AerospaceSampler Wiley
AerospaceSampler Wiley
Including:
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CHAPTER OBJECTIVES
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After completing this chapter, you should be able to:
• Define basic units of measurement used in the introduction to aerodynamics in flight and convert
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from one unit of measurement to another.
• Identify the four forces on an airplane in constant altitude, unaccelerated flight.
• Calculate the mass of an aircraft.
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• Define vector addition and apply to an aircraft in a climb.
• Describe Newton’s laws of motion and recognize how they apply to an introduction to
aerodynamics.
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• Define the purpose of linear motion in relation to constant acceleration, and then calculate aircraft
acceleration, takeoff distance, and takeoff time.
TE
• Describe the difference between energy and work and calculate the potential and kinetic energy of
an aircraft in flight.
GH
• Calculate the equivalent horsepower of an aircraft from a known thrust and speed.
• Define friction as it applies to an aircraft.
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A basic understanding of the physical laws of nature that affect aircraft in flight and on the ground is a
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prerequisite for the study of aerodynamics. Modern aircraft have become more sophisticated, and more
automated, using advanced materials in their construction requiring pilots to renew their understanding
of the natural forces encountered during flight. Understanding how pilots control and counteract
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these forces better prepares pilots and engineers for the art of flying for harnessing the fundamental
physical laws that guide them. Though at times this textbook will provide a quantitative approach to
various principles and operating practices with formulas and examples using equations, it is more
important that the reader understand WHY a principle of flight theory is discussed and how that subject
matter intertwines with other materials presented; thus a qualitative approach is used throughout this
textbook.
Perhaps your goal is to be a pilot, who will “slip the surly bonds of earth,” as John Gillespie Magee
wrote in his classic poem “High Flight.” Or you may wish to build or maintain aircraft as a skilled
Flight Theory and Aerodynamics: A Practical Guide for Operational Safety, Fourth Edition.
Joseph R. Badick and Brian A. Johnson.
© 2022 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Published 2022 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Companion website: www.wiley.com/go/badick/flight_theory_aerodynamics
1
2 INTRODUCTION TO THE FLIGHT ENVIRONMENT
technician. Or possibly you wish to serve in another vital role in the aviation industry, such as manager,
dispatcher, meteorologist, engineer, teacher, or another capacity. Whichever area you might be
considering, this textbook will build on what you already know and will help prepare you for a successful
aviation career.
INTRODUCTION
This chapter begins with a review of the basic principles of physics and concludes with a summary of linear
motion, mechanical energy, and power. A working knowledge of these areas, and how they relate to basic
aerodynamics, is vital as we move past the rudimentary “four forces of flight” and introduce thrust and
power-producing aircraft, lift and drag curves, stability and control, maneuvering performance, slow-speed
flight, and other topics.
You may already have been introduced to the four basic forces acting on an aircraft in flight: lift, weight,
thrust, and drag. Now, we must understand how these forces change as an aircraft accelerates down the
runway, or descends on final approach to a runway and gently touches down even when traveling twice
the speed of a car on the highway. Once an aircraft has safely made it into the air, what effect does weight
have on its ability to climb, and should the aircraft climb up to the flight levels or stay lower and take
“advantage” of the denser air closer to the ground?
By developing an understanding of the aerodynamics of flight, and of the ways in which design, weight,
load factors, and gravity affect an aircraft during flight maneuvers from stalls to high-speed flight, the pilot
learns how to control the balance between these forces. This textbook will help clarify these concepts among
others, leaving you with a better understanding of the flight environment.
BASIC QUANTITIES
An introduction to aerodynamics must begin with a review of physics, and, in particular, the branch of
physics that will be presented here is called mechanics. We will examine the fundamental physical laws
governing the forces acting on an aircraft in flight, and what effect these natural laws and forces have
on the performance characteristics of aircraft. To control an aircraft, whether it is an airplane, helicopter,
glider, or balloon, the pilot must understand the principles involved and learn to use or counteract these
natural forces.
We will start with the concepts of work, energy, power, and friction, and then build upon them as we
move forward in future chapters.
Because the metric system of measurement has not yet been widely accepted in the United States, the
English system of measurement is used in this book. The fundamental units are
Aircraft measure airspeed in knots (nautical miles per hour) or in Mach number (the ratio of true airspeed
to the speed of sound). Rates of climb and descent are measured in feet per minute, so quantities other than
those above are used in some cases. Some useful conversion factors are listed below:
Multiply by to get
EXAMPLES
Application 1.1
An airplane flight manual (AFM) states a given aircraft should be rotated at 65 kts. indicated
airspeed (IAS), yet the pilot misinterprets the airspeed indicator and rotates at 65 mph (IAS).
Does the aircraft rotate at a faster or slower airspeed than the manufacturer recommends? What are
the implications?
FORCES
A force is a push or a pull tending to change the state of motion of a body. A resolution of the typical forces
acting on an aircraft in steady flight is shown in Figure 1.1, while Figure 1.2 shows the four separate com-
ponents of aerodynamic forces during straight-and-level, unaccelerated flight. The component that is 90 to
the flight path and acts toward the top of the airplane is called lift. The component that is parallel to the flight
path and acts toward the rear of the airplane is called drag; while the opposing forward force is thrust and is
usually created by the engine. Weight opposes lift and as we will see is a function of the mass of the aircraft
and gravity.
The sum of the opposing forces is always zero in steady flight, but this does not mean the four forces are
equal. In future chapters of this textbook, we will further demonstrate the following statement regarding
forces acting on an airplane in steady flight: The sum of all upward component of forces equals the
sum of all downward components of forces, and the sum of all forward components of forces equals
the sum of all backward components of forces.
4 INTRODUCTION TO THE FLIGHT ENVIRONMENT
Aerodynamic
force (AF)
Thrust
Weight
Lift
Thrust Drag
Weight
MASS
Mass is a measure of the amount of material contained in a body, usually measured in kilograms; we will use
slugs as the unit in this textbook. Weight, on the other hand, is a force caused by the gravitational attraction
of the earth (g = 32.2 ft/s2), moon, sun, or other heavenly bodies. Weight will vary depending on where the
body is located in space (specifically, how far from the source of gravitational attraction), but mass will not
vary with position.
SCALAR AND VECTOR QUANTITIES 5
Rearranging gives
W lb lb s2
m= 2
=
g ft s ft
EXAMPLE
W 2576 lb
m= m=
g 32 2 ft s2
m = 80 0 slugs
A quantity that has size or magnitude only is called a scalar quantity. The quantities of mass, time, and
temperature are examples of scalar quantities. A quantity that has both magnitude and direction is called
a vector quantity. Forces, accelerations, and velocities are examples of vector quantities. Speed is a scalar,
but if we consider the direction of the speed, then it is a vector quantity called velocity. If we say an aircraft
traveled 100 nm, the distance is a scalar, but if we say an aircraft traveled 100 nm on a heading of 360 , the
distance is a vector quantity.
Scalar Addition
Scalar quantities can be added (or subtracted) by simple arithmetic. For example, if you have 5 gallons
of gas in your car’s tank and you stop at a gas station and top off your tank with 9 gallons more, your tank
now holds 14 gallons.
Vector Addition
Vector addition is more complicated than scalar addition. Vector quantities are conveniently shown by
arrows. The length of the arrow represents the magnitude of the quantity, and the orientation of the arrow
represents the directional property of the quantity. For example, if we consider the top of this page as
representing north and we want to show the velocity of an aircraft flying east at an airspeed of 300 kts.,
the velocity vector is as shown in Figure 1.3. If there is a 30-kts. wind from the north, the wind vector
is as shown in Figure 1.4.
To find the aircraft’s flight path, groundspeed, and drift angle, we add these two vectors as follows. Place
the tail of the wind vector at the head of the arrow of the aircraft vector and draw a straight line from the tail
of the aircraft vector to the head of the arrow of the wind vector. This resultant vector represents the path of
6 INTRODUCTION TO THE FLIGHT ENVIRONMENT
V a /c = 300 k
V w = 30 k
V a/c
Vw
Vr
the aircraft over the ground. The length of the resultant vector represents the groundspeed, and the angle
between the aircraft vector and the resultant vector is the drift angle (Figure 1.5).
