balloon, the pilot must understand the principles involved and learn to use or counteract these
natural forces.
We will start with the concepts of work, energy, power, and friction, and then build upon them as we
move forward in future chapters.
Because the metric system of measurement has not yet been widely accepted in the United States, the
English system of measurement is used in this book. The fundamental units are

Force Pounds (lb)


Distance Feet (ft)
Time Seconds (s)

From the fundamental units, other quantities can be derived:

Velocity (distance/time) ft/s (fps)


Area (distance squared) square ft (ft2)
Pressure (force/unit area) lb/ft2 (psf )
Acceleration (rate of change in velocity) ft/s/s (fps2)
FORCES 3

Aircraft measure airspeed in knots (nautical miles per hour) or in Mach number (the ratio of true airspeed
to the speed of sound). Rates of climb and descent are measured in feet per minute, so quantities other than
those above are used in some cases. Some useful conversion factors are listed below:
Multiply by to get

knots (kts.) 1.69 feet per second (fps)


fps 0.5925 kts.
miles per hour (mph) 1.47 fps
fps 0.6818 mph
mph 0.8690 kts.
kts. 1.15 mph
nautical miles (nm) 6076 feet (ft)
nm 1.15 statute miles (sm)
sm 0.869 nm
kts. 101.3 feet per minute (fpm)

EXAMPLES

Convert 110 kts. to fps: 110 kts. × 1.69 = 185.9 fps


Convert 50 kts. to fpm: 50 kts. × 101.3 = 5,065 fpm
Convert 450 fps to kts. = 450 fps × 0.5925 = 267 kts.
Convert 25 sm to nm: 25 sm × 0.869 = 21.7 nm

Application 1.1
An airplane flight manual (AFM) states a given aircraft should be rotated at 65 kts. indicated
airspeed (IAS), yet the pilot misinterprets the airspeed indicator and rotates at 65 mph (IAS).
Does the aircraft rotate at a faster or slower airspeed than the manufacturer recommends? What are
the implications?

FORCES

A force is a push or a pull tending to change the state of motion of a body. A resolution of the typical forces
acting on an aircraft in steady flight is shown in Figure 1.1, while Figure 1.2 shows the four separate com-
ponents of aerodynamic forces during straight-and-level, unaccelerated flight. The component that is 90 to
the flight path and acts toward the top of the airplane is called lift. The component that is parallel to the flight
path and acts toward the rear of the airplane is called drag; while the opposing forward force is thrust and is
usually created by the engine. Weight opposes lift and as we will see is a function of the mass of the aircraft
and gravity.
The sum of the opposing forces is always zero in steady flight, but this does not mean the four forces are
equal. In future chapters of this textbook, we will further demonstrate the following statement regarding
forces acting on an airplane in steady flight: The sum of all upward component of forces equals the
sum of all downward components of forces, and the sum of all forward components of forces equals
the sum of all backward components of forces.
4 INTRODUCTION TO THE FLIGHT ENVIRONMENT

Aerodynamic
force (AF)

Thrust

Weight

Figure 1.1. Forces on an airplane in steady flight.

Lift

Thrust Drag
Weight

Figure 1.2. Resolved forces on an airplane in steady flight.


Source: U.S. Department of Transportation Federal Aviation Administration (2008a).

MASS

Mass is a measure of the amount of material contained in a body, usually measured in kilograms; we will use
slugs as the unit in this textbook. Weight, on the other hand, is a force caused by the gravitational attraction
of the earth (g = 32.2 ft/s2), moon, sun, or other heavenly bodies. Weight will vary depending on where the
body is located in space (specifically, how far from the source of gravitational attraction), but mass will not
vary with position.
SCALAR AND VECTOR QUANTITIES 5

Weight W = Mass m × Acceleration of gravity g


(1.1)
W = mg

Rearranging gives

W lb lb s2
m= 2
=
g ft s ft

This mass unit is called the slug.

EXAMPLE

Calculate the mass of an aircraft that weighs 2576 lb.

W 2576 lb
m= m=
g 32 2 ft s2
m = 80 0 slugs

SCALAR AND VECTOR QUANTITIES

A quantity that has size or magnitude only is called a scalar quantity. The quantities of mass, time, and
temperature are examples of scalar quantities. A quantity that has both magnitude and direction is called
a vector quantity. Forces, accelerations, and velocities are examples of vector quantities. Speed is a scalar,
but if we consider the direction of the speed, then it is a vector quantity called velocity. If we say an aircraft
traveled 100 nm, the distance is a scalar, but if we say an aircraft traveled 100 nm on a heading of 360 , the
distance is a vector quantity.

Scalar Addition
Scalar quantities can be added (or subtracted) by simple arithmetic. For example, if you have 5 gallons
of gas in your car’s tank and you stop at a gas station and top off your tank with 9 gallons more, your tank
now holds 14 gallons.

Vector Addition
Vector addition is more complicated than scalar addition. Vector quantities are conveniently shown by
arrows. The length of the arrow represents the magnitude of the quantity, and the orientation of the arrow
represents the directional property of the quantity. For example, if we consider the top of this page as
representing north and we want to show the velocity of an aircraft flying east at an airspeed of 300 kts.,
the velocity vector is as shown in Figure 1.3. If there is a 30-kts. wind from the north, the wind vector
is as shown in Figure 1.4.
To find the aircraft’s flight path, groundspeed, and drift angle, we add these two vectors as follows. Place
the tail of the wind vector at the head of the arrow of the aircraft vector and draw a straight line from the tail
of the aircraft vector to the head of the arrow of the wind vector. This resultant vector represents the path of
6 INTRODUCTION TO THE FLIGHT ENVIRONMENT

V a /c = 300 k

Figure 1.3. Vector of an eastbound aircraft.

V w = 30 k

Figure 1.4. Vector of a north wind.

V a/c

Vw
Vr

Figure 1.5. Vector addition.

the aircraft over the ground. The length of the resultant vector represents the groundspeed, and the angle
between the aircraft vector and the resultant vector is the drift angle (Figure 1.5).
The groundspeed is the hypotenuse of the right triangle and is found by use of the Pythagorean theorem
V 2r = V 2a c + V 2w :

2 2
Groundspeed = V r = 300 + 30 = 302 kts

The drift angle is the angle whose tangent is Vw/Va/c = 30/300 = 0.1, which is 5.7 to the right (south) of the
aircraft heading.

Vector Resolution
It is often desirable to replace a given vector by two or more other vectors. This is called vector resolution.
The resulting vectors are called component vectors of the original vector and, if added vectorially, they will
produce the original vector. For example, if an aircraft is in a steady climb, at an airspeed of 200 kts., and the
flight path makes a 30 angle with the horizontal, the groundspeed and rate of climb can be found by vector
resolution. The flight path and velocity are shown by vector Va/c in Figure 1.6.

V a /c
γ

Climb angle
Horizontal

Figure 1.6. Vector of an aircraft in a climb.


MOMENTS 7

V a /c Vv

Vh

Figure 1.7. Vectors of groundspeed and rate of climb.

In Figure 1.7, to resolve the vector Va/c into a component Vh parallel to the horizontal, which will
represent the groundspeed, and a vertical component, Vv, which will represent the rate of climb, we simply
draw a straight line vertically upward from the horizontal to the tip of the arrow Va/c. This vertical line repre-
sents the rate of climb and the horizontal line represents the groundspeed of the aircraft. If the airspeed Va/c is
200 kts. and the climb angle is 30 , mathematically the values are

V h = V a c cos 30 = 200 0 866 = 173 2 kts Groundspeed


V v = V a c sin 30 = 200 0 500 = 100 kts or 10130 fpm Rate of climb

MOMENTS

If a mechanic tightens a nut by applying a force to a wrench, a twisting action, called a moment, is created
about the center of the bolt. This particular type of moment is called torque (pronounced “tork”). Moments,
M, are measured by multiplying the amount of the applied force, F, by the moment arm, L:

Moment = force × arm or M = FL (1.2)

The moment arm is the perpendicular distance from the line of action of the applied force to the center of
rotation. Moments are measured as foot–pounds (ft-lb) or as inch–pounds (in.-lb). If a mechanic uses a 10
in.-long wrench and applies 25 lb of force, the torque on the nut is 250 in.-lb.
The aircraft moments that are of particular interest to pilots include pitching moments, yawing moments,
and rolling moments. If you have ever completed a weight and balance computation for an aircraft, you have
calculated a moment, where weight was the force and the arm was the inches from datum. Pitching
moments, for example, occur when an aircraft’s elevator is moved. Air loads on the elevator, multiplied
by the distance to the aircraft’s center of gravity (CG), create pitching moments, which cause the nose
to pitch up or down. As you can see from Eq. 1.2, if a force remains the same but the arm is increased,
the moment increases.
Several forces may act on an aircraft at the same time, and each will produce its own moment about the
aircraft’s CG. Some of these moments may oppose others in direction. It is therefore necessary to classify
each moment, not only by its magnitude, but also by its direction of rotation. One such classification could
be by clockwise or counterclockwise rotation. In the case of pitching moments, a nose-up or nose-down
classification seems appropriate.
Mathematically, it is desirable that moments be classified as positive (+) or negative (−). For example,
if a clockwise moment is considered to be a + moment, then a counterclockwise moment must be
considered to be a − moment. By definition, aircraft nose-up pitching moments are considered to be
+ moments.
8 INTRODUCTION TO THE FLIGHT ENVIRONMENT

Arm A (–50”) Arm B (+25”)

B = 200
A = 100

+Force
–Forces

s
Fulcrum
– Moment Datum + Moment

Figure 1.8. Balance Lever.

EQUILIBRIUM CONDITIONS

Webster defines equilibrium as “a state in which opposing forces or actions are balanced so that one is not
stronger or greater than the other.” A body must meet two requirements to be in a state of equilibrium:

1. There must be no unbalanced forces acting on the body. This is written as the mathematical formula
ΣF = 0, where Σ (cap sigma) is the Greek symbol for “sum of.” Figure 1.2 illustrates the situation
where this condition is satisfied (lift = weight, thrust = drag, etc.)
2. There must be no unbalanced moments acting on the body. Mathematically, ΣM = 0.
Moments at the fulcrum in Fig. 1.8 are 5000 ft-lb clockwise and 5000 ft-lb counterclockwise.
The weight (force) of A is 100 lb and is located 50 inches ( ) to the left of datum (fulcrum), thus
100 lb × −50 = −5000 lb-in. The weight of B is 200 lb and is located 25 inches to the right of datum,
thus 200 lb × 25 = 5000 lb-in. So, ΣM = 0.

NEWTON’S LAWS OF MOTION

Sir Isaac Newton summarized three generalizations about force and motion. These are known as the laws of
motion.
Newton’s First Law
In simple language, the first law states that a body at rest will remain at rest and a body in motion will
remain in motion, in a straight line, unless acted upon by an unbalanced force. The first law implies that
bodies have a property called inertia. Inertia may be defined as the property of a body that results in its
maintaining its velocity unchanged unless it interacts with an unbalanced force. For example, an aircraft
parked on the ramp would not even need chocks unless an unbalanced force (such as wind, or gravity if
parked on a slope) acted on it. The measure of inertia is what is technically known as mass.

Newton’s Second Law


The second law states that if a body is acted on by an unbalanced force, the body will accelerate in
the direction of the force and the acceleration will be directly proportional to the force and inversely pro-
portional to the mass of the body. Acceleration is the change in the velocity of a body in a unit of time.
Consider an aircraft accelerating down the runway, or decelerating after touchdown. For our discussion,
LINEAR MOTION 9

the primary forces acting on an aircraft accelerating or decelerating down a runway are thrust, drag, and
friction. Future chapters will discuss the net force on an aircraft during the takeoff and landing regimes.
The amount of the acceleration a is directly proportional to the unbalanced force, F, and is
inversely proportional to the mass, m, of the body. For a constant mass, force equals mass times
acceleration.
Newton’s second law can be expressed by the simple equation:

F = ma (1.3)

Then, solving for a,

F
a=
m
EXAMPLE

An airplane that weighs 14 400 lb accelerates down a runway with a net force of 4 000 lb, what is the accel-
eration (a) assuming constant acceleration?

W 14 400 lb
m= = = 447 2 slugs
g 32 2ft s2

F 4000 lb
a= a= a = 8 9 ft s2
m 447 2 slugs

Newton’s Third Law


The third law states that for every action force there is an equal and opposite reaction force. Note that for
this law to have any meaning, there must be an interaction between the force and a body. For example, the
gases produced by burning fuel in a rocket engine are accelerated through the rocket nozzle. The equal and
opposite force acts on the interior walls of the combustion chamber, and the rocket is accelerated in the
opposite direction. As a propeller aircraft pushes air backward from the propeller, the aircraft is pushed
forward.

LINEAR MOTION

Newton’s laws of motion express relationships among force, mass, and acceleration, but they stop short of
discussing velocity, time, and distance. These are covered here. In the interest of simplicity, we assume here
that acceleration is constant. Then,
Change in velocity ΔV Vf − Vi Vf − Vi
Acceleration a = = = or
Change in time Δt tf − ti t
where

Δ (cap delta) means “change in”


Vf = final velocity at time tf
Vi = initial velocity at time ti
10 INTRODUCTION TO THE FLIGHT ENVIRONMENT

If we start the time at ti = 0 and rearrange the above, then

V f = V i + at (1.4)

If we start the time at ti = 0 and Vi = 0 (brakes locked before takeoff roll) and rearrange the above where Vf
can be any velocity given, for example liftoff velocity, then

Vf
t=
a

The distance s traveled in a certain time is

s = V av t

where the average velocity Vav is

Vi + Vf
V av =
2

And incorporating Eq. 1.4, and substituting for Vf, we get

V i + at + V i
s= t
2

which yields
1 2
s = V it + at (1.5)
2

Solving Eqs. 1.4 and 1.5 simultaneously and eliminating t, we can derive a third equation:

V 2f − V 2i
s= (1.6)
2a

Equations 1.3–1.6 are useful in calculating takeoff and landing factors, and are studied in more detail in
Chapters 8 and 9.

