Introduction to Mechanical Measurements

“Whatever exists, exists in some amount”. The determination of amount is

measurement all about.
● Quantities are not measured by purely mechanical means, but more often by
electrical means by transucing them into an analogous electrical quantity.
● In Mechanical Measurements, the term mechanical is addressed to quantity itself
rather than to measurement techniques used for its determination
● The Measurement of a given quantity is essentially an act or result of comparison
between a quantity whose magnitude (amount) is unknown, with a similar
quantity whose magnitude (amount) is known, the latter quantity being called a
Standard.
● Since the two quantities, the amount of which is unknown and another quantity
whose amount is known are compared, the result is expressed in terms of a
numerical value.

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 Significance of Measurements
The advancement of Science and Technology is dependent upon a parallel progress in
measurement techniques.
● New discoveries are not of much practical utility unless they are backed by experimental
results which require measurements.
● The measurements, no doubt, confirm the validity of a hypothesis but also add to its
understanding.
● Measurements is a vast field which embraces detection, acquisition, control and analysis of
data.
● It involves the measurement of physical, electrical, mechanical , optical and chemical
quantities and plays a very significant role in every branch of scientific research and
engineering processes which include control systems, process instrumentation and data
reduction.
● Two major functions of all branches of engineering
1. Design of equipment and processes
2. Proper operation control and maintenance of processes.
● Both these functions require measurements as proper and economical design of equipment
and processes, and also proper operation, control, and maintenance of industrial processes
require a feedback of information and this information can only be provided through
measurements.
● It is through measurements that a product can be designed or a process be operated with
maximum efficiency, minimum cost, and with desired degree of maintainability and
reliability.
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 Classification of Measuring Instruments
1) Absolute and Secondary Instruments
Absolute Instruments- These instruments give the magnitude of quantity under
measurement in terms of physical constants of the instruments. The example of this class of
instruments is a tangent galvanometer.
Secondary Instruments- These instruments are so constructed that the quantity being
measured can only be measured by observing the output indicated by the instrument. The
example of this class of instruments are voltmeter, glass thermometer and a pressure gauge.
2) Deflection and Null Type Instruments
Deflection Type- The deflection of instrument
provides a basis for determining the quantity under
measurement
● deflection of moving coil is proportional to
current I
● deflection Torque Td is proportional to current
I i.e. Td = GI (G is a constant which depends
upon flux density, number of turns and area of
moving coil)
● The opposing effect is produced by a spring whose torque Tc is proportional to
deflection θ. Tc = K , where K is spring constant whose value depends upon material
and dimensions of spring
● Under conditions of balance, Tc = Td i.e. θ = (G/K)I or I = (K/G)θ
● In order to read current I directly in terms of θ, it will have to be calibrated 3
 Classification of Measuring Instruments
2) Deflection and Null Type Instruments
Null Type- In a null type of instrument, a zero or
null indication leads to determination of magnitude
of measured quantity.
● Fig. shows an elementary form of a dc
potentiometer. It is a null type of instrument,
wherein unknown emf Ex is measured
● slide wire of potentiometer is calibrated in
terms of emf with help of a standard emf
source.
● The null detector is a current galvanometer whose
deflection is proportional to unbalance emf i.e.
difference between the emf Eab across portion ab
of slide wire and unknown emf Ex.
● As soon as two are equal, there is no current through the galvanometer and therefore
it shows zero deflection
● Therefore, the unknown emf Ex is equal to Eab, which is directly indicated by the
calibrated scale placed along the slide wire.

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 Classification of Measuring Instruments
3) Analog and Digital Instruments
Analog instruments measure analog signals which vary continuously with time and can take
an infinite number of values in a given range. Eg:- Ammeter, voltmeter , wristwatch etc,
Digital Instruments measure digital signals which vary in discrete steps and can take a
finite number of values in a given range. Eg:- Digital multimeter.

4) Mechanical, Electrical and Electronic Instruments

Mechanical Instrument - It uses mechanical components for measurement of unknown
quantity. These instruments are reliable for static and stable conditions but are unable to
respond rapidly to measurement of dynamic and transient conditions.
Electrical Instrument - Electrical methods of indicating the output of detectors are more
rapid than mechanical methods. Electrical system normally depends upon a mechanical
meter movement as an indicating device. This mechanical movement has some inertia and
therefore these instruments have limited time response.
Electronic Instrument - It uses semiconductor devices for measurement of unknown
quantity. They are very fast in response since the oly movement involved is that of
electrons whose response time is extremely small due to very small inertia.

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 Classification of Measuring Instruments
5) Manual and Automatic Instruments
Manual instruments require human intervention for its operation. Eg:- Resistance
thermometer.
Automatic Instrument does not require human intervention for its operation. Eg:-
Pressure gauge, mercury thermometer

6) Self operated or power operated Instruments

Power type of instruments are monitoring or operational measurements which are usually a
part of control system. In case of steam power plant many quantities has to be continuously
monitored such as steam pressure, temperature, flow rate , speed of turbine, voltage of
generators, temperature of windings, quality of coolants etc. These quantities are indicated
and recorded and are also compared with reference quantities and error signals that are
generated and used for controlling the entire process of power generation.