The groundspeed is the hypotenuse of the right triangle and is found by use of the Pythagorean theorem
V 2r = V 2a c + V 2w :
2 2
Groundspeed = V r = 300 + 30 = 302 kts
The drift angle is the angle whose tangent is Vw/Va/c = 30/300 = 0.1, which is 5.7 to the right (south) of the
aircraft heading.
Vector Resolution
It is often desirable to replace a given vector by two or more other vectors. This is called vector resolution.
The resulting vectors are called component vectors of the original vector and, if added vectorially, they will
produce the original vector. For example, if an aircraft is in a steady climb, at an airspeed of 200 kts., and the
flight path makes a 30 angle with the horizontal, the groundspeed and rate of climb can be found by vector
resolution. The flight path and velocity are shown by vector Va/c in Figure 1.6.
V a /c
γ
Climb angle
Horizontal
V a /c Vv
Vh
In Figure 1.7, to resolve the vector Va/c into a component Vh parallel to the horizontal, which will
represent the groundspeed, and a vertical component, Vv, which will represent the rate of climb, we simply
draw a straight line vertically upward from the horizontal to the tip of the arrow Va/c. This vertical line repre-
sents the rate of climb and the horizontal line represents the groundspeed of the aircraft. If the airspeed Va/c is
200 kts. and the climb angle is 30 , mathematically the values are
MOMENTS
If a mechanic tightens a nut by applying a force to a wrench, a twisting action, called a moment, is created
about the center of the bolt. This particular type of moment is called torque (pronounced “tork”). Moments,
M, are measured by multiplying the amount of the applied force, F, by the moment arm, L:
The moment arm is the perpendicular distance from the line of action of the applied force to the center of
rotation. Moments are measured as foot–pounds (ft-lb) or as inch–pounds (in.-lb). If a mechanic uses a 10
in.-long wrench and applies 25 lb of force, the torque on the nut is 250 in.-lb.
The aircraft moments that are of particular interest to pilots include pitching moments, yawing moments,
and rolling moments. If you have ever completed a weight and balance computation for an aircraft, you have
calculated a moment, where weight was the force and the arm was the inches from datum. Pitching
moments, for example, occur when an aircraft’s elevator is moved. Air loads on the elevator, multiplied
by the distance to the aircraft’s center of gravity (CG), create pitching moments, which cause the nose
to pitch up or down. As you can see from Eq. 1.2, if a force remains the same but the arm is increased,
the moment increases.
Several forces may act on an aircraft at the same time, and each will produce its own moment about the
aircraft’s CG. Some of these moments may oppose others in direction. It is therefore necessary to classify
each moment, not only by its magnitude, but also by its direction of rotation. One such classification could
be by clockwise or counterclockwise rotation. In the case of pitching moments, a nose-up or nose-down
classification seems appropriate.
Mathematically, it is desirable that moments be classified as positive (+) or negative (−). For example,
if a clockwise moment is considered to be a + moment, then a counterclockwise moment must be
considered to be a − moment. By definition, aircraft nose-up pitching moments are considered to be
+ moments.
8 INTRODUCTION TO THE FLIGHT ENVIRONMENT
B = 200
A = 100
+Force
–Forces
s
Fulcrum
– Moment Datum + Moment
EQUILIBRIUM CONDITIONS
Webster defines equilibrium as “a state in which opposing forces or actions are balanced so that one is not
stronger or greater than the other.” A body must meet two requirements to be in a state of equilibrium:
1. There must be no unbalanced forces acting on the body. This is written as the mathematical formula
ΣF = 0, where Σ (cap sigma) is the Greek symbol for “sum of.” Figure 1.2 illustrates the situation
where this condition is satisfied (lift = weight, thrust = drag, etc.)
2. There must be no unbalanced moments acting on the body. Mathematically, ΣM = 0.
Moments at the fulcrum in Fig. 1.8 are 5000 ft-lb clockwise and 5000 ft-lb counterclockwise.
The weight (force) of A is 100 lb and is located 50 inches ( ) to the left of datum (fulcrum), thus
100 lb × −50 = −5000 lb-in. The weight of B is 200 lb and is located 25 inches to the right of datum,
thus 200 lb × 25 = 5000 lb-in. So, ΣM = 0.
Sir Isaac Newton summarized three generalizations about force and motion. These are known as the laws of
motion.
Newton’s First Law
In simple language, the first law states that a body at rest will remain at rest and a body in motion will
remain in motion, in a straight line, unless acted upon by an unbalanced force. The first law implies that
bodies have a property called inertia. Inertia may be defined as the property of a body that results in its
maintaining its velocity unchanged unless it interacts with an unbalanced force. For example, an aircraft
parked on the ramp would not even need chocks unless an unbalanced force (such as wind, or gravity if
parked on a slope) acted on it. The measure of inertia is what is technically known as mass.
the primary forces acting on an aircraft accelerating or decelerating down a runway are thrust, drag, and
friction. Future chapters will discuss the net force on an aircraft during the takeoff and landing regimes.
The amount of the acceleration a is directly proportional to the unbalanced force, F, and is
inversely proportional to the mass, m, of the body. For a constant mass, force equals mass times
acceleration.
Newton’s second law can be expressed by the simple equation:
F = ma (1.3)
F
a=
m
EXAMPLE
An airplane that weighs 14 400 lb accelerates down a runway with a net force of 4 000 lb, what is the accel-
eration (a) assuming constant acceleration?
W 14 400 lb
m= = = 447 2 slugs
g 32 2ft s2
F 4000 lb
a= a= a = 8 9 ft s2
m 447 2 slugs
LINEAR MOTION
Newton’s laws of motion express relationships among force, mass, and acceleration, but they stop short of
discussing velocity, time, and distance. These are covered here. In the interest of simplicity, we assume here
that acceleration is constant. Then,
Change in velocity ΔV Vf − Vi Vf − Vi
Acceleration a = = = or
Change in time Δt tf − ti t
where
V f = V i + at (1.4)
If we start the time at ti = 0 and Vi = 0 (brakes locked before takeoff roll) and rearrange the above where Vf
can be any velocity given, for example liftoff velocity, then
Vf
t=
a
s = V av t
Vi + Vf
V av =
2
V i + at + V i
s= t
2
which yields
1 2
s = V it + at (1.5)
2
Solving Eqs. 1.4 and 1.5 simultaneously and eliminating t, we can derive a third equation:
V 2f − V 2i
s= (1.6)
2a
Equations 1.3–1.6 are useful in calculating takeoff and landing factors, and are studied in more detail in
Chapters 8 and 9.
EXAMPLE
An aircraft that weighs 15 000 lb begins from a brakes-locked position on the runway, and then accelerates
down the runway with a net force of 5000 lb until liftoff at a velocity of 110 kts. Calculate the average
acceleration down the runway, the average time it takes to reach liftoff speed, and the total takeoff distance
on the runway.
First, to calculate the acceleration, we need find the force (F) and the mass of the aircraft during the
takeoff roll, Eq. 1.3: F = m a
W 15 000 lb
Finding the mass: m = m= m = 465 8 slugs
g 32 2 ft s2
ENERGY AND WORK 11
F 5000 lb
Finding the average acceleration: a = a= a = 10 7 ft s2
m 465 8 slugs
Average time to liftoff:
V f = V i + at where, V i = 0
so,
Vf 185 9 ft s
t= t= t = 17 4 seconds
a 10 7 ft s2
V 2 − V 2i 185 9 2 − 0
Total takeoff distance: s = f s= s = 1614 9 ft
2a 2 10 7 ft s2
ROTATIONAL MOTION
Without derivation, some of the relationships among tangential (tip) velocity, Vt; radius of rotation, r; revo-
lutions per minute, rpm; centripetal forces, CF; weight of rotating parts, W; and acceleration of gravity, g,
are shown below. A more detailed discussion regarding rotorcraft can be found in Chapter 15 of this
textbook.
r rpm
Vt = fps (1.7)
9 55
WV 2t
CF = lb (1.8)
gr
2
W r rpm
CF = (1.9)
2930
Energy is the ability to do work. In physics, work has a meaning different from the popular definition. You
can push against a solid wall until you are exhausted but, unless the wall moves, you are not doing any work.