EXAMPLE

An aircraft that weighs 15 000 lb begins from a brakes-locked position on the runway, and then accelerates
down the runway with a net force of 5000 lb until liftoff at a velocity of 110 kts. Calculate the average
acceleration down the runway, the average time it takes to reach liftoff speed, and the total takeoff distance
on the runway.
First, to calculate the acceleration, we need find the force (F) and the mass of the aircraft during the
takeoff roll, Eq. 1.3: F = m a
W 15 000 lb
Finding the mass: m = m= m = 465 8 slugs
g 32 2 ft s2
ENERGY AND WORK 11

F 5000 lb
Finding the average acceleration: a = a= a = 10 7 ft s2
m 465 8 slugs
Average time to liftoff:
V f = V i + at where, V i = 0
so,
Vf 185 9 ft s
t= t= t = 17 4 seconds
a 10 7 ft s2
V 2 − V 2i 185 9 2 − 0
Total takeoff distance: s = f s= s = 1614 9 ft
2a 2 10 7 ft s2

ROTATIONAL MOTION

Without derivation, some of the relationships among tangential (tip) velocity, Vt; radius of rotation, r; revo-
lutions per minute, rpm; centripetal forces, CF; weight of rotating parts, W; and acceleration of gravity, g,
are shown below. A more detailed discussion regarding rotorcraft can be found in Chapter 15 of this
textbook.

r rpm
Vt = fps (1.7)
9 55

WV 2t
CF = lb (1.8)
gr

2
W r rpm
CF = (1.9)
2930

For our discussion, the units of work will be measured in ft-lb.

ENERGY AND WORK

Energy is the ability to do work. In physics, work has a meaning different from the popular definition. You
can push against a solid wall until you are exhausted but, unless the wall moves, you are not doing any work.
Work requires that a force must move an object (displacement) in the direction of the force. Another way of
saying this is that only the component of the force in the direction of movement does any work:

Work = Force × Distance

There are many kinds of energy: solar, chemical, heat, nuclear, and others. The type of energy that is of
interest to us in aviation is mechanical energy.
There are two kinds of mechanical energy: The first is called potential energy of position, or more simply
potential energy, PE. No movement is involved in calculating PE. A good example of this kind of energy is
water stored behind a dam. If released, the water would be able to do work, such as running a generator. As a
fighter aircraft zooms to a zenith point, it builds PE; once it starts to accelerate downward, it converts PE to
KE. PE equals the weight, W, of an object multiplied by the height, h, of the object above some base plane:
12 INTRODUCTION TO THE FLIGHT ENVIRONMENT

PE = Wh ft-lb (1.10)

The second kind of mechanical energy is called kinetic energy, KE. As the name implies, kinetic energy
requires movement of an object. It is a function of the mass, m, of the object and its velocity, V:

1
KE = mV 2 ft-lb (1.11)
2

The total mechanical energy, TE, of an object is the sum of its PE and KE:

TE = PE + KE ft-lb (1.12)

The law of conservation of energy states that the total energy (of a closed system) remains constant. Both
potential and kinetic energy can change in value, but the total energy must remain the same. For example,
when a ball is thrown upward, if the height of the thrower is the reference plane, its energy is all kinetic when
it leaves the thrower’s hand. As it rises, PE is continually increasing, but KE is always decreasing by the
same amount, so the sum remains constant. At the top of its travel, PE is at its maximum (the same amount as
the KE it had when it left the thrower’s hand) and KE is zero. Energy cannot be created or destroyed, but
can change in form.

EXAMPLE

An aircraft that weighs 15 000 lb is flying at 10 000 ft altitude at an airspeed of 210 kts. Calculate the poten-
tial energy, kinetic energy, and the total energy.

PE: PE = Wh PE = 15000 lb × 10000 ft PE = 1.5 × 108


2
KE: KE = 12 mV 2 KE = 1
2 465 8 slugs 354 9 ft s KE = 2 9 × 107
Total Energy: TE = PE + KE TE = 1.79 × 108

Application 1.2
Consider a general aviation airplane that weighs 3000 lb with a designated approach speed over the
runway threshold of 65 kts., calculate the KE. Now, consider if that same airplane approaches the
runway with an extra 10 kts. of speed due to poor planning, calculate the new KE.
Why does only a 10 kts. change in approach speed result in such a wide margin of KE? What are the
consequences of this “extra” energy?

POWER

In our discussion of work and energy, we have not mentioned time. Power is defined as “the rate of doing
work” or work/time. We know:

Work = force × distance


FRICTION 13

and

Speed = distance time


work force × distance
Power = = = force × speed ft-lb s
time time

James Watt defined the term horsepower (HP) as 550 ft-lb/s:

force × speed
Horsepower =
550

If the speed is measured in knots, Vk, and the force is the thrust, T, of a jet engine, then

Thrust × V k TV k
HP = = (1.13)
325 325

EXAMPLE

An aircraft’s turbojet engine produces 8000 lb of thrust at 180 kts., what is the equivalent horsepower that
engine is producing?

TV k 8000 lb 180 kts


HP = HP = HP = 4431 HP
325 325

Equation 1.13 is very useful in comparing thrust-producing aircraft (turbojets) with power-producing air-
craft (propeller aircraft and helicopters); a more detailed discussion will follow in future chapters.

Application 1.3
Consider the example calculation provided to solve for horsepower (HP).
Would the horsepower remain the same if the thrust remained 8000 lb but the aircraft slowed to a
speed of 160 kts.? Why or why not? How can the equation be altered to solve for thrust (T) if an
aircraft was maintaining a constant speed with a known HP?

FRICTION

If two surfaces are in contact with each other, then a force develops between them when an attempt is made
to move them relative to each other. This force is called friction. Generally, we think of friction as something
to be avoided because it wastes energy and causes parts to wear. In our discussion on drag, we will discuss
the parasite drag on an airplane in flight and the thrust or power to overcome that force. Friction is not
always our enemy; however, without it there would be no traction between an aircraft’s tires and the runway.
Once an aircraft lands, lift is reduced and a portion of the weight contributes to frictional force. Depending
on the aircraft type, aerodynamic braking, thrust reversers, and spoilers will be used to assist the brakes and
shorten the landing, or rejected takeoff distance.
14 INTRODUCTION TO THE FLIGHT ENVIRONMENT

0.8
Dry concrete
Coefficient
of 0.6
friction
μ Concrete
light rain
F/ 0.4
N
Heavy rain
0.2
Smooth, clear ice
Rolling Locked
wheel wheel

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Percent wheel slip

Figure 1.9. Coefficients of friction for airplane tires on a runway.

At the microscopic level, as in the surface of a wing, friction causes resistance and slows down the veloc-
ity of the air as it passes over it. The layer of air that is impacted by the friction of the wing, or any other
surface of the aircraft, is referred to as the boundary layer.
Several factors are involved in determining friction effects on aircraft during takeoff and landing opera-
tions. Among these are runway surfacing material, condition of the runway, tire material and tread, and the
amount of brake slippage. All of these variables determine a coefficient of friction μ (mu). The actual brak-
ing force, Fb, is the product of this coefficient μ (Greek symbol mu) and the normal force, N, between the
tires and the runway (Eq. 1.14):

F b = μN lb (1.14)

Figure 1.9 shows typical values of the coefficient of friction for various conditions. Note the value of μ for
dry concrete is ~0.7 with ~10% wheel slip, while the μ on smooth, clear ice is ~0.2. This means that an
airplane wheel rolling on smooth, clear ice will experience much lower friction (increased stopping dis-
tance) than a wheel rolling on dry concrete.

EXAMPLE

Calculate the braking force on dry concrete when the normal force (N) is 2000 lb.

F b = μN F b = 0 7 2000 lb F b = 1400 lb

SYMBOLS

a acceleration (ft/s2)
E Energy (ft-lb)
KEY TERMS 15

KE Kinetic energy (ft-lb)


PE Potential energy (ft-lb)
TE Total energy (ft-lb)
F Force (lb)
Fb Braking force (lb)
g Acceleration of gravity (ft/s2)
h Height (ft)
HP Horsepower
L Moment arm (ft or in.)
m Mass (slugs, lb-s2/ft)
M Moment (ft-lb or in.-lb)
N Normal force (lb)
r Radius (ft)
rpm Revolutions per minute
s Distance (ft)
T Thrust (lb)
t Time (second)
V Velocity (ft/s) or (kts.)
Vf Final velocity (ft/s)
Vk Velocity (kts.)
Vi Initial velocity (ft/s)
Vt Tangential (tip) speed (ft/s)
W Weight (lb)
μ (mu) Coefficient of friction (dimensionless)

KEY TERMS

Acceleration
Area
Arm
Coefficient of friction
Centripetal force
Component vector
Energy
Equilibrium
Force
Friction
Kinetic energy
Laws of motion
Linear
Mass
Mechanical energy
Motion
Potential energy
Power
Pressure
Resultant vector
Rotational motion
Scalar quantity
16 INTRODUCTION TO THE FLIGHT ENVIRONMENT

Torque
Velocity
Vector quantity
Vector resolution
Work

PROBLEMS

Note: Answers to problems are given at the end of the book.


1. Convert 65 kts. to fps.
2. Convert 200 fps to kts.
3. Convert 35 kts. to fpm.
4. Convert 52 nm to sm.
5. An airplane weighs 16 000 lb. The local gravitational acceleration g is 32.2 fps2. What is the mass of the
airplane?
6. The airplane in Problem 5 accelerates down the runway with a net forward force (thrust less drag) of
6000 lb. Find the acceleration of the airplane.
7. The airplane in Problem 6 starts from a brakes-locked position on the runway. The airplane takes off at
an airspeed of 200 fps. Find the time for the aircraft to reach takeoff speed.
8. Under no-wind conditions, what takeoff roll is required for the aircraft in Problem 7?
9. Upon reaching a velocity of 100 fps, the pilot of the airplane in Problem 7 decides to abort the takeoff
and applies brakes and stops the airplane in 1000 ft. Find the airplane’s deceleration.
10. An airplane is towing a glider to altitude. The tow rope is 20 below the horizontal and has a tension
force of 300 lb exerted on it by the airplane. Find the horizontal drag of the glider and the amount of lift
that the rope is providing to the glider. Sin 20 = 0.342; cos 20 = 0.940.
11. A jet airplane is climbing at a constant airspeed in no-wind conditions. The plane is directly over a point
on the ground that is 4 statute miles from the takeoff point and the altimeter reads 15 840 ft. Find the
plane’s climb angle and the distance that it has flown through the air.
12. Find the distance s and the force F on the seesaw fulcrum shown in the figure. Assume that the system is
in equilibrium.

20 lb

10 lb
24 ft
s

F
PROBLEMS 17

13. A helicopter has a rotor diameter of 30 ft and it is being operated in a hover at 286.5 rpm. Find the tip
speed Vt of the rotor.
14. An airplane weighs 16 000 lb and is flying at 5 000 ft altitude and at an airspeed of 200 fps. Find (a) the
potential energy, (b) the kinetic energy, and (c) the total energy. Assuming no extra drag on the air-
plane, if the pilot drove until the airspeed was 400 fps, what would the altitude be?
15. An aircraft’s turbojet engine produces 10 000 lb of thrust at 162.5 kts. true airspeed. What is the equiv-
alent power that it is producing?
16. An aircraft weighs 24 000 lb and has 75% of its weight on the main (braking) wheels. If the coefficient
of friction is 0.7, find the braking force Fb on the airplane.
17. Newton’s third law of motion states:
a. A body at rest will remain at rest and a body in motion will remain in motion, in a straight line, unless
acted upon by an unbalanced force.
b. For every action force there is an equal and opposite reaction force.
c. If a body is acted on by an unbalanced force, the body will accelerate in the direction of the force, and
the acceleration will be directly proportional to the force and inversely proportional to the mass of
the body.
18. An aircraft parked on an airport ramp would be an example of Newton’s _______ law of motion.
a. first.
b. second.
c. fourth.
d. third.
19. An airplane in level flight increases thrust, resulting in an acceleration until once again thrust equals:
a. aerodynamic force.
b. lift.
c. weight.
d. drag.
20. An airplane in straight-and-level, unaccelerated flight weighs 2300 lb, what total lift must the aircraft
produce to maintain a constant altitude assuming no additional forces are involved:
a. 2000 lb
b. 2300 lb
c. 1150 lb
d. >2300 lb
C H A P T E R 1

Introduction: Single-aisle turboelectric aircraft concept; Glenn


Research Center, NASA https:// www1.grc.nasa.gov/

AL
Propulsion in

RI
Sustainable

TE
Aviation MA
D

1.1 History of the Airbreathing Jet Engine, a Twentieth-Century


TE

Invention—The Beginning
GH

Powered flight is a twentieth-century invention. The era of powered flight began


on December 17, 1903 with the Wright brothers who designed, fabricated, and
flew “The Flyer” in Kitty Hawk, North Carolina. The power onboard The Flyer
RI

was a gas powered, 12-hp reciprocating intermittent combustion engine. This type
of engine, with a propeller, provided power to all (manned) aircraft until the late
PY

1930s. The history of aircraft gas turbine engine started in January 1930 with a
patent issued to Frank Whittle in Great Britain. Figure 1.1 shows a p–v diagram
and components of the Whittle engine as they appeared in the patent application.
CO

The flow pattern and engine assembly are shown in Figure 1.2. The performance
of the W1 engine and the aircraft that flew it are shown in Figure 1.3. An engineer
at work, Sir Frank Whittle, the inventor of the jet engine, with a slide rule is shown
in Figure 1.4. For more details on the Whittle turbojet see Meher-Homji (1997).
The gas turbine engine of Figure 1.1 is based on the Brayton cycle. The
compression in the Whittle engine is achieved via a double-sided centrifugal com-
pressor. The axial compressor had not been developed due to aerodynamic stability
complications. The combustion takes place in a reverse-flow burner that is very
large relative to other engine components. The straight through-flow burner had
posed problems with stable combustion and thus a reverse-flow combustor pro-
vided the needed flame stability in the burner. The compressor shaft power is
delivered from a single-stage axial flow turbine.

Aircraft Propulsion: Cleaner, Leaner, and Greener, Third Edition. Saeed Farokhi.
© 2022 John Wiley & Sons Ltd. Published 2022 by John Wiley & Sons Ltd.
Companion website: www.wiley.com/go/farokhi/aircraftpropulsion
2 Chapter 1 ◾ Introduction

◾ FIGURE 1.1 Reproduction of Drawings Illustrating British Patent No.


347,206 filed 16th January 1930

SPECIFIC CONSUMPTION–
Patent drawings of Sir 2.2

LB. OF FUEL PER HA.