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 Generalized Measuring System
Most measuring systems fall within the framework of a general arrangement consisting of
three phases or stages:
Stage 1 . A detection - transduction, or sensor-transducer, stage
Stage 2 . An intermediate stage, which we shall call the signal-conditioning stage
Stage 3 . A terminating, or readout-recording, stage
First, or Sensor-Transducer, Stage
● The primary function of first stage is to detect or to sense the measurand. At the same
time, ideally, this stage should be insensitive to every other possible input.
● For instance, if it is a pressure pickup, it should be insensitive to, say, acceleration; if it
is a strain gauge, it should be insensitive to temperature; if a linear accelerometer, it
should be insensitive to angular acceleration; and so on.
● Unfortunately, it is rare indeed to find a detecting device that is completely selective.
● Unwanted sensitivity is a measuring error, called noise when it varies rapidly and drift
when it varies very slowly.
Second, or Signal-Conditioning, Stage
● The purpose of second stage of general system is to modify the transduced information
so that it is acceptable to the third, or terminating stage.
● In addition it may perform one or more basic operation, such as selective filtering to
remove noise.
● The most common function of second stage is to increase either amplitude or power of
the signal, or both, to the level required to drive the final terminating device.
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 Generalized Measuring System
Third, or Readout-Recording, Stage
● The third stage provides the information sought in a form comprehensible to one of the
human senses or to a controller.
● If the output is intended for immediate human recognition, it is, with rare recognition,
presented in one of the following forms;
❖ As a relative displacement, such as movement of an indicating hand or displacement of
oscilloscope trace.
❖ In digital form, as presented by a counter such as automobile odometer, or by a liquid crystal
display (LCD) or light-emitting diode (LED) display as on a digital voltmeter.

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 Generalized Measuring System
Consider a tire gauge used in checking automobile tire pressure
● It consists of a cylinder and piston, a spring resisting the piston movement, and a stem
with scale divisions..
● As the air pressure bears against the piston, the resulting force compresses the spring
until the spring and air forces balance.
● The calibrated stem, which remains in place after the spring returns the piston, indicates
the applied pressure.

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 Generalized Measuring System
As an example of a complex system, let us say that a velocity is to be measured
● The first stage, the accelerometer, provides a voltage analogous to acceleration.
● The second stage, attenuates unwanted high-frequency noise components, it also
integrates the analog signal w.r.t time, thereby providing a velocity-time relation.
● Finally the signal voltage will probably need to be increased to the level necessary to be
sensed by third, or recording and readout, stage, which may consist of a
data-acquisition computer and printer.
● The final record will then be in the form of computer generated graph, with proper
calibration, an accurate velocity versus time measurement

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 Input - Output Configurations of Measuring
Instruments and Measurement Systems
Desired Inputs
● Desired Inputs are defined as quantities
for which the instrument or
measurement system is specifically
designed to measure and respond.
● The desired input, rD produces an
output component cD= GD rD in
accordance with an input-output
relationship symbolised by a
mathematical operator GD , which is
defined as a transfer function.
Interfering Inputs
● Interfering inputs represent quantities to which an instrument or a measurement system
becomes unintentionally sensitive.
● The instruments or measurement systems are not desired to respond to interfering inputs
but they give an output due to interfering inputs on account of their principle of working,
design and many other factors like the environments in which they are placed.
Modifying Inputs
● Modifying inputs are defined as inputs which cause a change in input-output relationships
for either desired or interfering inputs or both. 11
Example : Measurement of differential pressure with manometer

● The pressure applied at the two ends of U-tube are P1 and P2.

● The differential pressure P = P1 - P2 is given by following expression

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Example : Measurement of differential pressure with manometer

● The differential pressure P = P1 - P2 = 0 if P1 = P2, however due to presence of

interfering inputs there is an amount of differential pressure still created as shown below.

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Example : Measurement of differential pressure with manometer

Modifying inputs for manometer are ambient temperature and gravitational force.
Ambient Temperature
● changes in ambient temperature change the length of calibrated scale thereby modifying
the proportionality factor relating the input (P1 - P2) with output h.
● changes in ambient temperature change the density value of mercury and therefore the
proportionality factor relating the input with the output is changed.
Gravitational force
● value of g is different at different locations. Therefore, a change in gravitational force due
to the changes in location of manometer like using it at different heights above sea level
or putting it in a space ship leads to modification of input-output for the desired inputs.
● g can also be considered as an interfering input due to angle of tilt which leads to
modification in the input-output relationship.