Work requires that a force must move an object (displacement) in the direction of the force. Another way of
saying this is that only the component of the force in the direction of movement does any work:
There are many kinds of energy: solar, chemical, heat, nuclear, and others. The type of energy that is of
interest to us in aviation is mechanical energy.
There are two kinds of mechanical energy: The first is called potential energy of position, or more simply
potential energy, PE. No movement is involved in calculating PE. A good example of this kind of energy is
water stored behind a dam. If released, the water would be able to do work, such as running a generator. As a
fighter aircraft zooms to a zenith point, it builds PE; once it starts to accelerate downward, it converts PE to
KE. PE equals the weight, W, of an object multiplied by the height, h, of the object above some base plane:
12 INTRODUCTION TO THE FLIGHT ENVIRONMENT
PE = Wh ft-lb (1.10)
The second kind of mechanical energy is called kinetic energy, KE. As the name implies, kinetic energy
requires movement of an object. It is a function of the mass, m, of the object and its velocity, V:
1
KE = mV 2 ft-lb (1.11)
2
The total mechanical energy, TE, of an object is the sum of its PE and KE:
TE = PE + KE ft-lb (1.12)
The law of conservation of energy states that the total energy (of a closed system) remains constant. Both
potential and kinetic energy can change in value, but the total energy must remain the same. For example,
when a ball is thrown upward, if the height of the thrower is the reference plane, its energy is all kinetic when
it leaves the thrower’s hand. As it rises, PE is continually increasing, but KE is always decreasing by the
same amount, so the sum remains constant. At the top of its travel, PE is at its maximum (the same amount as
the KE it had when it left the thrower’s hand) and KE is zero. Energy cannot be created or destroyed, but
can change in form.
EXAMPLE
An aircraft that weighs 15 000 lb is flying at 10 000 ft altitude at an airspeed of 210 kts. Calculate the poten-
tial energy, kinetic energy, and the total energy.
Application 1.2
Consider a general aviation airplane that weighs 3000 lb with a designated approach speed over the
runway threshold of 65 kts., calculate the KE. Now, consider if that same airplane approaches the
runway with an extra 10 kts. of speed due to poor planning, calculate the new KE.
Why does only a 10 kts. change in approach speed result in such a wide margin of KE? What are the
consequences of this “extra” energy?
POWER
In our discussion of work and energy, we have not mentioned time. Power is defined as “the rate of doing
work” or work/time. We know:
and
force × speed
Horsepower =
550
If the speed is measured in knots, Vk, and the force is the thrust, T, of a jet engine, then
Thrust × V k TV k
HP = = (1.13)
325 325
EXAMPLE
An aircraft’s turbojet engine produces 8000 lb of thrust at 180 kts., what is the equivalent horsepower that
engine is producing?
Equation 1.13 is very useful in comparing thrust-producing aircraft (turbojets) with power-producing air-
craft (propeller aircraft and helicopters); a more detailed discussion will follow in future chapters.
Application 1.3
Consider the example calculation provided to solve for horsepower (HP).
Would the horsepower remain the same if the thrust remained 8000 lb but the aircraft slowed to a
speed of 160 kts.? Why or why not? How can the equation be altered to solve for thrust (T) if an
aircraft was maintaining a constant speed with a known HP?
FRICTION
If two surfaces are in contact with each other, then a force develops between them when an attempt is made
to move them relative to each other. This force is called friction. Generally, we think of friction as something
to be avoided because it wastes energy and causes parts to wear. In our discussion on drag, we will discuss
the parasite drag on an airplane in flight and the thrust or power to overcome that force. Friction is not
always our enemy; however, without it there would be no traction between an aircraft’s tires and the runway.
Once an aircraft lands, lift is reduced and a portion of the weight contributes to frictional force. Depending
on the aircraft type, aerodynamic braking, thrust reversers, and spoilers will be used to assist the brakes and
shorten the landing, or rejected takeoff distance.
14 INTRODUCTION TO THE FLIGHT ENVIRONMENT
0.8
Dry concrete
Coefficient
of 0.6
friction
μ Concrete
light rain
F/ 0.4
N
Heavy rain
0.2
Smooth, clear ice
Rolling Locked
wheel wheel
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Percent wheel slip
At the microscopic level, as in the surface of a wing, friction causes resistance and slows down the veloc-
ity of the air as it passes over it. The layer of air that is impacted by the friction of the wing, or any other
surface of the aircraft, is referred to as the boundary layer.
Several factors are involved in determining friction effects on aircraft during takeoff and landing opera-
tions. Among these are runway surfacing material, condition of the runway, tire material and tread, and the
amount of brake slippage. All of these variables determine a coefficient of friction μ (mu). The actual brak-
ing force, Fb, is the product of this coefficient μ (Greek symbol mu) and the normal force, N, between the
tires and the runway (Eq. 1.14):
F b = μN lb (1.14)
Figure 1.9 shows typical values of the coefficient of friction for various conditions. Note the value of μ for
dry concrete is ~0.7 with ~10% wheel slip, while the μ on smooth, clear ice is ~0.2. This means that an
airplane wheel rolling on smooth, clear ice will experience much lower friction (increased stopping dis-
tance) than a wheel rolling on dry concrete.
EXAMPLE
Calculate the braking force on dry concrete when the normal force (N) is 2000 lb.
F b = μN F b = 0 7 2000 lb F b = 1400 lb
SYMBOLS
a acceleration (ft/s2)
E Energy (ft-lb)
KEY TERMS 15
KEY TERMS
Acceleration
Area
Arm
Coefficient of friction
Centripetal force
Component vector
Energy
Equilibrium
Force
Friction
Kinetic energy
Laws of motion
Linear
Mass
Mechanical energy
Motion
Potential energy
Power
Pressure
Resultant vector
Rotational motion
Scalar quantity
16 INTRODUCTION TO THE FLIGHT ENVIRONMENT
Torque
Velocity
Vector quantity
Vector resolution
Work
PROBLEMS
20 lb
10 lb
24 ft
s
F
PROBLEMS 17
13. A helicopter has a rotor diameter of 30 ft and it is being operated in a hover at 286.5 rpm. Find the tip
speed Vt of the rotor.
14. An airplane weighs 16 000 lb and is flying at 5 000 ft altitude and at an airspeed of 200 fps. Find (a) the
potential energy, (b) the kinetic energy, and (c) the total energy. Assuming no extra drag on the air-
plane, if the pilot drove until the airspeed was 400 fps, what would the altitude be?
15. An aircraft’s turbojet engine produces 10 000 lb of thrust at 162.5 kts. true airspeed. What is the equiv-
alent power that it is producing?
16. An aircraft weighs 24 000 lb and has 75% of its weight on the main (braking) wheels. If the coefficient
of friction is 0.7, find the braking force Fb on the airplane.
17. Newton’s third law of motion states:
a. A body at rest will remain at rest and a body in motion will remain in motion, in a straight line, unless
acted upon by an unbalanced force.
b. For every action force there is an equal and opposite reaction force.
c. If a body is acted on by an unbalanced force, the body will accelerate in the direction of the force, and
the acceleration will be directly proportional to the force and inversely proportional to the mass of
the body.
18. An aircraft parked on an airport ramp would be an example of Newton’s _______ law of motion.
a. first.
b. second.
c. fourth.
d. third.
19. An airplane in level flight increases thrust, resulting in an acceleration until once again thrust equals:
a. aerodynamic force.
b. lift.
c. weight.
d. drag.
20. An airplane in straight-and-level, unaccelerated flight weighs 2300 lb, what total lift must the aircraft
produce to maintain a constant altitude assuming no additional forces are involved:
a. 2000 lb
b. 2300 lb
c. 1150 lb
d. >2300 lb
C H A P T E R 1
AL
Propulsion in
RI
Sustainable
TE
Aviation MA
D
Invention—The Beginning
GH
was a gas powered, 12-hp reciprocating intermittent combustion engine. This type
of engine, with a propeller, provided power to all (manned) aircraft until the late
PY
1930s. The history of aircraft gas turbine engine started in January 1930 with a
patent issued to Frank Whittle in Great Britain. Figure 1.1 shows a p–v diagram
and components of the Whittle engine as they appeared in the patent application.