3 2.0
Frank Whittle jet

PER LB. THRUST


2 4
5 6
engine SPE 1.8
CI FIC
CONS 1.6
UMPTIO
N
1,200 1.4
1.2
1,000 1.0
C E
B
800

THRUST–LB.

EXHAUST TEMPERATURE
H F 600
ST
RU
D G TH
A

–DEG.C.
400 S 600
RE
ATU
PE R
200 TEM 500
UST
EXHA
11
12 15
9 17 0 400
8 10
7 11,000 12,000 13,000 14,000 15,000 16,000 17,00018,000
1 4 5 13
11
2 SPEED–R.P.M.
3 16
The W1 Engine: Curves of Thrust, Specific
16
Fuel Consumption, and Exhaust
Temperatures plotted against speed.
1 17
10
Test results
“Desing” performance

◾ FIGURE 1.2
WATER OUT

PROGRESS IN JET PROPULSION


WATER IN

The assembly and flow The company formed by Whittle, known as Power Jets Ltd.
pattern in Whittle jet produced the W.2.B. engine which was a classic of its type. It had
the reverse flow combustion system which was typical of the Whittle
engine designs. It was eventually developed to give nearly three times the
thrust of the W.1 without occupying more space.

Turbine
Compressor

Assembly of W1 Engine. (Combustion


chamber details not shown)

◾ FIGURE 1.3
Performance testing of ◾ FIGURE 1.4
Whittle jet engine, Sir Frank Whittle with
known as W1, and the a slide rule. Source:
experimental aircraft, Crown Publications
Gloster E28/39 that
flew it in 1941. Source:
Crown Publications
Gloster Experimental Aeroplane E28/39 at Takeoff.
(Royal Aerospace Establishment, Crown Copyright.)
1.1 History of the Airbreathing Jet Engine, a Twentieth-Century Invention—The Beginning 3

◾ FIGURE 1.5
The first historic
meeting between the
two inventors of the jet
engine took place in
WPAFB on May 3,
1978. Source:
AFRL/AFMC

In an independent effort, Hans-Joachim Pabst von Ohain invented a turbojet


engine in Germany that was granted a patent in 1936. In 1937, von Ohain’s engine,
designated as the He S-1 turbojet engine with hydrogen fuel, was tested and pro-
duced a thrust of 250 pounds at 10,000 rpm. Von Ohain’s engine was the first to be
developed ahead of the Whittle engine and flew on the first jet-powered aircraft,
Heinkel 178, in 1939. Both Whittle and von Ohain are credited as the coinventors
of airbreathing gas turbine engine. Figure 1.5 shows the two inventors of the jet
engine, a historic meeting on May 3, 1978.
The first production jet aircraft was the Messerschmitt Me 262, shown in
Figure 1.6. Two Jumo 004B turbojet engines powered the Messerschmitt Me 262
jet fighter. The Me 262’s firstflight was on July 18, 1942. Dr. Anselm Franz of the
Junkers Engine Company designed the Jumo 004, which was based on von Ohain’s
patent. The Jumo 004B engine cutaway is shown in Figure 1.7. This engine has
many modern gas turbine features such as axial-flow compressor and a straight
throughflow combustor with air-cooling of the turbine and the nozzle. For more
details see Meher-Homji (1996).
The drawing of the Jumo 004B turbojet engine in Figure 1.7 shows an
air-cooling system that bleeds air from the compressor and cools the turbine
and the exhaust nozzle. The engine produces ∼2000 lb of thrust at an airflow of
46.6 lb/s. The engine pressure ratio is 3.14, turbine inlet temperature is 1427∘ F,
and the specific fuel consumption is 1.4 lbm/h/lbf-thrust. The engine dry weight
is ∼1650 lb, its diameter and length are ∼30 and 152 in., respectively. Engine
component efficiencies are reported to be 78% compressor, 95% combustor, and

◾ FIGURE 1.6
The first production jet
aircraft, Me 262
4 Chapter 1 ◾ Introduction

◾ FIGURE 1.7 Starter motor Air bleed Flame chamber Control cone
Jumo 004B engine
cutaway features an
axial-flow compressor,
a straight throughflow
combustor, an
air-cooled axial
turbine, and an
exhaust nozzle
Jet nozzle
Cooling air duct
Compressor Combustion Turbine with
chamber hollow blades

◾ FIGURE 1.8
The first US produced
aircraft gas turbine
engine. Source:
Courtesy of US Air
Force Museum

79.5% turbine. We will put these numbers in perspective when we compare them
with their modern counterparts.
The jet engine came from Great Britain to the United States in 1941. The
J-31 (also known by its company designation, I-16) was the first turbojet engine
produced in quantity in the United States. It was developed from the General Elec-
tric I-A, which was a copy of the highly secret British “Whittle” engine. Figure 1.8
shows the J-31 gas turbine engine (courtesy of Air Force Museum).

1.2 Innovations in Aircraft Gas Turbine Engines


In this section, we introduce the most significant innovations in gas turbine industry
since the introduction of the aircraft jet engine by Whittle and von Ohain. Daw-
son (1991) and Wallace (1996) as well as the NASA websites (2013) and NASA
publication (2002) should be consulted for further information.

1.2.1 Multispool Configuration


To achieve a high-pressure compression system, two distinct and complemen-
tary approaches were invented in the United States. One is the multi-spool
concept (developed by Pratt & Whitney) and the second is the variable stator
1.2 Innovations in Aircraft Gas Turbine Engines 5

◾ FIGURE 1.9
Three-spool gas
turbine engine as
developed by
Rolls-Royce. Source:
The Jet Engine, 2005.
Reproduced by
permission from The
Jet Engine, Copyright
Rolls-Royce plc 2005

(developed by GE). The multi-spool concept combines several compressor stages


together in two or three groups, known as the low-pressure compressor (LPC),
intermediate-pressure compressor (IPC), and high-pressure compressor (HPC). A
different shaft that spins at different rotational speed drives each group. Figure 1.9
shows the Trent 1000, a modern Rolls-Royce engine that employs three spools.

1.2.2 Variable Stator


The need to adjust the flow direction in a multistage high-pressure ratio compres-
sor (in starting and off-design) prompted Gerhard Neumann of GE to invent the
variable stator. By allowing the stators to rotate in pitch, compressors can operate
at higher pressure ratios and away from stall. Modern gas turbine engines use vari-
able stators in their LPC and IPC. The high-temperature environment of HPC has
not been hospitable to variable stators.

1.2.3 Transonic Compressor


Better understanding of supersonic flow and the development of high
strength-to-weight ratio titanium alloy allowed the development of super-
sonic tip fan blades. The transonic fan is borne at a high shaft speed that creates
a relative supersonic flow at the tip and a subsonic flow at the hub. A modern
transonic fan stage produces a stage pressure ratio of ∼1.6. The Jumo 004B
produced a cycle pressure ratio of 3.14 with eight stages, which means an average
stage pressure ratio of ∼1.15. Therefore, to achieve a pressure ratio of 3.14, we
need only two transonic fan stages instead of eight. The higher compression per
stage has allowed a reduction in engine weight, size, and part-count and has
improved reliability. The advances in computational fluid dynamics (CFD) and
nonintrusive testing techniques have paved the way for a better understanding
of supersonic flow in compressors. A compressor flow simulation is shown in
Figure 1.10(a). The rotor passage shock, boundary layer interaction, and flow
separation are clearly visualized in Figure 1.10(a). An advanced transonic fan is
shown in Figure 1.10(b) from Rolls-Royce.
6 Chapter 1 ◾ Introduction

◾ FIGURE 1.10
(a) CFD in transonic
compressor rotor
flowfield. Source:
Courtesy of NASA; (b)
advanced transonic
fan. Source:
Reproduced with
permission from
Rolls-Royce plc

(a) (b)

1.2.4 Low-Emission Combustor


The gas turbine combustor has perhaps seen the most dramatic innovations/changes
since the Whittle reverse-flow burner. A better understanding of the combustion
process, from atomization and vaporization of the fuel to mixing with air and chem-
ical reaction, has allowed efficient combustion to take place in small spaces. For
example, compare the relative length and volume of the combustor in GP7000,
shown in Figure 1.11, to the Whittle engine or Jumo 004B.
In the textbox of Figure 1.11, we note that the combustor emissions are char-
acterized by their nitric oxide formation, the so-called NOx , the unburned hydro-
carbon (UHC) emission, and finally carbon monoxide formation in the exhaust
nozzle flow. To achieve low levels of pollutant emissions, different concepts in
“staged combustion” are developed by aircraft engine manufacturers (as shown in
Figure 1.12).

◾ FIGURE 1.11
Engine Alliance engine: GP7000
Engine Alliance engine T.O. Thrust: 76,500 Ibs/340 kN
GP7000. Source: OPR: 36+ (on GP7200)
Reproduced with BPR (cruise): 8.7
permission from the Fan Diameter: 116.7 in.
Engine Alliance. [Note: Emissions:
Engine Alliance is a NOx: 59.7 g/kN
UHC: 3.9 g/kN
50/50 joint venture
CO: 33.8 g/kN
between GE Aviation Noise: 22.9 dB Margin to Stage 3
and Pratt & Whitney]
1.2 Innovations in Aircraft Gas Turbine Engines 7

◾ FIGURE 1.12
Concepts in Future emissions improvements
low-emission
combustor design.
Source: Reproduced Main
with permission from Pilot
Rolls-Royce plc

Double-annular combustor

Main

Pilot

Rolls-Royce Pre-mixed double-annular combustor

1.2.5 Turbine Cooling


The need to cool the turbine stems from being able to operate the combustor at
higher temperature (to produce more thrust) and to achieve turbine durability,
that is, an improved component life. The first production turbojet engine, Jumo
004B, utilized internal cooling for the turbine blades. So, the concept is as old as
the turbojet engine itself. Improved manufacturing techniques and better under-
standing of the flow physics involved in coolant ejection, mixing with hot gas, and
three-dimensional flow in turbines have allowed for a rationed approach to coolant
usage as well as component life enhancement. Figure 1.13 shows a single-and a
multi-pass internal cooling of a turbine blade that incorporates film cooling as
well as the thermal protection (or barrier) coating (TPC or TBC) to reduce the
heat transfer to turbine blades.

◾ FIGURE 1.13
Turbine blade cooling. Turbine cooling
Source: Reproduced
with permission from
Rolls-Royce plc

Cooling air
Multi-pass Thermal barrier
Single pass
coating
Rolls-Royce
8 Chapter 1 ◾ Introduction

1.2.6 Exhaust Nozzles


The concept of an exhaust nozzle for aircraft jet engines has changed from
a simple convergent duct that was used to propel the hot exhaust gases to a
variable-geometry and multitasked component in modern designs. The new tasks
involve thrust reversing, thrust vectoring, noise suppression, and dynamic stability
enhancement of maneuvering aircraft. To achieve these goals, advancements in
nozzle cooling, actuation, and manufacturing had to be realized. Figure 1.14
shows a sophisticated propulsion layout (and nozzle system) in F-35 aircraft that
has vertical takeoff/landing (VTOL) capability as well as roll control in hover.
Figure 1.15 shows a ±20∘ vector thrust in an F119 engine developed by Pratt &
Whitney for F-22 “supercruise” aircraft.

1.2.7 Modern Materials and Manufacturing Techniques


Non-metallics and composite materials represent a sizable change in modern mate-
rial usage in aircraft and jet engines. Metal matrix composites technology offers
a high strength-to-weight ratio relative to titanium and nickel superalloys suitable
for fan blades. Single crystal turbine blades offer more resistance to vibration and
thus fatigue failure. A manufacturing technique that utilizes a honeycomb core
with a composite skin offers weight and stress reductions in fan blades. Compres-
sor weight savings are derived from bladed disk “Blisk” and bladed ring “Bling”
manufacturing technology. All these are shown in Figure 1.16.
An example of a modern engine is the EJ200, which powers the
“Eurofighter” Typhoon (shown in Figure 1.17). Its design features are tabulated in
Table 1.1.
The modern materials and the manufacturing techniques that we have dis-
cussed are described in Table 1.1. Compare the turbine inlet temperature (Tt4 ) in
the EJ200 and Jumo 004B or thrust-to-weight ratio.
Additive manufacturing (AM) is the new game changer in the aviation and
aerospace industry. Digital files from computer-aided design/computer-aided

◾ FIGURE 1.14
Propulsion layout for
vertical landing and
stability of a F-35 Joint
Strike Fighter. Source:
Reproduced with
permission from
Rolls-Royce plc

◾ FIGURE 1.15
F119 engine that
powers F-22 Raptor is
shown in vector thrust.
Source: Reproduced
with permission of
United Technologies
Corporation, Pratt &
Whitney
1.2 Innovations in Aircraft Gas Turbine Engines 9

◾ FIGURE 1.16
Advanced materials
and manufacturing
techniques. Source:
Reproduced with
permission from
Rolls-Royce plc

◾ FIGURE 1.17
Cutaway of EJ200, an
afterburning turbofan
engine designed for the
Eurofighter. Source:
Reproduced with
permission from
Rolls-Royce plc

◾ TABLE 1.1
EJ200 specifications
Fan/compressor stages 1/3/5
LPT/HPT 1/1
Max. diameter 29 in.
Two-spool configuration OPR 26:1
Fan technology BPR 0.4
Wide chord Length 157 in.
Single-crystal “Blisk” (Bladed Disk) Dry weight 2,286 lbf
No IGV Sfc (max. power) 0.81 lbm/h/lbf
Three-stage LPC: 4.2 PR Sfc w. AB 1.75 lbm/h/lbf
Mass flow: 77 kg/s or 170 lbm/s Thrust (SL) 13,500 lbf
HPC: Single crystal Blisk Thrust w. AB 20,250–22,250 lbf
Tt4 : 1800K(or 2780∘ F) Thrust/weight (Dry) 5.92
HPT: Air-cooled + TPC (two-layers) Thrust/weight (AB) 9.1
C-D nozzle: Titanium alloy Thrust vectoring: 23∘ any direction
Engine management FADEC + monitoring unit

manufacturing (CAD/CAM) are used in 3D printers to generate intricate


components and prototypes for the aviation and aerospace industry, including
gas turbine engines. The advancement in lasers, materials and filaments, preci-
sion (e.g. nano-printing) and composite tooling have revolutionized industrial
manufacturing and rapid prototyping in aviation. The use of AM in space has
10 Chapter 1 ◾ Introduction

brought 3D printing capability on board the International Space Station (ISS).