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Example : Measurement of strain produced on application of force on
a cantilever
● When no force is apple to the cantilever, the
strain is zero and the resistance of the strain
gauge is R . Since, the resistance in each of the
other three arms of the bridge is R, the bridge is
balanced and there is no output from the bridge
i.e., output voltage e0 = 0
● When a force is applied to cantilever, it causes a
strain which in turn produces a change in
resistance of strain gauge. This unbalances the
bridge producing an output voltage proportional
to strain which can be measured through an
oscilloscope.
● The desired input is strain

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Example : Measurement of strain produced on application of force on
a cantilever
Interfering input
Temperature
● Change in temperature at the location where strain gauge is placed will cause a change in
resistance thereby producing a strain.
● Differential expansion of gauge and cantilever as both are made of different materials.
Differential expansion thereby produces a strain and consequently an output voltage.
Interfering input
50 Hz field of nearby power lines
● This field induces voltages in the strain gauge circuit producing an output voltage even
when the strain is zero.

Modifying input
Temperature
● It changes the gauge factor of strain gauge.
Battery voltage
● It changes the proportionality factor between the desired input (strain) and output voltage
and also between interfering input (strain gauge temperature) and output voltage.

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Calibration curve

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Static Characteristics
➢ Accuracy
➢ Precision
➢ Sensitivity
➢ Linearity
➢ Reproducibility
➢ Repeatability
➢ Resolution
➢ Threshold
➢ Drift
➢ Stability
➢ Tolerance
➢ Range or span
➢ Hysterisis
➢ Bias

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Static Characteristics
➢ Accuracy
It is degree of closeness with which an instrument reading approaches the true
value of quantity being measured
➢ Precision
It is defined as capability of an instrument to show the same reading when
used each time.
➢ Sensitivity
Smallest change in measured value to which the instrument responds. It is
ratio of change in output towards change in input.

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Static Characteristics
➢ Linearity
The ability of a system to represent input-output characteristics symmetrically
is called linearity.

It is the measure of maximum deviation or departure of any calibrated point

from the idealized straight line.

Any departure from straight line relationship is non-linearity.

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Static Characteristics
➢ Reproducibility
It is the degree of closeness with which a quantity may be repeatedly
measured.

If someone makes an observation during one experiment and someone else

observes the same phenomenon in another completely independent
environment using different methodologies, the phenomenon can be said to be
reproducible.

➢ Repeatability
Variation in transducer output when the measurement of same quantity is
repeated within the instrument.

Method of measurement is same.

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Static Characteristics
➢ Resolution
It refers to the magnitude of smallest input required to cause a change in
transducer output.

➢ Threshold
If the input of an instrument is gradually
increased from zero, there will be some
minimum value below which no change in
instrument reading is detected or observed. This
minimum value defines the threshold of an
instrument

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Static Characteristics
➢ Zero Error / Bias
It refers to the magnitude of transducer output without any input

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Static Characteristics
➢ Stability
It is the ability of an instrument to retain its performance throughout its
specified operating life.

➢ Tolerance
Maximum allowable error in the measurement is specified in terms of
tolerance .

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Static Characteristics
➢ Range or Span
Minimum and Maximum value of quantity that can be measured by the
instrument.

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Static Characteristics
➢ Drift
Gradual shift in the indication or output over a period of time wherein the
input variable does not change

Actual
Actual

Ideal
Zero Drift
Ideal

Zero Drift :- Change of Zero bias with time

Sensitivity or Span Drift :- Change of slope of
calibration curve with time

Zonal Drift :- Drift occurs only for a specific portion

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Static Characteristics
➢ Hysteresis
● Hysteresis is a phenomenon which depicts different output effects when loading and unloading whether
it is a mechanical system or an electrical system.
● Hysteresis is non-coincidence of loading and unloading curves.
● Hysteresis, in a system, arises due to the fact that all energy is put into the stressed parts when loading
is not recoverable upon unloading.
● Consider an instrument which has no friction due to sliding parts. When the input of this instrument is
slowly varied from zero to full scale and then back to zero, its output varies as shown in Fig (a).
● The non-coincidence of output when the input is increased and then decreased is on account of internal
friction.
● Since the energy put into stressed parts when loading cannot be recovered back when unloading
hence we obtain different values of output for the same input under increasing and decreasing
conditions.
● In case of instruments which are used on both sides of zero, i.e. input applied on both positive and
negative sides, the variation of of output is as shown in Fig (b)
● In case of instruments which do not have internal friction, but have external sliding friction then the
input-output relationships are like one obtained in Fig ( c ) and Fig (d). Similar input-output
relationships are exhibited if there is free play or any looseness in any mechanism of instrument.
● Hysteresis effects are there in electrical phenomena. One of the examples is the relationship between
output voltage and field current in a d.c. generator. This is due to magnetic hysteresis. The relationship
between field current and output voltage is similar to one shown in Fig (b).
● In a given instrument a number of causes, such as listed above, combine to give an overall effect which
may result in output-input relationship as shown in Fig (e). The numerical value of hysteresis can be
specified in terms of either output or input and usually is given as percentage of full scale
Static Characteristics

Fig :- Hysteresis Effect