CO
The flow pattern and engine assembly are shown in Figure 1.2. The performance
of the W1 engine and the aircraft that flew it are shown in Figure 1.3. An engineer
at work, Sir Frank Whittle, the inventor of the jet engine, with a slide rule is shown
in Figure 1.4. For more details on the Whittle turbojet see Meher-Homji (1997).
The gas turbine engine of Figure 1.1 is based on the Brayton cycle. The
compression in the Whittle engine is achieved via a double-sided centrifugal com-
pressor. The axial compressor had not been developed due to aerodynamic stability
complications. The combustion takes place in a reverse-flow burner that is very
large relative to other engine components. The straight through-flow burner had
posed problems with stable combustion and thus a reverse-flow combustor pro-
vided the needed flame stability in the burner. The compressor shaft power is
delivered from a single-stage axial flow turbine.
Aircraft Propulsion: Cleaner, Leaner, and Greener, Third Edition. Saeed Farokhi.
© 2022 John Wiley & Sons Ltd. Published 2022 by John Wiley & Sons Ltd.
Companion website: www.wiley.com/go/farokhi/aircraftpropulsion
2 Chapter 1 ◾ Introduction
SPECIFIC CONSUMPTION–
Patent drawings of Sir 2.2
THRUST–LB.
EXHAUST TEMPERATURE
H F 600
ST
RU
D G TH
A
–DEG.C.
400 S 600
RE
ATU
PE R
200 TEM 500
UST
EXHA
11
12 15
9 17 0 400
8 10
7 11,000 12,000 13,000 14,000 15,000 16,000 17,00018,000
1 4 5 13
11
2 SPEED–R.P.M.
3 16
The W1 Engine: Curves of Thrust, Specific
16
Fuel Consumption, and Exhaust
Temperatures plotted against speed.
1 17
10
Test results
“Desing” performance
◾ FIGURE 1.2
WATER OUT
The assembly and flow The company formed by Whittle, known as Power Jets Ltd.
pattern in Whittle jet produced the W.2.B. engine which was a classic of its type. It had
the reverse flow combustion system which was typical of the Whittle
engine designs. It was eventually developed to give nearly three times the
thrust of the W.1 without occupying more space.
Turbine
Compressor
◾ FIGURE 1.3
Performance testing of ◾ FIGURE 1.4
Whittle jet engine, Sir Frank Whittle with
known as W1, and the a slide rule. Source:
experimental aircraft, Crown Publications
Gloster E28/39 that
flew it in 1941. Source:
Crown Publications
Gloster Experimental Aeroplane E28/39 at Takeoff.
(Royal Aerospace Establishment, Crown Copyright.)
1.1 History of the Airbreathing Jet Engine, a Twentieth-Century Invention—The Beginning 3
◾ FIGURE 1.5
The first historic
meeting between the
two inventors of the jet
engine took place in
WPAFB on May 3,
1978. Source:
AFRL/AFMC
◾ FIGURE 1.6
The first production jet
aircraft, Me 262
4 Chapter 1 ◾ Introduction
◾ FIGURE 1.7 Starter motor Air bleed Flame chamber Control cone
Jumo 004B engine
cutaway features an
axial-flow compressor,
a straight throughflow
combustor, an
air-cooled axial
turbine, and an
exhaust nozzle
Jet nozzle
Cooling air duct
Compressor Combustion Turbine with
chamber hollow blades
◾ FIGURE 1.8
The first US produced
aircraft gas turbine
engine. Source:
Courtesy of US Air
Force Museum
79.5% turbine. We will put these numbers in perspective when we compare them
with their modern counterparts.
The jet engine came from Great Britain to the United States in 1941. The
J-31 (also known by its company designation, I-16) was the first turbojet engine
produced in quantity in the United States. It was developed from the General Elec-
tric I-A, which was a copy of the highly secret British “Whittle” engine. Figure 1.8
shows the J-31 gas turbine engine (courtesy of Air Force Museum).
◾ FIGURE 1.9
Three-spool gas
turbine engine as
developed by
Rolls-Royce. Source:
The Jet Engine, 2005.
Reproduced by
permission from The
Jet Engine, Copyright
Rolls-Royce plc 2005
◾ FIGURE 1.10
(a) CFD in transonic
compressor rotor
flowfield. Source:
Courtesy of NASA; (b)
advanced transonic
fan. Source:
Reproduced with
permission from
Rolls-Royce plc
(a) (b)
◾ FIGURE 1.11
Engine Alliance engine: GP7000
Engine Alliance engine T.O. Thrust: 76,500 Ibs/340 kN
GP7000. Source: OPR: 36+ (on GP7200)
Reproduced with BPR (cruise): 8.7
permission from the Fan Diameter: 116.7 in.
Engine Alliance. [Note: Emissions:
Engine Alliance is a NOx: 59.7 g/kN
UHC: 3.9 g/kN
50/50 joint venture
CO: 33.8 g/kN
between GE Aviation Noise: 22.9 dB Margin to Stage 3
and Pratt & Whitney]
1.2 Innovations in Aircraft Gas Turbine Engines 7
◾ FIGURE 1.12
Concepts in Future emissions improvements
low-emission
combustor design.
Source: Reproduced Main
with permission from Pilot
Rolls-Royce plc
Double-annular combustor
Main
Pilot
◾ FIGURE 1.13
Turbine blade cooling. Turbine cooling
Source: Reproduced
with permission from
Rolls-Royce plc
Cooling air
Multi-pass Thermal barrier
Single pass
coating
Rolls-Royce
8 Chapter 1 ◾ Introduction
◾ FIGURE 1.14
Propulsion layout for
vertical landing and
stability of a F-35 Joint
Strike Fighter. Source:
Reproduced with
permission from
Rolls-Royce plc
◾ FIGURE 1.15
F119 engine that
powers F-22 Raptor is
shown in vector thrust.
Source: Reproduced
with permission of
United Technologies
Corporation, Pratt &
Whitney
1.2 Innovations in Aircraft Gas Turbine Engines 9
◾ FIGURE 1.16
Advanced materials
and manufacturing
techniques. Source:
Reproduced with
permission from
Rolls-Royce plc
◾ FIGURE 1.17
Cutaway of EJ200, an
afterburning turbofan
engine designed for the
Eurofighter. Source:
Reproduced with
permission from
Rolls-Royce plc
◾ TABLE 1.1
EJ200 specifications
Fan/compressor stages 1/3/5
LPT/HPT 1/1
Max. diameter 29 in.
Two-spool configuration OPR 26:1
Fan technology BPR 0.4
Wide chord Length 157 in.
Single-crystal “Blisk” (Bladed Disk) Dry weight 2,286 lbf
No IGV Sfc (max. power) 0.81 lbm/h/lbf
Three-stage LPC: 4.2 PR Sfc w. AB 1.75 lbm/h/lbf
Mass flow: 77 kg/s or 170 lbm/s Thrust (SL) 13,500 lbf
HPC: Single crystal Blisk Thrust w. AB 20,250–22,250 lbf
Tt4 : 1800K(or 2780∘ F) Thrust/weight (Dry) 5.92
HPT: Air-cooled + TPC (two-layers) Thrust/weight (AB) 9.1
C-D nozzle: Titanium alloy Thrust vectoring: 23∘ any direction
Engine management FADEC + monitoring unit
engine emissions near airports in the landing- takeoff cycle (LTO), below 3,000
feet. The second area of concern examines the effect of engine emissions at the
climb-cruise-descent (CCD) phase, above 3000 ft. Figure 1.18 shows the type and
nature of the emissions related to the combustion of fossil fuels (that contain car-
bon) in aircraft engines, which is known as Tank-to-Wake (TTWa) in lifecycle
analysis terminology of GHG emissions’ impact on climate. The other element of
lifecycle analysis account for the Well-to-Tank portion that contributes to GHG
emissions.