The experience gained on the ISS will be invaluable for long-term manufacturing
goals on the Moon and human habitats on Mars. Conner et al (2014) give an
introductory discussion on AM business products and services. For AM on the ISS
see the website of Made In Space. National Institute of Standards and Technology
(NIST) publications may be consulted for the latest in AM technology.

1.3 Twenty-first Century Aviation Goal: Sustainability


Sustainability in the context of aviation is based on three inter-related concepts:
the impact of aviation on the environment (i.e. climate, air quality, and noise), the
renewability of the energy sources, and the societal factors (e.g. economics) that
increase our need for air transportation. We begin with the element of sustainability
first. Aviation impact on the environment starts at the ground level with air quality
near airports and rises through the Earth’s atmosphere with greenhouse gas (GHG)
emissions that cause climate change. Aircraft engine emissions and noise impact air
quality and health hazards at the community level. In addition to aircraft engines,
auxiliary power units (APU), the ground support equipment, ground access vehi-
cles, construction activities, electric powerplants, and maintenance operations are
also deemed to be emission sources that contribute to aviation-related environmen-
tal pollution at airports. At the cruise altitude, greenhouse gases, mainly carbon
dioxide,(CO2 ) in the engine emissions contribute to climate change through global
warming effect. The impact of engine emissions on the climate in the form of nitro-
gen oxides (NOx ) threatens to deplete ozone in the protective ozone layer in the
Earth’s atmosphere and to generate harmful ozone at the ground/community level.
The formation and spreading of persistent contrails in high-flying jets is the source
of aviation-induced cloudiness (AIC), akin to naturally occurring cirrus clouds,
which cover about 30% of the Earth. AIC alters radiative forcing (RF) in the upper
atmosphere and thus another concern for climate change is born. In this section, we
address the aviation-related pollution and the magnitude of these anthropogenic,
i.e. caused by human activities, emissions at the local and the global scale. Aviation
noise generated in takeoff, climb, flyover, approach, and landing is also critical to
sustainable aviation and will be addressed. For additional discussions on sustain-
able aviation see Farokhi (2020).

1.3.1 Combustion Emissions


The combustion of fossil fuel in the air results in water vapor (H2 O) and carbon
dioxide (CO2 ) formations that belong to the category of greenhouse gases. Incom-
plete combustion results in carbon monoxide (CO) and unburned hydrocarbon
(UHC) in the exhaust jet. Nitrogen oxides, labeled as NOx , are major concerns due
to their impact on air quality. NOx also plays a catalytic role in ozone production
or depletion in the lower and upper atmosphere, respectively. The sulfur content
of a fuel is dictated by the aviation fuel production (or the refinery) process and
its oxides, labeled as SOx (mainly SO2 ), contribute to local air quality concerns.
Finally, particulate matter (PM) in the exhaust, known as soot and volatile gases,
are combustion emissions that have condensed to solid (particle) phase, which
adversely impact air quality. The US Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) has
been charged with setting the emission standards for aircraft engines operated in
the US. There are two areas of concern with air pollution. The first deals with the
1.3 Twenty-first Century Aviation Goal: Sustainability 11

◾ FIGURE 1.18 Aviation Fuel


Tank-to-wake products [CnHm + S]
from the combustion of Particulate
Air matter (PM)
fossil fuel in an aircraft
turbofan engine
Air F
(Source: Farokhi, 2020.
Reproduced with A Core H2O + CO2+ O2+ N2+ CO + UHC + SOx + CSoot/Smoke +
permission of John (O2 + N2) +NO + NO2
Wiley & Sons.) N
GHG
Products of Incomplete NOx
Combustion

engine emissions near airports in the landing- takeoff cycle (LTO), below 3,000
feet. The second area of concern examines the effect of engine emissions at the
climb-cruise-descent (CCD) phase, above 3000 ft. Figure 1.18 shows the type and
nature of the emissions related to the combustion of fossil fuels (that contain car-
bon) in aircraft engines, which is known as Tank-to-Wake (TTWa) in lifecycle
analysis terminology of GHG emissions’ impact on climate. The other element of
lifecycle analysis account for the Well-to-Tank portion that contributes to GHG
emissions.

1.3.2 Greenhouse Gases


Solar radiation powers the climate system on Earth. There are certain gases in the
Earth’s atmosphere that absorb and reemit infrared radiation and contribute to the
Earth’s warmer climate. These are called greenhouse gases (GHG). The average
temperature on the Earth’s surface is 298 K, whereas without the greenhouse gases
in the atmosphere it would be 255 K (i.e. 43 ∘ C colder). The greenhouses gases in
the atmosphere are comprised of:

1. Carbon dioxide, CO2


2. Water vapor, H2 O
3. Methane, CH4
4. Nitrous oxide, N2 O
5. Hydrofluorocarbons, HFCs
6. Perfluorocarbons, PFCs
7. Sulfur hexafluoride, SF6

Aviation impacts the first four categories whereas the last three are highly
regulated and their impact is minimized. Carbon dioxide (CO2 ) and water vapor
(H2 O) dominate the list and constitute the products of complete combustion of fos-
sil fuels in airbreathing jet engines. Note that CO2 and H2 O are direct results of the
combustion of a fuel with a molecular structure composed of carbon and hydrogen
atoms, namely hydrocarbon fuels. The large deposition of these products in the
atmosphere by a growing fleet of commercial aircraft contributes to global warm-
ing through the greenhouse effect. Once created, the greenhouse gases linger in
the atmosphere, i.e. they have a lifespan of several decades, even centuries in the
atmosphere before their absorption by the oceans, forests, plants, and soil. In addi-
tion to the dynamics of the GHG in the atmosphere, there is surface reflectance
12 Chapter 1 ◾ Introduction

◾ FIGURE 1.19
September ice sheet
extent and age in the
arctic in 1984 and 2016
(Source: from NASA
Science Visualization
Studio, data: Tschudi
et al, 2016. Public
Domain.)

(a) September 1984 sea ice extent and age

(b) September 2016 sea ice extent and age

of sunlight from ice sheets, soil, forests, and oceans, known as the albedo effect,
that range from 10% to 90%. Melting ice sheets and deforestation contribute to
global warming through the albedo effect. An example in the arctic is the Green-
land ice sheet albedo that showed a 5% reduction in reflectivity from 2000 to
2010 and has resulted in an accelerated melting rate of 6,600 square miles of ice
sheets per year.
Figure 1.19 shows the September sea ice extent and its age in the arctic in
1984 and again in 2016 (from NASA Science Visualization Studio, data: Tschudi
et al, 2016). The significant reduction in the sea ice areal extent is evident and
indeed the scale of the problem is measured in millions of square miles (see Fet-
terer, et al, 2016).
The adverse impact of the anthropogenic greenhouse gases in the atmosphere
is universally acknowledged, but there are still a few doubts about the conclusion.
The undeniable fact of human impact on atmosphere is however based on data,
i.e. scientific measurements. Figure 1.20 (adapted from Zumdahl, 2000) shows
atmospheric CO2 concentration since 1000 AD. It also marks the beginning of the
industrial revolution (1784) in Europe. It shows the rapid rise in carbon dioxide
1.3 Twenty-first Century Aviation Goal: Sustainability 13

◾ FIGURE 1.20 395


Concentration of (ppm)
carbon dioxide in the

Atmospheric CO2 (ppm)


350
atmosphere since 1000
AD based on ice core
data and direct
readings since 1958 300
(Source: Adapted from
Zumdahl, 2000)
250
1000 1500 2000 2000 2013
Year

Industrial revolution
(1784)

◾ FIGURE 1.21 Recent monthly mean CO2 at mauna loa


Recent monthly mean 410
carbon dioxide
measured at Mauna
Loa Observatory, 405
Parts per million

Hawaii (Dashed line


with diamonds shows
the monthly mean 400
centered on the middle
of each month)
[Source: Data from 395 Monthly
Mean
March 2017

NOAA, March 2017]


390
2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018
Year

concentration in the past 100 years, which coincides with an increasing consump-
tion of fossil fuels for electric power generation, home heating, and transportation.
At present, there is no emission regulation for carbon dioxide and water vapor
and thus no FAA engine certification requirements. The unit of concentration in
Fig. 1.20 is parts per million (ppm) in molar concentration of CO2 , i.e. equal to
volume fraction of CO2 in the atmosphere. Note the rise of the atmospheric CO2
concentration is extended from 2000-2013, as shown in Fig. 1.20. Data is based
on the mean values of seasonal variations. The same dramatic rise in CO2 con-
centration continues to develop, as seen in Figure 1.21 based on recent data from
National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA), 2017.
From the data in the EPA GHG emissions report [2016], Fig. 1.22 is con-
structed to show the percentual content in GHG emissions in the US in 2014. The
biggest offender is carbon dioxide with an 82% share of total GHG emissions. This
chart excludes water vapor as a GHG. Total emissions are reported as 6,870 million
metric tons of CO2 equivalent. Figure 1.23 shows the carbon dioxide emission by
source. The transportation sector (i.e. road transport, rail, aviation, and shipping)
contributes 31% to carbon dioxide emissions in the US. Aviation is responsible for
12% of CO2 emission from all transport sources. The aviation contribution within
the transport sector in the European Union is 12.4% (see Expert Group on Future
Transport Fuels, 2015). In another study, Lee et al (2010) estimated the impact of
14 Chapter 1 ◾ Introduction

◾ FIGURE 1.22 Overview of greenhouse gases


The inventory of GHG Nitrous Oxide Fluorinated
emissions in the US in 5% Gases 3%
2014 (Source: Data
from EPA 2016 report)

Methane
10%
Carbon Dioxide
82%

◾ FIGURE 1.23 U.S. Carbon Dioxide Emission By Source


Sources of CO2
emissions in the US in Other (non-fossil)
Residential and fuel combustion
2014 (Source: Data commercial 6%
from EPA 2016 report) 10%

Electricity
Industry 37%
15%

Transportation
31%

aviation on climate to be around 5% of all anthropogenic effects in 2005. However,


aviation is the fastest growing sector within transportation and is thus a prime can-
didate for a revolutionary new approach to its propulsion system, airframe design,
system integration, and eco-friendly operational measures, e.g. flight altitude and
cruise Mach number.

1.3.3 Fuels for Sustainable Aviation


Sustainable aviation demands renewable jet fuels for future air travel and an
environmentally friendly replacement for the current fleet of fossil fuel-burning
aircraft. Sustainable aviation also demands reliability in fuel supply and stability in
fuel prices. The history of crude oil price fluctuation alone makes it an unreliable
and unsustainable fuel. The price of crude oil per barrel on the world market has
seen a nearly ten-fold variation in the ten years (2008-2017), i.e. crude oil was
sold between ∼$15 and ∼$145 in that decade! This wild swing in crude oil prices,
in a relatively short time span, is the textbook definition of fuel price volatility. In
short, fossil fuels are not renewable, lack supply reliability, lack stability in price,
and lack the requisite longevity that transportation and power industry needs. On
the pollution side, the combustion of fossil fuels in powerplants, aircraft engines,
1.4 New Engine Concepts in Sustainable Aviation 15

ships, and road vehicles produce greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, destroy
ozone in the upper atmosphere, and create harmful effects for humans through
surface air quality. Moreover, GHG emissions alter radiative forcing in the upper
atmosphere and contribute to climate change through rising temperatures on the
Earth. In contrast, alternative jet fuels (AJF), or biofuels, are renewable and can
help reduce greenhouse gas emissions, as well as soot and particulate matter (PM)
emissions from jet engines. In addition, the absence of aromatic hydrocarbons and
sulfur in AJF, as compared to conventional fossil fuels, is considered a significant
environmental advantage of AJF, which positively impacts surface air quality.
Ultimately, it is in the reduced lifecycle emissions assessment of alternative jet
fuels, as compared to the conventional fossil fuels, that AJF finds strong support
in the aviation industry today. Cryogenic fuels, such as liquid hydrogen (LH2 )
and liquefied natural gas (LNG), which is by and large methane, are also in
competition with fossil fuels. We address AJF and cryogenic fuels in chapters 4
and 7.
For a detailed exposition and assessment of the twenty-first century needs for
the aero-propulsion industry, see Sehra-Shin (2003), Epstein (2014), and Farokhi
(2020).

1.4 New Engine Concepts in Sustainable Aviation


In this section, we first examine a few modern concepts in gas-turbine based air-
craft propulsion. The first one is the advanced turboprop (ATP) and its modern
version: counter-rotating open rotor (CROR) configuration; followed by the geared
turbofan (GTF) engine. Other exciting new engines are adaptive cycle engines,
and an airbreathing rocket, the single-stage to orbit (SSTO) engine that is under
promising development in the United Kingdom. The next two concepts, wave rotor
and pulse-detonation engine, harness unsteadiness as a means of thrust production.
The fifth is the triumph of micro-electromechanical (MEM) device manufacturing.
Finally, combined cycles and modern concepts in hybrid-electric and distributed
electric propulsion are briefly introduced.

1.4.1 Advanced GT Concepts: ATP/CROR and GTF


Conventional propellers lose their thrust production capability when their tip oper-
ates in supersonic flow and stalls. In the United States, Pratt & Whitney/Allison
Gas Turbine, GE Aviation, and NASA collaborated in developing the technology
of advanced turboprop engines in the 1970s and 1980s. These engines are gener-
ally called Propfan, while GE’s gearless, direct-drive ATP is called the Unducted
Fan (UDF). The advanced propellers operate with relative supersonic tip Mach
number (MT ∼1.1–1.15) without stalling! With increasing capability in relative
tip Mach number of the propeller, the cruise flight Mach number is increased to
M0 ∼0.8–0.82. Several configurations in co- and counterrotating propeller sets and
pusher versus tractor configurations were developed and tested. The advanced pro-
pellers are highly swept at the tip (between 30–40∘ ) to improve tip efficiency at high
relative Mach numbers. Figure 1.24 shows an early development of ATP (from GE
and NASA) and a modern CROR concept from Safran Aircraft Engines.
The technology of the ultra-high bypass (UHB) turbofan engine developed
at Pratt & Whitney utilizes an advanced gear system that improves low-pressure
spool operating efficiency. The fan pressure ratio in UHB engines is reduced to
16 Chapter 1 ◾ Introduction

◾ FIGURE 1.24
Advanced turboprop
engines

(a) GE Unducted Fan (UDF) or GE-36. Source: Reproduced


with permission from General Electric Company

(b) Counter-rotating open rotor (CROR) engine architecture with bypass


ratio in 30+ range features 12 front and 10 aft rotor blades,
4m diameter and 100-kN (22,000 lbf) thrust @ takeoff
(SSL) (Safran Aircraft Engines)

accommodate bypass ratios of 12+ , which improves propulsive efficiency, cuts


down on fuel consumption, and reduces jet noise and engine emissions. The first
single-aisle transport aircraft equipped with GTF entered service in 2013. The
engine architecture is readily scalable to include widebody aircraft thrust levels
as well. Figure 1.25 shows the cutaway of the P&W GTF engine, that is, the
PW1000G geared turbofan engine family. The advanced fan gear system on the
low-pressure spool is visible in Figure 1.25 (trimetric view).

1.4.2 Adaptive Cycle Engine


The ability to change the type, i.e. the character, of an airbreathing jet engine within
its flight envelope is highly desirable, which is called an Adaptive Cycle Engine
(ACE). For example, take the Pratt and Whitney J58 that powered SR-71 Black-
bird. The aircraft’s broad speed range, from zero at takeoff to Mach 3+ at cruise,
demanded a different kind of powerplant that was efficient throughout its flight
envelope. The J58 answered the challenge by propelling the aircraft with the engine
as an afterburning turbojet up to Mach 2.0 and then by opening its unique com-
pressor bleed system to feed the afterburner up to Mach 3+ , in essence, behaving
1.4 New Engine Concepts in Sustainable Aviation 17

◾ FIGURE 1.25
Cutaway view of the
PW1000G UHB geared
turbofan engine.
Source: Reproduced by
permission of United
Technologies
Corporation, Pratt &
Whitney

like a ramjet at high speed. The J58 was the first operational ACE that powered a
military aircraft.
Sustainability in the context of military aircraft, as a new/modern concept,
means to accomplish a given mission by the lowest possible fuel burn and the least
environmental impact (i.e. with exhaust emissions and noise). To accomplish these
lofty goals, the airflow distribution, for thrust and power production as well as vehi-
cle thermal management, has to be managed and thus controlled within the engine.
Take, for example, the mixed-flow turbofan engine, in its current “fixed-geometry”
format, its bypass ratio and the overall cycle pressure ratio are governed by its
design (fixed) geometry fan duct, core size, and the turbine backpressure. The
concept of ACE requires a system of valves, known as a Variable Area Bypass
Injector (VABI), to be designed at key locations in the propulsor that allow for
optimal use of airflow in thrust/power production and thermal management. The
US Patent 4,072,008 (1978) is granted on a VABI system. The schematic drawing
of a variable-bypass afterburning turbofan engine is shown in Fig. 1.26.
Currently, GE Aviation and Pratt and Whitney are in advanced development
of adaptive cycle engines for the sixth generation of combat aircraft (e.g. F-35
with engine upgrade and B-21). These engine demonstrators are dubbed XA100
and XA101 for GE and P&W, respectively. The adaptive cycle engines employ
three-stream architecture (compared to a conventional turbofan that uses two
streams), are expected to produce 10% higher max thrust for faster acceleration,
25% lower fuel burn and 30% improvement in range. Advanced materials, such as
ceramic matrix composites and additive manufacturing, are employed. The third

◾ FIGURE 1.26 VABI-1 VABI-3


Schematic drawing of a
variable-bypass mixed-
flow afterburning
turbofan engine
employing a system of
Variable Area Bypass
Injectors (VABI).
Source: Based on The
U.S. Patent 4,072,008
(1978), Variable Area
Bypass Injector
System, February 7, VABI-2
1978.
18 Chapter 1 ◾ Introduction

airstream inside the engine allows for fan pressure ratio variation, on demand
thrust modulation, and thermal management, e.g. cooling the coolant in gas
turbines, allowing the engine to operate at higher overall pressure ratio, and
higher temperatures inside the compressor and the turbine. The target date of
entry into service is expected to be 2025. The maximum thrust (with afterburner)
is 45,000 lbf or 200 kN.

1.4.3 Advanced Airbreathing Rocket Technology


An ultra-light weight precooler heat exchanger uses a closed-cycle helium loop
to cool the air from 1000 to –150∘ C in a fraction of a second (in 10 ms). This
innovative counterflow precooler/heat exchanger technology is at the heart of an
innovative airbreathing rocket engine that is capable of horizontal takeoff, climb,
acceleration to Mach 5+ using subcooled air in its rocket engines and then tran-
sition to pure rocket mode above 20+ km altitude. The air intake system uses a
translating cone which completely closes the inlet in the pure rocket mode. Due
to its versatility, this combined cycle engine is dubbed SABRE—Synergetic Air
Breathing Rocket Engine—and is being developed by Reaction Engines Ltd. in
the United Kingdom (Figure 1.27). At the time of writing, the critical components
of SABRE are undergoing testing and with promising results.
The reusable SSTO winged aerospace plane that is designed around SABRE
technology is in its early development phase; it is called SKYLON. The configu-
ration of this vehicle is shown in Figure 1.28. Extensive technical information on
SABRE and SKYLON can be found on the Reaction Engines Ltd. website.

1.4.4 Wave Rotor Topping Cycle


Wave rotor creates a pressure gain in the combustor, instead of the baseline pressure
drop, thereby enhances cycle efficiency. As a simple example of a higher effi-
ciency cycle that takes advantage of constant-volume combustion, we may exam-
ine the Humphrey cycle. Schematics of the wave rotor topping cycle concept, a
wave rotor hardware, and a test rig at NASA-Glenn Research Center are shown
in Figure 1.29. A performance chart of the wave rotor topping cycle for small
turboshaft engines, also in Figure 1.29, shows nearly 10% fuel savings compared
with a baseline engine.

1.4.4.1 Humphrey Cycle versus Brayton Cycle. An ideal Humphrey


cycle is shown in Figure 1.30. Combustion takes place at constant volume in a

◾ FIGURE 1.27
Cutaway of SABRE
shows the heat
exchanger integrated
in the air intake
system. Source:
Reproduced by
permission of Reaction
Engines Ltd.
1.4 New Engine Concepts in Sustainable Aviation 19

◾ FIGURE 1.28
SKYLON in low-earth
orbit with payload
separation. Source:
Reproduced by
permission of Reaction
Engines Ltd.

◾ FIGURE 1.29 Combustor

Schematics of the wave


rotor topping cycle,
hardware, and a test Wave rotor rig
at NASA-GRC
rig at NASA. Source: Wave
Courtesy of NASA Low High rotor High Low
Fan compressor compressor turbine turbine

Full size (800×640, 99 K)


Specific fuel consumption (Ibm/hr/SHP)

0.9
Baseline Wave rotor
engine topped engine
0.8

0.7
Wave
0.6 rotor
hardware

0.5

0.4
200 300 400 500 600 700 800 Full size (792×665, 50 K)
Shaft horsepower
Comparison of basline and wave rotor topped small turboshaft
engines over normal operating range. The design point mass
flow rate is 5 Ibm/s

◾ FIGURE 1.30
Constant-volume and p3 3 T3 =T5 3
5
constant-pressure
combustion cycles p2 = p5 2 5 T ʋ const.

2
p const.
6
4
1
p1 = p4 = p6
1 4 6 s
ʋ
ʋ2 = ʋ3 s1 = s 2 s3 = s 4 s5 = s 6

Humphrey cycle, whereas it takes place at constant pressure in an ideal Brayton


cycle. We utilize the definition of cycle efficiency and thermodynamic principles
to get Brayton and Humphrey cycle efficiencies.
The ideal cycle thermal efficiency of a constant-pressure combustion
(Brayton) cycle: 1–2–5–6–1, is:
T1
𝜂th = 1 −
T2
20 Chapter 1 ◾ Introduction

◾ FIGURE 1.31 Cycle (thermal) efficiency


0.80
Ideal thermal
0.78
efficiency of Humphrey
0.76 Humphrey cycle
and Brayton cycles for
𝜸 =1.4, T1 = 288K, and 0.74

Efficiency (%)
T2 = 800 K, with T3 0.72
that varies between 0.70
1600 and 2500 K 0.68 Note: In this example
Brayton cycle cycle (thermal) efficiency
0.66
improvements between~7
0.64 and ~14% are observed.
0.62
0.60
1600 1700 1800 1900 2000 2100 2200 2300 2400 2500
Combustor exit temperature (K)

The ideal cycle thermal efficiency of a constant-volume combustion


(Humphrey cycle: 1–2–3–4–1) is:
[ ]
( )1
T1 T3 𝛾
1−𝛾T T
−1
2 2
𝜂th = [ ]
T3
T2
−1

where 𝛾 is the ratio of specific heats.


Cycle efficiency in Humphrey cycle depends on T1 /T2 and on the temperature
ratio T3 /T2 (in effect p3 /p2 ). Figure 1.31 shows the ideal cycle thermal efficiency
of a Brayton and a Humphrey cycle for T1 = 288 K, T2 = 800 K, and T3 that varies
between 1600 and 2500 K, for 𝛾 = 1.4.
Note: In this example, cycle (thermal) efficiency improvements between
∼7% and ∼14% are observed. For more details see Welch et al (1995) and Akbari
(2006 and 2007).

1.4.5 Pulse Detonation Engine (PDE)


The pulse detonation engine (PDE) is a constant-volume combustion ramjet that
can produce static thrust. The operation of a PDE is like a pulsejet except combus-
tion in a pulsejet is based on the principle of deflagration that is a slow wave front
with a low-pressure ratio. The PDE creates a detonation wave, which is akin to an
explosion that creates high-pressure shock waves. To get a feel for how often these
explosions occur, we note the frequency of these explosions that is ∼60 detonations
per second. The PDE wave cycle is shown in Figure 1.32. For more discussions,
see Farokhi 2020.

1.4.6 Millimeter-Scale Gas Turbine Engines: Triumph


of MEMS and Digital Fabrication
Microchip manufacturing techniques and some vivid imagination have given birth
to millimeter-scale gas turbine engines. Figure 1.33 shows a “button” size gas tur-
bine engine that is designed, manufactured, and tested at MIT. At these scales, the
rotor must spin at ∼1,000,000 rpm to achieve the needed compression for the cycle.
1.4 New Engine Concepts in Sustainable Aviation 21

◾ FIGURE 1.32
The pulse detonation
2 Detonation is 3 Detonation moves
engine with a trigger initiated through fuel/air mix Trigger chamber is a closed-end pipe
chamber. Source: with hydrogen/oxygen mixture
Courtesy of NASA injected and ignited by a
1 Fuel is mixed with air 4 Resulting high powerful electric discharge
pressure gas
files
destonation
chamber
5 Detonation wave
exits engine-air
drawn in by reduced pressure

PDE wave cycle

◾ FIGURE 1.33 Starting Compressor Diffusion


Millimeter-scale gas air in Thrust Inlet rotor vane Combustion
bearing
turbine engine with the

3.7 mm
rotor and external
shell. Source: Courtesy
Nozzle guide vane
of MIT Gas Turbine Journal bearing Exhaust Turbine rotor
21 mm
Laboratory

The process of fuel injection, atomization, vaporization, and combustion is a chal-


lenge among the myriad of other mechanical challenges in the manufacturing of
millimeter-scale gas turbine engines.

1.4.7 Combined Cycle Propulsion: Engines from Takeoff


to Space
We have examined the SABRE technology in SSTO in a previous section (1.4.3).
In this section, we examine other concepts in single-stage to orbit propulsion sys-
tems. There are several developments that address combined cycles as a means of
producing efficient propulsion over a wide range of flight speeds, typically from
takeoff to hypersonic Mach numbers. An example of this approach is found in
the airbreathing rocket engine, which is a rocket-based combined cycle (RBCC)
engine. At takeoff, where conventional ramjets are incapable of producing thrust,
a rocket is fired (with an ejector nozzle configuration to get a thrust boost) that
accelerates the vehicle to, say, Mach 2. At Mach 2, the rocket is turned off and
air intakes are opened to start a subsonic ramjet engine operation. The airbreath-
ing engine switches from the subsonic to supersonic combustion ramjet (scramjet)
near Mach 5. The scramjet will accelerate the vehicle to, say, Mach 15. The air
intakes close at Mach 15 and rocket operation resumes accelerating the vehicle to
orbital speeds (∼Mach 25 or higher). The rocket with the ejector nozzle and com-
putational results of Mach contours are shown in Figure 1.34. An RBCC engine
can reduce launch costs by two orders of magnitude. An artist’s concept of the
22 Chapter 1 ◾ Introduction

◾ FIGURE 1.34 Percent


secondary Mixer-ejector
An RBCC Mach Reflecting oblique
flow, inlet area, Recirculating flow Thick boundary
6.0 shock structure
WS A3/A* layer at exit
air-augmented rocket Mixer-ejector
5.2
Rocket 4.4
with an ejector nozzle A’ area
exit area ratio,
3.5
A6/A3
(with Mach contours ration, εR 2.6
1.7
computed). Source: Chamber Mixer-ejector 0.9
pressure PC length, L/D3 0.0 Flow filed
Courtesy of NASA divergence
Shock-induced at exit
boundary layer
separation

◾ FIGURE 1.35
Artist’s drawing of an
advanced launch
vehicle using RBCC
propulsion. Source:
Courtesy of NASA

◾ FIGURE 1.36
Testing of an
airbreathing rocket at
NASA. Source:
Courtesy of NASA

vehicle is shown in Figure 1.35. An RBCC flight weight engine system test was
conducted in 2006. Figure 1.36 shows the test firing of the airbreathing rocket.