Aviation impacts the first four categories whereas the last three are highly
regulated and their impact is minimized. Carbon dioxide (CO2 ) and water vapor
(H2 O) dominate the list and constitute the products of complete combustion of fos-
sil fuels in airbreathing jet engines. Note that CO2 and H2 O are direct results of the
combustion of a fuel with a molecular structure composed of carbon and hydrogen
atoms, namely hydrocarbon fuels. The large deposition of these products in the
atmosphere by a growing fleet of commercial aircraft contributes to global warm-
ing through the greenhouse effect. Once created, the greenhouse gases linger in
the atmosphere, i.e. they have a lifespan of several decades, even centuries in the
atmosphere before their absorption by the oceans, forests, plants, and soil. In addi-
tion to the dynamics of the GHG in the atmosphere, there is surface reflectance
12 Chapter 1 ◾ Introduction
◾ FIGURE 1.19
September ice sheet
extent and age in the
arctic in 1984 and 2016
(Source: from NASA
Science Visualization
Studio, data: Tschudi
et al, 2016. Public
Domain.)
of sunlight from ice sheets, soil, forests, and oceans, known as the albedo effect,
that range from 10% to 90%. Melting ice sheets and deforestation contribute to
global warming through the albedo effect. An example in the arctic is the Green-
land ice sheet albedo that showed a 5% reduction in reflectivity from 2000 to
2010 and has resulted in an accelerated melting rate of 6,600 square miles of ice
sheets per year.
Figure 1.19 shows the September sea ice extent and its age in the arctic in
1984 and again in 2016 (from NASA Science Visualization Studio, data: Tschudi
et al, 2016). The significant reduction in the sea ice areal extent is evident and
indeed the scale of the problem is measured in millions of square miles (see Fet-
terer, et al, 2016).
The adverse impact of the anthropogenic greenhouse gases in the atmosphere
is universally acknowledged, but there are still a few doubts about the conclusion.
The undeniable fact of human impact on atmosphere is however based on data,
i.e. scientific measurements. Figure 1.20 (adapted from Zumdahl, 2000) shows
atmospheric CO2 concentration since 1000 AD. It also marks the beginning of the
industrial revolution (1784) in Europe. It shows the rapid rise in carbon dioxide
1.3 Twenty-first Century Aviation Goal: Sustainability 13
Industrial revolution
(1784)
concentration in the past 100 years, which coincides with an increasing consump-
tion of fossil fuels for electric power generation, home heating, and transportation.
At present, there is no emission regulation for carbon dioxide and water vapor
and thus no FAA engine certification requirements. The unit of concentration in
Fig. 1.20 is parts per million (ppm) in molar concentration of CO2 , i.e. equal to
volume fraction of CO2 in the atmosphere. Note the rise of the atmospheric CO2
concentration is extended from 2000-2013, as shown in Fig. 1.20. Data is based
on the mean values of seasonal variations. The same dramatic rise in CO2 con-
centration continues to develop, as seen in Figure 1.21 based on recent data from
National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA), 2017.
From the data in the EPA GHG emissions report [2016], Fig. 1.22 is con-
structed to show the percentual content in GHG emissions in the US in 2014. The
biggest offender is carbon dioxide with an 82% share of total GHG emissions. This
chart excludes water vapor as a GHG. Total emissions are reported as 6,870 million
metric tons of CO2 equivalent. Figure 1.23 shows the carbon dioxide emission by
source. The transportation sector (i.e. road transport, rail, aviation, and shipping)
contributes 31% to carbon dioxide emissions in the US. Aviation is responsible for
12% of CO2 emission from all transport sources. The aviation contribution within
the transport sector in the European Union is 12.4% (see Expert Group on Future
Transport Fuels, 2015). In another study, Lee et al (2010) estimated the impact of
14 Chapter 1 ◾ Introduction
Methane
10%
Carbon Dioxide
82%
Electricity
Industry 37%
15%
Transportation
31%
ships, and road vehicles produce greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, destroy
ozone in the upper atmosphere, and create harmful effects for humans through
surface air quality. Moreover, GHG emissions alter radiative forcing in the upper
atmosphere and contribute to climate change through rising temperatures on the
Earth. In contrast, alternative jet fuels (AJF), or biofuels, are renewable and can
help reduce greenhouse gas emissions, as well as soot and particulate matter (PM)
emissions from jet engines. In addition, the absence of aromatic hydrocarbons and
sulfur in AJF, as compared to conventional fossil fuels, is considered a significant
environmental advantage of AJF, which positively impacts surface air quality.
Ultimately, it is in the reduced lifecycle emissions assessment of alternative jet
fuels, as compared to the conventional fossil fuels, that AJF finds strong support
in the aviation industry today. Cryogenic fuels, such as liquid hydrogen (LH2 )
and liquefied natural gas (LNG), which is by and large methane, are also in
competition with fossil fuels. We address AJF and cryogenic fuels in chapters 4
and 7.
For a detailed exposition and assessment of the twenty-first century needs for
the aero-propulsion industry, see Sehra-Shin (2003), Epstein (2014), and Farokhi
(2020).
◾ FIGURE 1.24
Advanced turboprop
engines
◾ FIGURE 1.25
Cutaway view of the
PW1000G UHB geared
turbofan engine.
Source: Reproduced by
permission of United
Technologies
Corporation, Pratt &
Whitney
like a ramjet at high speed. The J58 was the first operational ACE that powered a
military aircraft.
Sustainability in the context of military aircraft, as a new/modern concept,
means to accomplish a given mission by the lowest possible fuel burn and the least
environmental impact (i.e. with exhaust emissions and noise). To accomplish these
lofty goals, the airflow distribution, for thrust and power production as well as vehi-
cle thermal management, has to be managed and thus controlled within the engine.
Take, for example, the mixed-flow turbofan engine, in its current “fixed-geometry”
format, its bypass ratio and the overall cycle pressure ratio are governed by its
design (fixed) geometry fan duct, core size, and the turbine backpressure. The
concept of ACE requires a system of valves, known as a Variable Area Bypass
Injector (VABI), to be designed at key locations in the propulsor that allow for
optimal use of airflow in thrust/power production and thermal management. The
US Patent 4,072,008 (1978) is granted on a VABI system. The schematic drawing
of a variable-bypass afterburning turbofan engine is shown in Fig. 1.26.
Currently, GE Aviation and Pratt and Whitney are in advanced development
of adaptive cycle engines for the sixth generation of combat aircraft (e.g. F-35
with engine upgrade and B-21). These engine demonstrators are dubbed XA100
and XA101 for GE and P&W, respectively. The adaptive cycle engines employ
three-stream architecture (compared to a conventional turbofan that uses two
streams), are expected to produce 10% higher max thrust for faster acceleration,
25% lower fuel burn and 30% improvement in range. Advanced materials, such as
ceramic matrix composites and additive manufacturing, are employed. The third
airstream inside the engine allows for fan pressure ratio variation, on demand
thrust modulation, and thermal management, e.g. cooling the coolant in gas
turbines, allowing the engine to operate at higher overall pressure ratio, and
higher temperatures inside the compressor and the turbine. The target date of
entry into service is expected to be 2025. The maximum thrust (with afterburner)
is 45,000 lbf or 200 kN.
◾ FIGURE 1.27
Cutaway of SABRE
shows the heat
exchanger integrated
in the air intake
system. Source:
Reproduced by
permission of Reaction
Engines Ltd.
1.4 New Engine Concepts in Sustainable Aviation 19
◾ FIGURE 1.28
SKYLON in low-earth
orbit with payload
separation. Source:
Reproduced by
permission of Reaction
Engines Ltd.
0.9
Baseline Wave rotor
engine topped engine
0.8
0.7
Wave
0.6 rotor
hardware
0.5
0.4
200 300 400 500 600 700 800 Full size (792×665, 50 K)
Shaft horsepower
Comparison of basline and wave rotor topped small turboshaft
engines over normal operating range. The design point mass
flow rate is 5 Ibm/s
◾ FIGURE 1.30
Constant-volume and p3 3 T3 =T5 3
5
constant-pressure
combustion cycles p2 = p5 2 5 T ʋ const.
2
p const.
6
4
1
p1 = p4 = p6
1 4 6 s
ʋ
ʋ2 = ʋ3 s1 = s 2 s3 = s 4 s5 = s 6
Efficiency (%)
T2 = 800 K, with T3 0.72
that varies between 0.70
1600 and 2500 K 0.68 Note: In this example
Brayton cycle cycle (thermal) efficiency
0.66
improvements between~7
0.64 and ~14% are observed.