1.4.8 Hybrid-Electric and Distributed Electric Propulsion


Implicit in greener aviation are reduced emissions that point in the direction of
electrification of the aircraft propulsion and power systems. In the hierarchy of
electric propulsion, we start with a hybrid propulsion and power system, which
is the aviation version of the hybrid engines in automobiles. The schematic dia-
gram of this type of propulsion system is shown in Fig. 1.37 (see Del Rosario
2014; Felder 2014). The propulsor is a low-pressure ratio ducted fan. Note that
there are two sources of energy to the propulsor; one is the jet fuel for the gas tur-
bine engine, and the second one is the battery or electric energy storage system,
1.4 New Engine Concepts in Sustainable Aviation 23

◾ FIGURE 1.37 Ducted fan


Schematic drawing of
two hybrid-electric
propulsion system Energy source
Inverter
architectures (Source:
Battery or Transmission line
Farokhi, 2020. DC/ 3ϕ AC
equivalent DC AC AC motor
Reproduced with
permission of John Turbine
Wiley & Sons.) engine DC

AC/
Fuel DC
AC

Generator Rectifier Energy storage

(a) Series hybrid-electric architecture with optional energy storage

Energy source Turbine


Inverter engine
Energy Transmission Line DC/ AC 3ϕ AC
Storage AC motor
DC

Fuel

Ducted fan

(b) Parallel hybrid-electric (used in Boeing SUGAR Volt –hFan; see Bradley-Droney, 2011)

such as a capacitor. The transmission lines are the electrical wirings that may use
the ambient temperature conventional wiring, or they may use cryogenic wiring
for high-temperature superconducting (HTS) transmission lines (see Del Rosario
2014; Felder 2014). The electric fan uses a 3-phase (3ϕ) AC motor, as shown in
Fig. 1.37.
Since in hybrid propulsion, the exhaust energy in the gas turbine is used
to generate electricity, the hybrid-electric propulsion system produces lower
atmospheric heat release than the conventional turbofan engines. Also implicit in
GREENER AVIATION are reduced noise levels during landing-takeoff (LTO)
cycles. The lower pressure ratio (PR) fans are quieter than their higher-PR
counterparts. In addition, since distributed propulsion is often envisioned as
aft-mounted boundary layer ingestion (BLI) engines on a blended wing body
aircraft, shielding is a powerful strategy that is used to achieve quiet aircraft goals
in hybrid-electric (or turbo-electric) and distributed propulsion (DP) aircraft.
In hybrid-electric propulsion, the propulsor (ducted fan) may be operated
by the gas turbine, using jet fuel, or by an electric motor that uses batteries or
electric storage units, or combined GT and electric motor as in parallel hybrid
propulsion. Unique to this architecture is the need for variable-core nozzle
in parallel hybrid-electric propulsion systems to accommodate the combined
GT-electric motor operation and the transition between GT and the electric
motor (see Bradley-Droney, 2011). The electric motor is connected to the LP
spool via a gearbox. From taxi and takeoff to climb, cruise, approach and
landing, the combined energy use and range is optimized by an electric power
management hub.
24 Chapter 1 ◾ Introduction

“Propulsive Fuselage” is a hybrid-electric concept proposed by Bauhaus


Luftfahrt in Germany for the Airbus A330-type, twin-aisle aircraft as a part of
the Clean Sky 2 European Union-funded research program that is running from
2014-2024. Propulsive fuselage belongs to the broader Tailcone Thruster Propul-
sion concept (see Dyson, 2017). The goal is to mature promising technologies for
an advanced airliner for entry into service (EIS) in 2030. The propulsive fuselage
concept uses a third gas turbine engine that is embedded in the modified tailcone
and powers an UHB fan in BLI configuration. This concept is shown in Fig. 1.38.
Although in this configuration, the geared UHB is driven by the LPT, the electric
motor-driven version is clearly the goal, which will be considered. Since the tail
propulsor is in the aft fuselage-BLI position, it will reduce fuselage drag and engine
noise. The preliminary studies showed an improvement in efficiency of 10%. This
is a promising concept where BLI, geared-UHB/electric fan is used to reduce fuel
burn and noise in an advanced hybrid-electric airliner.
The tailcone thruster concept is developed by NASA and is shown in
Fig. 1.39 (see Welstead et al 2017; Welstead-Felder 2016) for entry into service in
2035. The single-aisle turboelectric aircraft with aft-boundary layer propulsion,
known as STARC-C ABL, uses the conventional tube-and-wing aircraft configu-
ration with twin underwing turbofan engines that generate electric power for the
aft-fuselage mounted electric fan. The two underwing engines and the aft electric
fan each provide one third of the cruise thrust. The low-noise fan pressure ratio
(FPR) for the two underwing engines was chosen at 1.3 and the electric BLI (low
noise) fan had a pressure ratio of 1.25. The STARC-C ABL is shown (see Welstead
and Felder, 2016) to provide between 7-12% reduction in block fuel (where 7%
corresponds to the economic mission block fuel reduction for the 900 nm mission
and the 12% is the design mission fuel burn reduction for the 3500 nm mission)
as compared to conventional configurations. The electric transmission lines are
non-superconducting, and the total electrical generation/transmission efficiency is
assumed to be 90%. These are promising results for the EIS in 2035 that assumed
a technology readiness level (TRL) of 6 for the key technologies by the year 2025.
Since the aircraft in STARC-C ABL is the conventional tube-and-wing, the fuel
burn reduction (of 7-12%) is almost entirely due to turboelectric propulsion with
aft BLI fan. The fully integrated propulsion-airframe aircraft design with BLI,
such as N3-X contributes an additional 50% to block fuel reduction (see Jansen
et al 2016). In this context, 7-12% achieved in tube-and-wing STARC-C ABL is
promising.
In advanced propulsion concepts, gas turbines are used as turbo-generators
with the sole function of providing power to electric generators. Electric fans are
driven by electric motors that receive their power from the electric generator. In
this architecture, the power producing unit (turbo-generator) is decoupled from
the thrust producing units (electric fans), as noted by Kim et al (2008). The new
architecture allows for both units to operate at peak efficiency. The GT-power unit
is a turboshaft core that drives an electric generator. The turboshaft core(s) may
be placed in the aft fuselage or at the wing tips. Figure 1.40 shows the schematic
drawing of a turboelectric propulsion system with an optional energy storage
system (see Del Rosario 2014; Felder 2014; Armstrong 2015). The electric
components between the turbine and the fan compose the new elements of the
propulsive drivetrain (shown as dashed line) in a turboelectric propulsion system.
Power density and efficiency of the motor, generator and power conversion units
(rectifier, inverter), energy density of the batteries and other energy storage units,
and the cooling system requirements and efficiency are all key performance
1.4 New Engine Concepts in Sustainable Aviation 25

◾ FIGURE 1.38
“Propulsive Fuselage”
hybrid-electric concept
by Bauhaus Luftfahrt
“Fuselage fan”
Planetary
gear system

Structural
integration

Core engine
(gas turbine)
“S” Duct
Tapered
fuselage
(a) “Propulsive fuselage” components

Fuselage fan”: Planetary gear system:



» Single rotating fan design » Reduction ratio 5:1
» Fan diameter approx. 4 m » Drive-shaft (gas turbine)
» Inlet duct hieght ca. 0.5 m » 4 planetary wheels
» Fibre composite materials » Ring gear (fuselage fan)

DisPURSAL

Structural integration:

» Structural loads induced


by the empennage are
transferred through the
nacelle into the fuselage

Tapered fuselage: Core engine (gas turbine)


“S”-Duct:
» From 80 percent of the » Feeds gas turbine with air » High-speed low-presure
fuselage length onwards turbine
» Bypass ratio 18:1
» Overall pressure ratio 60:1
» Efficient air inflow for » Similar to inlet duct design
boundary layer ingestion of modern turboprops » No bleed air extraction

(b) Details of the propulsive fuselage, engine-airframe integration elements

parameters (KPP) in the propulsive drivetrain. The failure probability of each


element and system reliability are critical to the viability of a turboelectric
propulsion system. Fault tolerant design and system redundancy are the main
requirements of the hybrid and turboelectric propulsion system.
All-electric propulsion is solely powered by batteries or equivalent energy
sources, as schematically shown in Fig. 1.41. The carbon/environmental footprint
of electric propulsion is mainly in the type of charging systems used in charging the
batteries. For example, using the coal-fired (fossil-fuel) based power grid or possi-
bly renewable sources, such as solar or wind power, to charge the batteries impacts
26 Chapter 1 ◾ Introduction

◾ FIGURE 1.39
Single-aisle
turboelectric aircraft
with aft-boundary
layer ingestion
propulsion system
(From Welstead, et al,
2017)

Axisymmetric
tailcone thruster

(a) Tailcone thruster concept in STARC-C ABL aircraft

Turbofan with electric


generator
Electric power transmission lines
(1000 V @ 90% efficiency)

Electric
Turbofan
77-in Fan
2.6 MW 57-in Fan
(FPR =1.25) 1.4 MW
(FPR =1.3)

(b) Turboelectric propulsion concept used in STARC-C ABL aircraft with design mission of
3500 nm (From www1.grc.nasa.gov). Source: Glenn Research Center,
NASA https://www1.grc.nasa.gov/

◾ FIGURE 1.40
Schematic drawing of a Energy storage
turboelectric Energy Source Ducted
propulsion system Rectifier
fan
Inverter
driving a single ducted Transmission
Fuel AC AC/ DC DC/ AC 3ϕ
fan, with optional DC Line AC AC
energy storage Generator Motor (s)
Turboshaft
(Source: Farokhi, 2020. Engine
Reproduced with
permission of John
Wiley & Sons.)
Propulsive drivetrain
1.4 New Engine Concepts in Sustainable Aviation 27

◾ FIGURE 1.41
Schematic drawing of Ducted
an all-electric Inverter
Fan
propulsion system, DC/ AC 3ϕ
AC AC
here shown with two Energy source
ducted fans (Source: Motor
Farokhi, 2020. Battery or Transmission
Reproduced with equivalent DC Line
permission of John Ducted
Wiley & Sons.) Fan
DC/ AC 3ϕ
AC AC
Inverter Motor

Propulsive drivetrain

◾ FIGURE 1.42
Zunum Aero
hybrid-electric
regional aircraft
(12-seater) (Zunum
Aero)

the carbon footprint. In addition, the environmental impact of mining for the min-
erals/metals used in batteries, e.g. cadmium or lithium, needs to be accounted for
in the environmental lifecycle assessment of electric propulsion.
A 12-seater hybrid-electric aircraft, shown in Fig. 1.42, is proposed by
Zunum Aero that targets the commuter, short-haul regional (700 mile) market.
The concept aircraft uses lithium-ion batteries in the wings for supplementary
power, especially at takeoff. In addition to propulsion batteries, the cruise power
is provided by a gas turbine engine that provides shaft power to a generator (see
Knapp-Said, 2018). A new turboshaft engine from Safran Helicopter, the Ardiden
3 engine with 1700-2000 shaft horsepower is envisioned to power electrical
generator.
Figure 1.43 shows distributed turboelectric propulsion in an innovative
design by Airbus. The technology uses:
28 Chapter 1 ◾ Introduction

◾ FIGURE 1.43
Distributed
turbo-electric
propulsion concept
aircraft (Source:
Airbus)

◾ FIGURE 1.44
Turboelectric
distributed propulsion
concept (Source:
Airbus)

GT-Based SC Electric Generator Turbo-electric DP

▪ De-coupled power production and propulsion functions


▪ Coupled propulsion and aircraft aero functions
▪ Optional alternative source for energy storage

Figures 1.44 and 1.45 show the GT-based superconducting (SC) electric
generator in the aft fuselage providing electric power through a SC-network of
transmission lines.
An example of turboelectric boundary layer ingestion (BLI)-distributed
propulsion (DP) is the NASA N3-X program. Due to extensive use of supercon-
ducting (SC) technology, N3-X uses LH2 for direct cooling of the HTS network,
SC-motor, and SC-generator. After its cooling cycle, hydrogen is then compressed
and used for fuel in the turbo-generators. The fuel split is thus 10% hydrogen
versus 90% jet fuel. The N3-X project goals are:

▪ ∼63% energy use reduction


▪ ∼90% NOx reduction
▪ 32-64 EPNdB cumulative noise reduction
1.4 New Engine Concepts in Sustainable Aviation 29

◾ FIGURE 1.45 Network of superconducting


Superconducting electric transmission lines
network and electric Electric fans Electric fans
power management
(Source: Airbus)

Electric power management hub


[Storage and Management]

◾ FIGURE 1.46
Distributed Forward and Aft Noise Shielded
turbo-electric by Airframe

propulsion (Courtesy
of NASA) Thrust-Vectoring
2D Nozzles

14 Distributed
Electric Fans, BLI

Wing-tip mounted (3-spool)


Turbo-electric generator (lower induced drag
due to wing tip vortex interaction)

as compared to the baseline Boeing 777-200 aircraft. Some of the design-driver


characteristics of N3-X that present challenges are:

▪ Directional stability and control through differential thrust (for yaw trim-
ming and active stability augmentation)
▪ Driving factors: safety and reliability
▪ Minimum weight penalty and volume requirements
▪ Acceptable system complexity
▪ Electrical system failure leading to thrust losses

Figure 1.46 shows the N3-X aircraft (courtesy of NASA). Tables 1.2 and 1.3
summarize the design point of N3-X as well as its mission specifications. The data
30 Chapter 1 ◾ Introduction

◾ TABLE 1.2
N3-X Design Point

Aerodynamic Design Point (ADP) Mach Altitude (ft)

Top-of-Climb (TOC) 0.84 34,000

◾ TABLE 1.3
Mission Parameters

Parameters N3-X/MgB2 /LH2


(Liquid Hydrogen Cooled)

Range (nm) 7,500


Payload (lbm) 118,100
Empty Weight (lbm) 420,000
Block Fuel Weight (lbm) 76,171
Fan Pressure Ratio (FPR) 1.3
Net Thrust (lbf) - installed 85,846 (RTO) and 33,405 (TOC)
TSFC (lbm/hr/lbf) - installed 0.2174 (RTO) and 0.3125 (TOC)
TSEC (BTU/s/lbf) - installed 1.1937 (RTO) and 1.727 (TOC)
Effective BPR, eBPR 36.1 (RTO) and 30.1 (TOC)
Air Mass Flow rate (lbm/s) 7,823 (RTO) and 3,696 (TOC)
Overall Pressure Ratio (OPR) (Turboshaft Engine) 57.3 (RTO) and 84.3 (TOC)

used in the tables and the figures related to N3-X are taken from Armstrong (2015),
Kim et al (2013), and Felder (2014). Propulsion system parameters at rolling take-
off (RTO) and top-of-climb (TOC) are noted in Table 1.3.
Although the performance of the high-temperature superconducting turbo-
electric N3-X is produced here with MgB2 (Magnesium Di-boride) superconduc-
tor, the choice of other SC-materials and the cooling system is still a subject of
research and could produce improvements in system weight and performance. For
additional discussion see Farokhi (2020).

1.5 New Vehicle Technologies


Siemens, Airbus, and Rolls-Royce are developing a single-aisle commercial air-
craft powered by a serial hybrid electric propulsion system (HEPS). The near-term
flight demonstrator is called E-Fan X (see Fig. 1.47). The 2-MW electric motor
and its power electronics control unit, including inverter, AC/DC converter, and the
power distribution system, are developed by Siemens. Rolls-Royce is responsible
for the turboshaft engine, 2 MW generator, and power electronics. Airbus is respon-
sible for the overall system integration. The testbed aircraft is a BAe 146, which is a
short-haul, regional airliner. This program was cancelled in April 2020. In Septem-
ber 2020 Airbus unveiled three new conceptual designs for their zero-emission
1.5 New Vehicle Technologies 31

◾ FIGURE 1.47
Modified BAe 146
aircraft used as hybrid
electric flight
demonstrator (Source:
Airbus)

◾ FIGURE 1.48
NASA X-57 all-electric
distributed propulsion
flight demonstrator
(Courtesy of NASA)

hydrogen-hybrid commercial aircraft, dubbed as ZEROe (see Airbus website). The


three Airbus commercial aviation concepts are centered around a twin turbofan, a
twin turboprop, and a twin turbofan-powered, blended wing-body aircraft. These
ZEROe aircraft use liquid hydrogen as fuel in their gas turbine engines as well as
using hydrogen fuel cells to produce electric power. Airbus envisions an EIS of
2035.
The NASA X-57 aircraft, called Maxwell, is an all-electric distributed
propulsion flight demonstrator with the goal of achieving an 80% reduction in
energy consumption. The twelve-wing-leading-edge mounted high-lift electric
32 Chapter 1 ◾ Introduction

◾ FIGURE 1.49
Cirrus SR22 and
LEAPTech; a
comparison

◾ TABLE 1.4
Comparison of the Cirrus SR22 with the LEAPTech
aircraft
Cirrus SR22 LEAPTech
Seating capacity 4 4
Gross weight 3,400 lbf 3,000 lbf
Wing area 145 ft2 55.1 ft2
Wingspan 38.3 ft 31.0 ft
Aspect ratio 10.1 17.4
Wing loading 23.5 lbf/ft2 54.4 lbf/ft2
Cruise speed 211 mph 200 mph
Cruise CL (12,000 ft) 0.30 0.77

motors power 12 folding propellers and there are two larger wing tip electric cruise
motors, as depicted in Fig. 1.48. At top of climb, the high-lift motors deactivate
and their five folding propellers fold into the nacelle to mitigate drag rise during
cruise. The X-57 is modified from the baseline Italian Tecnam P2006T aircraft.
This program was launched in 2014 by the SCEPTOR (Scalable Convergent
Electric Propulsion Technology and Operations Research) project at NASA.
The final version of X-57 (i.e. Modification 4 in the program) will feature a
high-aspect ratio wing with integral high-lift motors. Electric motors on Maxwell
use rechargeable lithium-ion batteries that weigh 860 pounds and offer 69.1 kWh
of energy, of which 47 kWh is usable. The cruise motors are 60 kW and the 12
high-lift motors are 10.5 kW machines. The electric motors are air-cooled. For
more details on X-57 see Gibbs (2018) or Warwick-Norris (2018).
Electric propulsion offers new aircraft design capabilities that are not
possible in either conventional gas turbine-powered or reciprocating aircraft (see
Moore, Fredericks, 2014; Gohardani, 2013; and Moore et al, 2014). The compari-
son between Cirrus SR22 and leading-edge asynchronous propellers technology
(LEAPTech) aircraft is shown in Fig. 1.49 and Table 1.4. LEAPTech aircraft have
a 72% higher aspect ratio, wing loading that is 131% and lift coefficient at cruise
which is 157% higher than SR22. The wetted area of the LEAPTech wing is 62%
less than the SR22 aircraft wing.
There are other exciting new vehicles on the drawing board for many dif-
ferent missions at many different speeds, e.g. low-boom flight demonstrator and
1.5 New Vehicle Technologies 33

◾ FIGURE 1.50
Uninhabited aerial
vehicles and NASA
X43 technology
demonstrators. Source:
Boeing and NASA.
Reproduced with
permission.

Boeing X-45A UCAV Boeing X-36

NASA X43-A Mach 10 airbreathing


technology demonstrator
Boeing X-48B

NASA X43-B technology demonstrator NASA X43-C technology demonstrator

Boeing X-48A

the hypersonic cruise missile. The interest in uninhabited aerial vehicles (UAVs)
has also grown and prompted new configurations such as the Northrop–Grumman
X-47 “Pegasus,” or the tailless agility aircraft X-36 from Boeing, or the X-45A
unmanned combat air vehicle (UCAV), or the X-48 using blended wing-body tech-
nology. NASA’s interest in hypersonic flight and scramjet propulsion has prompted
the X-43 series of technology demonstrator vehicles. Some of these aircraft are
shown in Figure 1.50.
34 Chapter 1 ◾ Introduction

1.6 Summary
There are exciting developments in aerospace propulsion system and vehicle
design:

▪ Physics-based computer simulation/design is the game changer


▪ Advanced composite materials for light-weight and high-temperature
applications
▪ Digital fabrication and manufacturing will take unprecedented precision
from the nanoscale upward, including 3D printing and digital assembly
▪ Additive manufacturing goes to space on board the ISS
▪ Exciting new vehicles on the horizon from low speed to hypersonic
▪ Sustainable aviation seeks other energy sources than fossil fuels, e.g.
renewable jet fuels and electric energy sources
▪ Alternative jet fuels include biofuels as well as cryogenic fuels LH2 and
LNG
▪ Hybrid and electric propulsion hold the promise of reduced GHG emis-
sions
▪ NASA X-planes are back! Use the excitement to attract a new generation
of STEM students
▪ Harnessing unsteadiness as a means of propulsion will open a new chapter
in aircraft propulsion
▪ Synergetic airbreathing rocket engine (SABRE) technology is promising
▪ Advanced GT engines, such as high-efficiency, low-emission, quiet
engines, e.g. PW1000G, geared ultra-high bypass turbofan engine will
power large transport aircraft
▪ Rocket-based combined cycle propulsion: from takeoff to orbit!
▪ New launch vehicles and missions for hypersonic aircraft and space explo-
ration
▪ NASA to return humans to the Moon: crewed mission is planned for
2023
▪ The next frontier: Manned mission to Mars will begin by 2030
▪ Space tourism from sub-orbital flights to the Moon and beyond
▪ US, Europe, China, and Russia are all active in a commercial space
race!

An additional example of computational flow simulation for a hypersonic


reentry vehicle is shown in Figure 1.51.

1.7 Roadmap for the Third Edition


We begin our studies in jet propulsion with a review of compressible flow that
involves friction and heat transfer in Chapter 2. Engine thrust and performance
parameters are discussed in Chapter 3 where rigorous derivation of uninstalled
thrust and installation effects are presented. Gas turbine engine cycle analysis
both for ideal and real components are studied in Chapter 4, including a section
1.7 Roadmap for the Third Edition 35

◾ FIGURE 1.51
Flowfield simulations
around the Space
Shuttle in reentry
using computational
fluid dynamics. Source:
Courtesy of NASA

on propeller theory and a section on ultra-high bypass (UHB) engines. We address


Cleaner, Leaner, and Greener propulsion systems through innovative cycles
that involve multiple combustion chambers and multiple fuels, as well as cycles
that use intercooler and recuperator. Advanced turbine technologies, such as tip
clearance control, variable-area turbine (VAT) architecture and turbine cooling,
are presented. The adaptive cycle engine (ACE) technologies are identified as
game changers in airbreathing gas turbine propulsion. The uninhabited aerial
vehicle (UAV) propulsion system is presented in Chapter 5. Aircraft engine inlets
and nozzles, over a wide speed range, are analyzed in Chapter 6. An expanded
section on aircraft noise in landing-takeoff (LTO) cycle including airframe and
engine noise, jet noise, and various mitigation methods such as Chevron Nozzle is
presented in Chapter 6. With rising interest in supersonic business jets, as well as
commercial transport, sonic boom generation and its mitigation for overland flight
is addressed in Chapter 6. The principles of combustion are detailed in Chapter 7.
The specific characteristics of the primary and afterburners, as in flameholding, are
discussed in the same chapter. As an element of sustainable aviation, alternative
jet fuels from renewable sources and cryogenic fuels such as LH2 and LNG are
presented in Chapter 7. The turbomachinery principles and their application to
axial-flow compressor, centrifugal compressor and the axial-flow turbine are
extensively derived and discussed in Chapters 8 through 10. Additional design
guidelines are added to turbomachinery chapters. Chapter 11 aims to integrate
all the gas turbine engine components into a unified system, from component
matching to engine off-design analysis. This chapter also includes the principles
of engine performance testing. Chapter 12 is dedicated to chemical rockets and
hypersonic propulsion where rockets, ramjets, scramjet, and combined cycles
are presented. An overview of available computational and online resources and
links related to propulsion is also assembled in a separate appendix. The online
resources in the third edition are expanded to include gas tables for different
ratio of specific heats, all the equations, and figures in the book. To reduce
the page count in tthis edition, the end-of-book material, such as ten-minute
quizzes and aircraft propulsion “Rules of Thumb” and trends, are moved to online
resources.
36 Chapter 1 ◾ Introduction

Aircraft propulaion third edition


Cleaner, Leaner and Greener

Roadmap for the 3rd edition

Chapter 1
Introduction: Propulsion in Sustainable Aviation

Chapter 2
Compressible Flow with Heat and Friction: Review

Chapter 3
Engine Thrust and Performance Parameters

Chapter 4
Gas Turbine Engine Cycle Analysis

Chapter 5
General Aviation and UAV Propulsion System

Chapter 6
Aircraft Engine Inlets and Nozzles

Chapter 7
Combustion chamber and Afterburners

Chapter 8
Axial Compressor Aerodynamics

Chapter 9
Centrifugal Compressor Aerodynamics

Chapter 11
Chapter 12
Aircraft Engine Component Chapter 10
Chemical Rockets and
Matching and Off-Design Axial Turbine Aerothermodynamics
Hypersonic Propulsion
Analysis

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Problems
1.1 The Carnot cycle sets the limit on thermal effi-
T 3
ciency of a heat engine operating between two temper-
ature limits. Show that ideal Carnot efficiency is
P2 = P3
T
𝜂th = 1 − 1
T2 T2 2
P1 = P4
What is the thermal efficiency if T1 = 288 K and 4
T2 = 2000 K?
T1
1
P2 P3
2 3
s
T2
◾ FIGURE P1.2

P1 P4
T1 1.3 The Humphrey cycle operates a constant-volume
1 4 combustor instead of a constant-pressure cycle like the
Brayton cycle. Show that
s [( ) 1 ]/[ ]
T T3 𝛾 T3
◾ FIGURE P1.1 𝜂th = 1 − 𝛾 1 −1 −1
T2 T2 T2

1.2 The ideal Brayton cycle operates between two is the thermal efficiency of an ideal Humphrey cycle (as
pressure limits as shown. It is the model of an airbreathing shown).
jet engine, such as a turbojet or ramjet engine. Show that Let us use the same T1 as in Problems 1.1 and 1.2, that
ideal Brayton cycle efficiency is is, T1 = 288 K. Let us use the same temperature T2 as in
Problem 1.2, that is, T2 = 864 K.
T1 Finally, let us use the same maximum cycle temperature
𝜂th = 1 −
T2 as in Carnot (Problem 1.1), that is, Tmax = 2000 K. With
the ratio of specific heats 𝛾 = 1.4, calculate the thermal
What is the thermal efficiency of the Brayton that has T1 efficiency of the Humphrey cycle. Compare the answer
= 288 K and T2 = 864 K? Note that maximum cycle tem- with Brayton cycle efficiency.
perature T3 has no effect on cycle thermal efficiency.
Problems 39

1.5 Specific fuel consumption (sfc) projects the fuel


T3 = Tmax 3
economy of an engine, that is, it measures the fuel
flow rate (say in pound-mass per hour or g/s) that leads
to a production of a unit thrust (say 1 pound-force or
T ʋ2 = ʋ3
1 Newton). Two sets of numbers are copied from Table 1.1
2 (from EJ200 specification), which are

P1 = P4 Sfc (max. power) 0.81 lbm/h/lbf


4
Sfc w. AB 1.75 lbm/h/lbf
1 Thrust (SL) 13,500 lbf
Thrust w. AB 20,250–22,250 lbf
s1 = s2 s3 = s4

◾ FIGURE P1.3 First note that afterburner (AB) use more than doubles
the fuel consumption while boosting the thrust by only
1.4 The rotor of a millimeter-scale gas turbine engine ∼50%. This explains the sparse use of an afterburner in
has a radius of 1 mm. It must reach a tip, or rim speed aircraft mission. Now to quantify, calculate the amount of
of nearly the speed of sound for an effective compression. additional fuel burned in 30 min of afterburner use (pro-
Assuming that the speed of sound is 340 m/s, calculate the ducing 21,000 lbf thrust) as compared with 30 min of no
rotor rotational speed in revolutions per minute (rpm). afterburner use (producing 13,500 lbf thrust).
1 Characteristics of Aircraft Structures
and Materials

1.1 INTRODUCTION

AL
An aircraft is a vehicle that is used for flight in the air. A vehicle like this is typically built by
assembling many component structures such as wing, fuselage, landing gears, stabilizers, etc. Each
component structure is typically built by assembling many substructures. Each substructure can be

RI
made out of different materials. The main difference between aircraft structures and materials and civil
engineering structures and materials lies in their weight. The main driving force in aircraft structural

TE
design and aerospace material development is to reduce weight. In general, materials with high stiff-
ness, high strength, and light weight are most suitable for aircraft applications.
Aircraft structures must be designed to ensure that every part of the material is used to its full
MA
capability. A typical aircraft design cycle involves three major steps – (i) conceptual design, (ii) pre-
liminary design, and (iii) detail design. In any of these design stages, different factors such as
aerodynamics, avionics, propulsion, and structural integrity are simultaneously taken into account.
As such, aircraft structures are not designed for structural safety and integrity only; many nonstruc-
D

tural requirements impose additional restrictions in designing aircraft structural components. For
instance, an airfoil is chosen according to aerodynamic lift and drag characteristics. As such, the
TE

size and shape of an aircraft structural component are usually predetermined. Such restrictions sig-
nificantly limit the number of solutions for structural problems in terms of global configurations.
Often, the solutions resort to the use of special materials developed for applications in aerospace
GH

vehicles.
The nonstructural and weight-saving design requirements generally lead to the use of shell-like
structures (monocoque constructions) and stiffened shell structures (semimonocoque constructions).
The geometrical details of aircraft structures are much more complicated than those of civil engineer-
RI

ing structures. They usually require the assemblage of thousands of parts. Technologies for joining the
parts are especially important for aircraft construction.
PY

Because of their high stiffness/weight and strength/weight ratios, aluminum and titanium alloys
have been the dominant aircraft structural materials for many decades. However, the recent advent
of advanced fiber-reinforced composites has changed the outlook. Composites may now achieve
CO

weight savings of 30–40% over aluminum or titanium counterparts. As a result, composites have been
used increasingly in aircraft structures.