0.62
0.60
1600 1700 1800 1900 2000 2100 2200 2300 2400 2500
Combustor exit temperature (K)
◾ FIGURE 1.32
The pulse detonation
2 Detonation is 3 Detonation moves
engine with a trigger initiated through fuel/air mix Trigger chamber is a closed-end pipe
chamber. Source: with hydrogen/oxygen mixture
Courtesy of NASA injected and ignited by a
1 Fuel is mixed with air 4 Resulting high powerful electric discharge
pressure gas
files
destonation
chamber
5 Detonation wave
exits engine-air
drawn in by reduced pressure
3.7 mm
rotor and external
shell. Source: Courtesy
Nozzle guide vane
of MIT Gas Turbine Journal bearing Exhaust Turbine rotor
21 mm
Laboratory
◾ FIGURE 1.35
Artist’s drawing of an
advanced launch
vehicle using RBCC
propulsion. Source:
Courtesy of NASA
◾ FIGURE 1.36
Testing of an
airbreathing rocket at
NASA. Source:
Courtesy of NASA
vehicle is shown in Figure 1.35. An RBCC flight weight engine system test was
conducted in 2006. Figure 1.36 shows the test firing of the airbreathing rocket.
AC/
Fuel DC
AC
Fuel
Ducted fan
(b) Parallel hybrid-electric (used in Boeing SUGAR Volt –hFan; see Bradley-Droney, 2011)
such as a capacitor. The transmission lines are the electrical wirings that may use
the ambient temperature conventional wiring, or they may use cryogenic wiring
for high-temperature superconducting (HTS) transmission lines (see Del Rosario
2014; Felder 2014). The electric fan uses a 3-phase (3ϕ) AC motor, as shown in
Fig. 1.37.
Since in hybrid propulsion, the exhaust energy in the gas turbine is used
to generate electricity, the hybrid-electric propulsion system produces lower
atmospheric heat release than the conventional turbofan engines. Also implicit in
GREENER AVIATION are reduced noise levels during landing-takeoff (LTO)
cycles. The lower pressure ratio (PR) fans are quieter than their higher-PR
counterparts. In addition, since distributed propulsion is often envisioned as
aft-mounted boundary layer ingestion (BLI) engines on a blended wing body
aircraft, shielding is a powerful strategy that is used to achieve quiet aircraft goals
in hybrid-electric (or turbo-electric) and distributed propulsion (DP) aircraft.
In hybrid-electric propulsion, the propulsor (ducted fan) may be operated
by the gas turbine, using jet fuel, or by an electric motor that uses batteries or
electric storage units, or combined GT and electric motor as in parallel hybrid
propulsion. Unique to this architecture is the need for variable-core nozzle
in parallel hybrid-electric propulsion systems to accommodate the combined
GT-electric motor operation and the transition between GT and the electric
motor (see Bradley-Droney, 2011). The electric motor is connected to the LP
spool via a gearbox. From taxi and takeoff to climb, cruise, approach and
landing, the combined energy use and range is optimized by an electric power
management hub.
24 Chapter 1 ◾ Introduction
◾ FIGURE 1.38
“Propulsive Fuselage”
hybrid-electric concept
by Bauhaus Luftfahrt
“Fuselage fan”
Planetary
gear system
Structural
integration
Core engine
(gas turbine)
“S” Duct
Tapered
fuselage
(a) “Propulsive fuselage” components
DisPURSAL
Structural integration:
◾ FIGURE 1.39
Single-aisle
turboelectric aircraft
with aft-boundary
layer ingestion
propulsion system
(From Welstead, et al,
2017)
Axisymmetric
tailcone thruster
Electric
Turbofan
77-in Fan
2.6 MW 57-in Fan
(FPR =1.25) 1.4 MW
(FPR =1.3)
(b) Turboelectric propulsion concept used in STARC-C ABL aircraft with design mission of
3500 nm (From www1.grc.nasa.gov). Source: Glenn Research Center,
NASA https://www1.grc.nasa.gov/
◾ FIGURE 1.40
Schematic drawing of a Energy storage
turboelectric Energy Source Ducted
propulsion system Rectifier
fan
Inverter
driving a single ducted Transmission
Fuel AC AC/ DC DC/ AC 3ϕ
fan, with optional DC Line AC AC
energy storage Generator Motor (s)
Turboshaft
(Source: Farokhi, 2020. Engine
Reproduced with
permission of John
Wiley & Sons.)
Propulsive drivetrain
1.4 New Engine Concepts in Sustainable Aviation 27
◾ FIGURE 1.41
Schematic drawing of Ducted
an all-electric Inverter
Fan
propulsion system, DC/ AC 3ϕ
AC AC
here shown with two Energy source
ducted fans (Source: Motor
Farokhi, 2020. Battery or Transmission
Reproduced with equivalent DC Line
permission of John Ducted
Wiley & Sons.) Fan
DC/ AC 3ϕ
AC AC
Inverter Motor
Propulsive drivetrain
◾ FIGURE 1.42
Zunum Aero
hybrid-electric
regional aircraft
(12-seater) (Zunum
Aero)
the carbon footprint. In addition, the environmental impact of mining for the min-
erals/metals used in batteries, e.g. cadmium or lithium, needs to be accounted for
in the environmental lifecycle assessment of electric propulsion.
A 12-seater hybrid-electric aircraft, shown in Fig. 1.42, is proposed by
Zunum Aero that targets the commuter, short-haul regional (700 mile) market.
The concept aircraft uses lithium-ion batteries in the wings for supplementary
power, especially at takeoff. In addition to propulsion batteries, the cruise power
is provided by a gas turbine engine that provides shaft power to a generator (see
Knapp-Said, 2018). A new turboshaft engine from Safran Helicopter, the Ardiden
3 engine with 1700-2000 shaft horsepower is envisioned to power electrical
generator.
Figure 1.43 shows distributed turboelectric propulsion in an innovative
design by Airbus. The technology uses:
28 Chapter 1 ◾ Introduction
◾ FIGURE 1.43
Distributed
turbo-electric
propulsion concept
aircraft (Source:
Airbus)
◾ FIGURE 1.44
Turboelectric
distributed propulsion
concept (Source:
Airbus)
Figures 1.44 and 1.45 show the GT-based superconducting (SC) electric
generator in the aft fuselage providing electric power through a SC-network of
transmission lines.
An example of turboelectric boundary layer ingestion (BLI)-distributed
propulsion (DP) is the NASA N3-X program. Due to extensive use of supercon-
ducting (SC) technology, N3-X uses LH2 for direct cooling of the HTS network,
SC-motor, and SC-generator. After its cooling cycle, hydrogen is then compressed
and used for fuel in the turbo-generators. The fuel split is thus 10% hydrogen
versus 90% jet fuel. The N3-X project goals are:
◾ FIGURE 1.46
Distributed Forward and Aft Noise Shielded
turbo-electric by Airframe
propulsion (Courtesy
of NASA) Thrust-Vectoring
2D Nozzles
14 Distributed
Electric Fans, BLI
▪ Directional stability and control through differential thrust (for yaw trim-
ming and active stability augmentation)
▪ Driving factors: safety and reliability
▪ Minimum weight penalty and volume requirements
▪ Acceptable system complexity
▪ Electrical system failure leading to thrust losses
Figure 1.46 shows the N3-X aircraft (courtesy of NASA). Tables 1.2 and 1.3
summarize the design point of N3-X as well as its mission specifications. The data
30 Chapter 1 ◾ Introduction
◾ TABLE 1.2
N3-X Design Point
◾ TABLE 1.3
Mission Parameters
used in the tables and the figures related to N3-X are taken from Armstrong (2015),
Kim et al (2013), and Felder (2014). Propulsion system parameters at rolling take-
off (RTO) and top-of-climb (TOC) are noted in Table 1.3.
Although the performance of the high-temperature superconducting turbo-
electric N3-X is produced here with MgB2 (Magnesium Di-boride) superconduc-
tor, the choice of other SC-materials and the cooling system is still a subject of
research and could produce improvements in system weight and performance. For
additional discussion see Farokhi (2020).