1.2 TYPES OF AIRCRAFT STRUCTURES

Most aircraft are built as fixed-wing vehicles and are commonly known as airplanes. Other categories
include rotorcrafts, glider, lighter-than-air vehicles, etc. Presence of air is essential for generating
lift on these vehicles. As such, structural design of such vehicles depends on how airload is transmitted
to the structural elements.

Mechanics of Aircraft Structures, Third Edition. C. T. Sun and Ashfaq Adnan.


© 2021 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Published 2021 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Companion website: www.wiley.com/go/Sun/aircraftstructures3
1
2 1 CHARACTERISTICS OF AIRCRAFT STRUCTURES AND MATERIALS

1.2.1 Fixed-Wing Aircraft


A fixed-wing aircraft is a kind of air vehicle that is heavier-than-air but can fly in the air by generating
lift using the wings. An aircraft with a powered engine is generally called an airplane (Figure 1.1a). The
unpowered version of fixed-wing aircraft is called gliders (Figure 1.1b).

1.2.2 Rotorcraft
A rotorcraft (Figure 1.1c) or rotary-wing aircraft is a heavier-than-air vehicle that generates lift using
rotary wings or rotor blades, which revolve around a rotor. Depending on how rotor blades function,
rotorcrafts are categorized as helicopters, autogyros, or gyrodynes. Recently, small-scale multirotor
rotorcrafts are widely used for surveillance or video-capturing purposes. Designing blades for the
rotorcraft is far more complex than designing a fixed-wing aircraft because of the complex aerody-
namic forces.

1.2.3 Lighter-than-Air Vehicles


Aircraft such as balloons, nonrigid blimps, and airships (also known as dirigibles) are designed to con-
tain sufficient amount of lighter-than-air gases (typically helium) so that lift can be generated from the
lifting gas (Figure 1.2).

1.2.4 Drones
Drones (Figure 1.3) are small-scale air vehicles that can be fixed-wing type or rotary-wing type. The
size of a drone is significantly smaller than a typical airplane or rotorcraft. As such, most drones are
powered by electrical sources. Other than their size, the lifting mechanism of a drone is similar to the
conventional fixed-wing or rotary-wing vehicles.

(a) (b) (c)

Fig. 1.1. (a) Powered fixed-wing aircraft, (b) glider, and (c) rotorcraft.

(a) (b) (c)

Fig. 1.2. Various lighter-than-air vehicles: (a) hot-air balloon, (b) blimp, and (c) dirigible.
1.3 BASIC STRUCTURAL ELEMENTS IN AIRCRAFT STRUCTURE 3

(a) (b)

Fig. 1.3. (a) Fixed-wing drone; (b) multirotor rotary wing drone.

1.3 BASIC STRUCTURAL ELEMENTS IN AIRCRAFT STRUCTURE

An aircraft has many integrated parts, as shown in Figure 1.4. In general, these parts can be categorized
into basic structural elements such as wing, fuselage, landing gears, tail units (horizontal and vertical
stabilizers), and control surfaces such as aileron, rudder, and elevator.

1.3.1 Fuselage
The fuselage is the main structural element of a fixed-wing aircraft. It provides space for cargo, control
system and pilots, passengers and cabin crews, and other accessories and equipment. In single-engine
aircraft, the fuselage also carries the power plant. As shown in Figure 1.5, a fuselage can be constructed
in various configurations such as truss, semimonocoque, and monocoque.

1.3.2 Wing
The main function of the wing is to pick up the air and power plant loads and transmit them to the
fuselage. The wing cross-section takes the shape of an airfoil, which is designed based on aerodynamic
considerations. In general, wings are constructed based on monospar, multispar, or box beam

Vertical stabilizer Wing

Rudder
Horizontal stabilizer

Elevator

Fuselage
Aileron Flaps
Cockpit

Engine

Fig. 1.4. Fixed-wing aircraft parts.


4 1 CHARACTERISTICS OF AIRCRAFT STRUCTURES AND MATERIALS

(a) (b) (c)


Diagonal web Skin Skin

Former

Stringer
Bulkhead
Vertical web
Bulkhead

Fig. 1.5. Various fuselage configurations: (a) truss type, (b) semimonocoque type, and
(c) monocoque type.

(a) (b) (c)

Fig. 1.6. Various wing configurations: (a) monospar (b) multispar type and (c) box beam type.

configurations, as shown in Figure 1.6. These three design configurations are considered as the basic
designs, and aircraft manufacturers may adopt a modified configuration. In the monospar wing con-
figuration, only one main spanwise member is present. Ribs or bulkheads are used to provide the nec-
essary aerodynamic contour or shape to the airfoil. The multispar wing configuration has more than
one main longitudinal member in its construction. To attain the desired aerodynamic shape, ribs or
bulkheads are often included. The box beam wing configuration has two main longitudinal members
and connecting bulkheads to attain the required airfoil contour.

1.3.3 Landing Gear


The landing gear is used to support an aircraft during landing and while it is on the ground. Small
aircraft flying at low speeds generally have fixed gear. On the other hand, faster and more complex
aircraft have retractable landing gear. To avoid parasite drag forces, the landing gear is retracted into
the fuselage or wings after take-off.

1.3.4 Control Surfaces


Since an aircraft is free to rotate around three mutually perpendicular axes (longitudinal, transverse,
and vertical) intersecting at its center of gravity (CG), a pilot must be able to control rotation about each
of these axes to control overall position and direction of the aircraft. Aircraft flight control surfaces are
aerodynamic devices that allow a pilot to maneuver and control the aircraft’s flight in midair. As shown
in Figure 1.4, there are three basic control surfaces, namely aileron, rudder, and elevator. Rotation
about the transverse axis, defined by the line that passes through an aircraft from wingtip to wingtip,
1.4 AIRCRAFT MATERIALS 5

is called pitch. The elevators are the major control surfaces for pitch. Ailerons control the rotation
about the longitudinal axis, called roll. This axis passes through the aircraft from nose to tail. The rota-
tion about the vertical axis is called yaw, and the primary control of yaw is done with the rudder.

1.4 AIRCRAFT MATERIALS

Traditional metallic materials used in aircraft structures are aluminum, titanium, and steel alloys. In the
past three decades, applications of advanced fiber composites have rapidly gained momentum. To
date, some new commercial jets, such as the Boeing 787, already contain composite materials up
to 50% of their structural weight.
Selection of aircraft materials depends on many considerations that can, in general, be categorized
as cost and structural performance. Cost includes initial material cost, manufacturing cost, and main-
tenance cost. The key material properties that are pertinent to maintenance cost and structural perfor-
mance are as follows:

• Density (weight)
• Stiffness (Young’s modulus)
• Strength (ultimate and yield strengths)
• Durability (fatigue)
• Damage tolerance (fracture toughness and crack growth)
• Corrosion.

Seldom is a single material able to deliver all desired properties in all components of the aircraft
structure. A combination of various materials is often necessary. Table 1.1 lists the basic mechanical
properties of some metallic aircraft structural materials.

1.4.1 Steel Alloys


Among the three metallic materials, steel alloys have highest densities, and are used only where high
strength and high yield stress are critical. Examples include landing gear units and highly loaded fit-
tings. The high strength steel alloy 300 M is commonly used for landing gear components. This steel
alloy has a strength of 1.9 GPa (270 ksi) and a yield stress of 1.5 GPa (220 ksi).
Besides being heavy, steel alloys are generally poor in corrosion resistance. Components made of
these alloys must be plated for corrosion protection.

Table 1.1. Mechanical properties of metals at room temperature in aircraft structures.


Propertya
E σu σY ρ
Material GPa (msi) v MPa (ksi) MPa (ksi) g/cm3 (lb/in3)
Aluminum
2024-T3 72 (10.5) 0.33 449 (65) 324 (47) 2.78 (0.10)
7075-T6 71 (10.3) 0.33 538 (78) 490 (71) 2.78 (0.10)
Titanium
Ti-6Al-4V 110 (16.0) 0.31 925 (134) 869 (126) 4.46 (0.16)
Steel
AISI4340 200 (29.0) 0.32 1790 (260) 1483 (212) 7.8 (0.28)
300 M 200 (29.0) 0.32 1860 (270) 1520 (220) 7.8 (0.28)
a
σ u, tensile ultimate stress; σ Y, tensile yield stress.
6 1 CHARACTERISTICS OF AIRCRAFT STRUCTURES AND MATERIALS

1.4.2 Aluminum Alloys


Aluminum alloys have played a dominant role in aircraft structures for many decades. They offer good
mechanical properties with low weight. Among the aluminum alloys, the 2024 and 7075 alloys are
perhaps the most used. The 2024 alloys (2024-T3, T42) have excellent fracture toughness and slow
crack growth rate as well as good fatigue life. The code number following T for each aluminum alloy
indicates the heat treatment process. The 7075 alloys (7075-T6, T651) have higher strength than the
2024 but lower fracture toughness. The 2024-T3 is used in the fuselage and lower wing skins, which
are prone to fatigue due to applications of cyclic tensile stresses. For the upper wing skins, which are
subjected to compressive stresses, fatigue is less of a problem, and 7075-T6 is used.
The recently developed aluminum lithium alloys offer improved properties over conventional alu-
minum alloys. They are about 10% stiffer and 10% lighter and have superior fatigue performance.

1.4.3 Titanium Alloys


Titanium such as Ti–6Al–4V (the number indicates the weight percentage of the alloying
element) with a density of 4.5 g/cm3 is lighter than steel (7.8 g/cm3) but heavier than aluminum
(2.7 g/cm3). See Table 1.1. Its ultimate and yield stresses are almost double those of aluminum
7075-T6. Its corrosion resistance in general is superior to both steel and aluminum alloys. While alu-
minum is usually not for applications above 350 F, titanium, on the other hand, can be used contin-
uously up to 1000 F.
Titanium is difficult to machine, and thus the cost of machining titanium parts is high. Near net
shape forming is an economic way to manufacture titanium parts. Despite its high cost, titanium
has found increasing use in military aircraft. For instance, the F-15 contained 26% (structural weight)
titanium.

1.4.4 Fiber-Reinforced Composites


Materials made into fiber forms can achieve significantly better mechanical properties than their bulk
counterparts. A notable example is glass fiber versus bulk glass. The tensile strength of glass fiber can
be two orders of magnitude higher than that of bulk glass. In this century, fiber science has made gigan-
tic strides, and many high-performance fibers have been introduced. Listed in Table 1.2 are the
mechanical properties of some high-performance manufactured fibers.
Fibers alone are not suitable for structural applications. To utilize the superior properties of fibers,
they are embedded in a matrix material that holds the fibers together to form a solid body capable of
carrying complex loads.

Table 1.2. Mechanical properties of fibers.


Property
E σu ρ
Material GPa (msi) GPa (ksi) g/cm3
E-glass 77.0 (11) 2.50 (350) 2.54
S-glass 85.0 (12) 3.50 (500) 2.48
Silicon carbide (Nicalon) 190.0 (27) 2.80 (400) 2.55
Carbon (Hercules AS4) 240.0 (35) 3.60 (510) 1.80
Carbon (Hercules HMS) 360.0 (51) 2.20 (310) 1.80
Carbon (Toray T300) 240.0 (35) 3.50 (500) 1.80
Boron 385.0 (55) 3.50 (500) 2.65
Kevlar-49 (Aramid) 130.0 (18) 2.80 (400) 1.45
Kevlar-29 65.0 (9.5) 2.80 (400) 1.45
PROBLEMS 7

Table 1.3. Longitudinal mechanical properties of fiber composites.


Property
E σu ρ
Material Type GPa (msi) GPa (ksi) g/cm3
Carbon/epoxy T300/5208 140.0 (20) 1.50 (210) 1.55
IM6/3501-6 177.0 (25.7) 2.86 (414) 1.55
AS4/3501-6 140.0 (20) 2.10 (300) 1.55
Boron/aluminum B/Al 2024 210.0 (30) 1.50 (210) 2.65
Glass/epoxy S2 Glass/epoxy 43.0 (6.2) 1.70 (245) 1.80
Aramid/epoxy Kev 49/epoxy 70.0 (10) 1.40 (200) 1.40

Matrix materials that are currently used for forming composites include three major categories:
polymers, metals, and ceramics. The resulting composites are usually referred to as polymer matrix
composites (PMCs), metal matrix composites (MMCs), and ceramic matrix composites (CMCs).
Table 1.3 presents properties of a list of composites. The range of service temperature of a composite
is often determined by its matrix material. PMCs are usually for lower temperature (less than 300 F)
applications, and CMCs are intended for applications in hot (higher than 1500 F) environments, such
as jet engines.
Fiber composites are stiff, strong, and light and are thus most suitable for aircraft structures. They
are often used in the form of laminates that consist of a number of unidirectional laminae with different
fiber orientations to provide multidirectional load capability. Composite laminates have excellent
fatigue life, damage tolerance, and corrosion resistance. Laminate constructions offer the possibility
of tailoring fiber orientations to achieve optimal structural performance of the composite structure.

PROBLEMS

1.1 Specific modulus of a material is defined by Young’s modulus divided by density. Specific
strength is also defined the same manner. Compare the specific moduli and specific strengths
of carbon composites, aluminum, titanium, and steel. Which one performs better?
1.2 Consider a commercial jetliner that weighs about 200 000 kgs. It is found that 80% of the structure
is made of 2024-T3 aluminum and 15% is made of carbon/epoxy composites. The remaining 5%
part of the airplane is equally distributed by Ti-6Al-4V and AISI4340. If the jetliner is now rede-
signed with the following material distributions, what will be the new weight of the airplane? How
much weight is saved, percentage-wise?
Carbon composite = 65%
Aluminum = 30%
Titanium = 2.5%
Steel = 2.5%.

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