◾ FIGURE 1.47
Modified BAe 146
aircraft used as hybrid
electric flight
demonstrator (Source:
Airbus)
◾ FIGURE 1.48
NASA X-57 all-electric
distributed propulsion
flight demonstrator
(Courtesy of NASA)
◾ FIGURE 1.49
Cirrus SR22 and
LEAPTech; a
comparison
◾ TABLE 1.4
Comparison of the Cirrus SR22 with the LEAPTech
aircraft
Cirrus SR22 LEAPTech
Seating capacity 4 4
Gross weight 3,400 lbf 3,000 lbf
Wing area 145 ft2 55.1 ft2
Wingspan 38.3 ft 31.0 ft
Aspect ratio 10.1 17.4
Wing loading 23.5 lbf/ft2 54.4 lbf/ft2
Cruise speed 211 mph 200 mph
Cruise CL (12,000 ft) 0.30 0.77
motors power 12 folding propellers and there are two larger wing tip electric cruise
motors, as depicted in Fig. 1.48. At top of climb, the high-lift motors deactivate
and their five folding propellers fold into the nacelle to mitigate drag rise during
cruise. The X-57 is modified from the baseline Italian Tecnam P2006T aircraft.
This program was launched in 2014 by the SCEPTOR (Scalable Convergent
Electric Propulsion Technology and Operations Research) project at NASA.
The final version of X-57 (i.e. Modification 4 in the program) will feature a
high-aspect ratio wing with integral high-lift motors. Electric motors on Maxwell
use rechargeable lithium-ion batteries that weigh 860 pounds and offer 69.1 kWh
of energy, of which 47 kWh is usable. The cruise motors are 60 kW and the 12
high-lift motors are 10.5 kW machines. The electric motors are air-cooled. For
more details on X-57 see Gibbs (2018) or Warwick-Norris (2018).
Electric propulsion offers new aircraft design capabilities that are not
possible in either conventional gas turbine-powered or reciprocating aircraft (see
Moore, Fredericks, 2014; Gohardani, 2013; and Moore et al, 2014). The compari-
son between Cirrus SR22 and leading-edge asynchronous propellers technology
(LEAPTech) aircraft is shown in Fig. 1.49 and Table 1.4. LEAPTech aircraft have
a 72% higher aspect ratio, wing loading that is 131% and lift coefficient at cruise
which is 157% higher than SR22. The wetted area of the LEAPTech wing is 62%
less than the SR22 aircraft wing.
There are other exciting new vehicles on the drawing board for many dif-
ferent missions at many different speeds, e.g. low-boom flight demonstrator and
1.5 New Vehicle Technologies 33
◾ FIGURE 1.50
Uninhabited aerial
vehicles and NASA
X43 technology
demonstrators. Source:
Boeing and NASA.
Reproduced with
permission.
Boeing X-48A
the hypersonic cruise missile. The interest in uninhabited aerial vehicles (UAVs)
has also grown and prompted new configurations such as the Northrop–Grumman
X-47 “Pegasus,” or the tailless agility aircraft X-36 from Boeing, or the X-45A
unmanned combat air vehicle (UCAV), or the X-48 using blended wing-body tech-
nology. NASA’s interest in hypersonic flight and scramjet propulsion has prompted
the X-43 series of technology demonstrator vehicles. Some of these aircraft are
shown in Figure 1.50.
34 Chapter 1 ◾ Introduction
1.6 Summary
There are exciting developments in aerospace propulsion system and vehicle
design:
◾ FIGURE 1.51
Flowfield simulations
around the Space
Shuttle in reentry
using computational
fluid dynamics. Source:
Courtesy of NASA
Chapter 1
Introduction: Propulsion in Sustainable Aviation
Chapter 2
Compressible Flow with Heat and Friction: Review
Chapter 3
Engine Thrust and Performance Parameters
Chapter 4
Gas Turbine Engine Cycle Analysis
Chapter 5
General Aviation and UAV Propulsion System
Chapter 6
Aircraft Engine Inlets and Nozzles
Chapter 7
Combustion chamber and Afterburners
Chapter 8
Axial Compressor Aerodynamics
Chapter 9
Centrifugal Compressor Aerodynamics
Chapter 11
Chapter 12
Aircraft Engine Component Chapter 10
Chemical Rockets and
Matching and Off-Design Axial Turbine Aerothermodynamics
Hypersonic Propulsion
Analysis
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Aviation in the Twenty-First Century and Research ments of Dr. Hans von Ohain—From HeS 01 to HeS
Directions Needed,” AIAA Journal, Vol. 52, No. 5, 011,” ASME Paper No. 99-GT-228, 1999.
pp. 901-911, May 2014. 31. Meher-Homji, C.B., “The Development of Junkers
17. Farokhi, S., Future Propulsion Systems and Energy Jumo 004B—The World’s First Production Turbo-
Sources in Sustainable Propulsion, John Wiley & jet,” ASME Paper No. 96-GT-457, 1996.
32. Meher-Homji, C.B., “The Development of Whittle
Sons Ltd., Chichester (UK) 2020.
Turbojet,” ASME Paper No. 97-GT-528, 1997.
18. Federal Aviation Administration, “Aviation & Emis-
33. Moore, M.D., and Fredericks, W.J., “Misconcep-
sions: A Primer”, Washington, D.C., 2005.
tions of Electric Propulsion Aircraft and their Emer-
19. Felder, J.L., “NASA N3-X with Turboelectric Dis-
gent Aviation Markets,” 52nd Aerospace Sciences
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of Mechanical Engineers, London, UK, Nov. 17-18,
ber 2014-0535, 2014.
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34. NASA “Celebrating a Century of Flight,” NASA
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.nasa.gov/centers/armstrong/news/FactSheets/FS- FactSheets (last accessed 16 November 2013).
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38 Chapter 1 ◾ Introduction
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Advanced Concept,” available at: https://ntrs.nasa 50. Zunum Aero’s website: https://zunum.aero
Problems
1.1 The Carnot cycle sets the limit on thermal effi-
T 3
ciency of a heat engine operating between two temper-
ature limits. Show that ideal Carnot efficiency is
P2 = P3
T
𝜂th = 1 − 1
T2 T2 2
P1 = P4
What is the thermal efficiency if T1 = 288 K and 4
T2 = 2000 K?
T1
1
P2 P3
2 3
s
T2
◾ FIGURE P1.2
P1 P4
T1 1.3 The Humphrey cycle operates a constant-volume
1 4 combustor instead of a constant-pressure cycle like the
Brayton cycle. Show that
s [( ) 1 ]/[ ]
T T3 𝛾 T3
◾ FIGURE P1.1 𝜂th = 1 − 𝛾 1 −1 −1
T2 T2 T2
1.2 The ideal Brayton cycle operates between two is the thermal efficiency of an ideal Humphrey cycle (as
pressure limits as shown. It is the model of an airbreathing shown).
jet engine, such as a turbojet or ramjet engine. Show that Let us use the same T1 as in Problems 1.1 and 1.2, that
ideal Brayton cycle efficiency is is, T1 = 288 K. Let us use the same temperature T2 as in
Problem 1.2, that is, T2 = 864 K.
T1 Finally, let us use the same maximum cycle temperature
𝜂th = 1 −
T2 as in Carnot (Problem 1.1), that is, Tmax = 2000 K. With
the ratio of specific heats 𝛾 = 1.4, calculate the thermal
What is the thermal efficiency of the Brayton that has T1 efficiency of the Humphrey cycle. Compare the answer
= 288 K and T2 = 864 K? Note that maximum cycle tem- with Brayton cycle efficiency.
perature T3 has no effect on cycle thermal efficiency.
Problems 39
◾ FIGURE P1.3 First note that afterburner (AB) use more than doubles
the fuel consumption while boosting the thrust by only
1.4 The rotor of a millimeter-scale gas turbine engine ∼50%. This explains the sparse use of an afterburner in
has a radius of 1 mm. It must reach a tip, or rim speed aircraft mission. Now to quantify, calculate the amount of
of nearly the speed of sound for an effective compression. additional fuel burned in 30 min of afterburner use (pro-
Assuming that the speed of sound is 340 m/s, calculate the ducing 21,000 lbf thrust) as compared with 30 min of no
rotor rotational speed in revolutions per minute (rpm). afterburner use (producing 13,500 lbf thrust).
1 Characteristics of Aircraft Structures
and Materials
1.1 INTRODUCTION
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An aircraft is a vehicle that is used for flight in the air. A vehicle like this is typically built by
assembling many component structures such as wing, fuselage, landing gears, stabilizers, etc. Each
component structure is typically built by assembling many substructures. Each substructure can be
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made out of different materials. The main difference between aircraft structures and materials and civil
engineering structures and materials lies in their weight. The main driving force in aircraft structural
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design and aerospace material development is to reduce weight. In general, materials with high stiff-
ness, high strength, and light weight are most suitable for aircraft applications.
Aircraft structures must be designed to ensure that every part of the material is used to its full
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capability. A typical aircraft design cycle involves three major steps – (i) conceptual design, (ii) pre-
liminary design, and (iii) detail design. In any of these design stages, different factors such as
aerodynamics, avionics, propulsion, and structural integrity are simultaneously taken into account.
As such, aircraft structures are not designed for structural safety and integrity only; many nonstruc-
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tural requirements impose additional restrictions in designing aircraft structural components. For
instance, an airfoil is chosen according to aerodynamic lift and drag characteristics. As such, the
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size and shape of an aircraft structural component are usually predetermined. Such restrictions sig-
nificantly limit the number of solutions for structural problems in terms of global configurations.
Often, the solutions resort to the use of special materials developed for applications in aerospace
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vehicles.
The nonstructural and weight-saving design requirements generally lead to the use of shell-like
structures (monocoque constructions) and stiffened shell structures (semimonocoque constructions).
The geometrical details of aircraft structures are much more complicated than those of civil engineer-
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ing structures. They usually require the assemblage of thousands of parts. Technologies for joining the
parts are especially important for aircraft construction.
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Because of their high stiffness/weight and strength/weight ratios, aluminum and titanium alloys
have been the dominant aircraft structural materials for many decades. However, the recent advent
of advanced fiber-reinforced composites has changed the outlook. Composites may now achieve
CO
weight savings of 30–40% over aluminum or titanium counterparts. As a result, composites have been
used increasingly in aircraft structures.
Most aircraft are built as fixed-wing vehicles and are commonly known as airplanes. Other categories
include rotorcrafts, glider, lighter-than-air vehicles, etc. Presence of air is essential for generating
lift on these vehicles. As such, structural design of such vehicles depends on how airload is transmitted
to the structural elements.
1.2.2 Rotorcraft
A rotorcraft (Figure 1.1c) or rotary-wing aircraft is a heavier-than-air vehicle that generates lift using
rotary wings or rotor blades, which revolve around a rotor. Depending on how rotor blades function,
rotorcrafts are categorized as helicopters, autogyros, or gyrodynes. Recently, small-scale multirotor
rotorcrafts are widely used for surveillance or video-capturing purposes. Designing blades for the
rotorcraft is far more complex than designing a fixed-wing aircraft because of the complex aerody-
namic forces.
1.2.4 Drones
Drones (Figure 1.3) are small-scale air vehicles that can be fixed-wing type or rotary-wing type. The
size of a drone is significantly smaller than a typical airplane or rotorcraft. As such, most drones are
powered by electrical sources. Other than their size, the lifting mechanism of a drone is similar to the
conventional fixed-wing or rotary-wing vehicles.
Fig. 1.1. (a) Powered fixed-wing aircraft, (b) glider, and (c) rotorcraft.
Fig. 1.2. Various lighter-than-air vehicles: (a) hot-air balloon, (b) blimp, and (c) dirigible.
1.3 BASIC STRUCTURAL ELEMENTS IN AIRCRAFT STRUCTURE 3
(a) (b)
Fig. 1.3. (a) Fixed-wing drone; (b) multirotor rotary wing drone.
An aircraft has many integrated parts, as shown in Figure 1.4. In general, these parts can be categorized
into basic structural elements such as wing, fuselage, landing gears, tail units (horizontal and vertical
stabilizers), and control surfaces such as aileron, rudder, and elevator.
1.3.1 Fuselage
The fuselage is the main structural element of a fixed-wing aircraft. It provides space for cargo, control
system and pilots, passengers and cabin crews, and other accessories and equipment. In single-engine
aircraft, the fuselage also carries the power plant. As shown in Figure 1.5, a fuselage can be constructed
in various configurations such as truss, semimonocoque, and monocoque.
1.3.2 Wing
The main function of the wing is to pick up the air and power plant loads and transmit them to the
fuselage. The wing cross-section takes the shape of an airfoil, which is designed based on aerodynamic
considerations. In general, wings are constructed based on monospar, multispar, or box beam
Rudder
Horizontal stabilizer
Elevator
Fuselage
Aileron Flaps
Cockpit
Engine
Former
Stringer
Bulkhead
Vertical web
Bulkhead
Fig. 1.5. Various fuselage configurations: (a) truss type, (b) semimonocoque type, and
(c) monocoque type.
Fig. 1.6. Various wing configurations: (a) monospar (b) multispar type and (c) box beam type.
configurations, as shown in Figure 1.6. These three design configurations are considered as the basic
designs, and aircraft manufacturers may adopt a modified configuration. In the monospar wing con-
figuration, only one main spanwise member is present. Ribs or bulkheads are used to provide the nec-
essary aerodynamic contour or shape to the airfoil. The multispar wing configuration has more than
one main longitudinal member in its construction. To attain the desired aerodynamic shape, ribs or
bulkheads are often included. The box beam wing configuration has two main longitudinal members
and connecting bulkheads to attain the required airfoil contour.
is called pitch. The elevators are the major control surfaces for pitch. Ailerons control the rotation
about the longitudinal axis, called roll. This axis passes through the aircraft from nose to tail. The rota-
tion about the vertical axis is called yaw, and the primary control of yaw is done with the rudder.
Traditional metallic materials used in aircraft structures are aluminum, titanium, and steel alloys. In the
past three decades, applications of advanced fiber composites have rapidly gained momentum. To
date, some new commercial jets, such as the Boeing 787, already contain composite materials up
to 50% of their structural weight.
Selection of aircraft materials depends on many considerations that can, in general, be categorized
as cost and structural performance. Cost includes initial material cost, manufacturing cost, and main-
tenance cost. The key material properties that are pertinent to maintenance cost and structural perfor-
mance are as follows:
• Density (weight)
• Stiffness (Young’s modulus)
• Strength (ultimate and yield strengths)
• Durability (fatigue)
• Damage tolerance (fracture toughness and crack growth)
• Corrosion.
Seldom is a single material able to deliver all desired properties in all components of the aircraft
structure. A combination of various materials is often necessary. Table 1.1 lists the basic mechanical
properties of some metallic aircraft structural materials.
Matrix materials that are currently used for forming composites include three major categories:
polymers, metals, and ceramics. The resulting composites are usually referred to as polymer matrix
composites (PMCs), metal matrix composites (MMCs), and ceramic matrix composites (CMCs).
Table 1.3 presents properties of a list of composites. The range of service temperature of a composite
is often determined by its matrix material. PMCs are usually for lower temperature (less than 300 F)
applications, and CMCs are intended for applications in hot (higher than 1500 F) environments, such
as jet engines.
Fiber composites are stiff, strong, and light and are thus most suitable for aircraft structures. They
are often used in the form of laminates that consist of a number of unidirectional laminae with different
fiber orientations to provide multidirectional load capability. Composite laminates have excellent
fatigue life, damage tolerance, and corrosion resistance. Laminate constructions offer the possibility
of tailoring fiber orientations to achieve optimal structural performance of the composite structure.
PROBLEMS
1.1 Specific modulus of a material is defined by Young’s modulus divided by density. Specific
strength is also defined the same manner. Compare the specific moduli and specific strengths
of carbon composites, aluminum, titanium, and steel. Which one performs better?
1.2 Consider a commercial jetliner that weighs about 200 000 kgs. It is found that 80% of the structure
is made of 2024-T3 aluminum and 15% is made of carbon/epoxy composites. The remaining 5%
part of the airplane is equally distributed by Ti-6Al-4V and AISI4340. If the jetliner is now rede-
signed with the following material distributions, what will be the new weight of the airplane? How
much weight is saved, percentage-wise?
Carbon composite = 65%
Aluminum = 30%
Titanium = 2.5%
Steel = 2.5%.