The Development of Radiant Floor Cooling System (RFCS) : System Type, Control Strategy, and Application

Results in Engineering 23 (2024) 102544
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Results in Engineering
journal homepage: www.sciencedirect.com/journal/results-in-engineering
Review article
The development of radiant floor cooling system (RFCS): System type,

control strategy, and application
Mengying Cui a , Baisong Ning b , Xiaozhou Wu c , Moon Keun Kim d , Bin Yang e, Zhe Tian f,
Jiying Liu a,*
a
School of Thermal Engineering, Shandong Jianzhu University, Jinan, 250101, China
b
School of Water Conservancy and Civil Engineering, Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, 450001, China
c
School of Civil Engineering, Dalian University of Technology, Dalian, 116024, China
d
Department of Built Environment, Oslo Metropolitan University, Oslo, N-0130, Norway
e
School of Energy and Safety Engineering, Tianjin Chengjian University, Tianjin, 300384, China
f
School of Environmental Science and Engineering, Tianjin University, Tianjin, 300072, China
A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T
Keywords: The utilization of radiant floor systems is one effective method to address the increasing cooling demand. The
Radiant floor cooling system radiant floor cooling system (RFCS) has self-regulating capabilities, which benefit grid stability and the use of
System type renewable energy. The application performance of RFCS is based on system design and intelligent control, as
Control strategy
systems with high thermal inertia make it difficult to provide ideal indoor response effects. Therefore, this review
Application
aims to summarize the current development status of RFCSs and evaluate future development directions based on
Anti-condensation
relevant research trends. A comprehensive overview of the radiant floor structure and the composition of RFCS
were provided. The type of radiant floor structures can bring greater possibilities for the application of RFCS.
Then, system control and evaluation are analyzed, with research on anti-condensation of radiant floors mainly
focused on system and environmental control. Based on application status of the RFCS, the impact of various
factors is discussed, including condensation risks, and climate change. Resistance to disturbances not only re-
quires implementing control measures but also integrating with the building environment. There is still great
potential for the hardware design and multi-directional integration of RFCS. The results of this review help
relevant researchers gain a comprehensive understanding of the current development status and prospects of
RFCS contributing to the decarbonization of the construction industry.
1. Introduction systems. Initially, people used hot gases or water to raise indoor tem-
perature by heating the floors, walls, and kang. The success of this
In recent years, the construction industry has gradually veered off heating method gained the interest of researchers, leading to the
track to meet the Paris targets, with construction operations accounting development of radiant floor heating systems and the subsequent
for around 30 % of global energy sector emissions in 2022 [1]. To popularity of this system. With the demand for indoor thermal comfort
combat this, the building industry needs to promote zero-carbon, and energy-saving performance improved, researchers began to explore
resource-efficient, and resilient buildings [2]. Radiant cooling systems radiant cooling in the 1930s [8]. These systems have been successfully
can integrate into zero-energy or green buildings while providing implemented in buildings, marking a new chapter in radiant floor
equivalent or superior comfort compared to all-air systems [3–5]. Ac- cooling. The radiant floor system has advantages in indoor cooling,
cording to the types of radiant cooling terminal, the system can be despite their low heat transfer coefficient [9]. Energy saving is one of the
divided into radiant floor system, radiant wall system, and radiant advantages of RFCS. The larger heat exchange area of the radiant floor
ceiling system. Among these, radiant floor cooling system (RFCS) has allows it to regulate the indoor environment under smaller temperature
been extensively utilized in engineering for efficient cooling [6,7]. differences between radiant floor temperature and air temperature.
Radiant floor cooling system is an evolution of radiant heating High temperature cooling water can be obtained through natural cold
* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: [email protected] (J. Liu).
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rineng.2024.102544
Received 2 May 2024; Received in revised form 24 June 2024; Accepted 9 July 2024
Available online 14 July 2024
2590-1230/© 2024 The Authors. Published by Elsevier B.V. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-
nc-nd/4.0/).
M. Cui et al. Results in Engineering 23 (2024) 102544
sources in order to reduce the use of primary energy [10,11]. challenges of RFCS.
As a low-exergy technology, RFCS can maximize the coefficient of Fig. 2 shows the sustainable development methods for implementing
performance in the built environment by reducing exergy demand and the system. Based on this, this article first discusses different types of
increasing exergy efficiency [12,13]. To prevent condensation on the systems, including radiant floor systems and ventilation systems, and
radiating surface, the radiant floor surface temperature cannot exceed studies the advantages and limitations of integrated systems. Then, the
the indoor dew point temperature [14]. While this limits cooling ability focus was on introducing the relevant theoretical knowledge and design
of the radiant floor, RFCS could transfer indoor cooling loads through criteria of RFCS in control. Combined with climate and architectural
the thermal mass of the building, reducing peak loads [15,16]. However, characteristics to reduce fluctuations caused by uncertain factors, the
high thermal mass will result in long system response times [17,18], application challenges were analyzed. Finally, a conclusion was drawn
which is not conducive to the transient control of indoor thermal envi- and the future development of RFCS was discussed to highlight its
ronment. Furthermore, inefficient utilization of energy stored within competitiveness in ultra-low energy buildings.
buildings can lead to energy wastage [19,20]. This problem can be
addressed by implementing flexible control strategies and suitable sys- 2. System type
tem types [21,22]. The operating performance of RFCS is affected by the
climate parameters and building types. Specifically, the system can bear The radiant floor will be integrated into the building, and the pur-
more indoor cooling load in dry climates compared to wet ones [23]. To pose of system design is to combine subjective and objective conditions
improve the adaptability of RFCS in different climate zones, coupling to initially reduce system energy consumption and ensure thermal
ventilation system or dehumidification system is necessary to cope with comfort. Reasonable design of different subsystems is crucial for the
indoor latent load or auxiliary cooling [24–26]. The energy consump- response rate and control effectiveness of subsequent systems. In this
tion of the integrated system is inversely proportional to the sensible section, a comprehensive introduction was given to three parts: radiant
load that the ventilation system bears [27]. Ultimately, the operational floor, ventilation systems, and cold sources, and the latest research
performance and energy efficiency of the hybrid system are significantly progress in system design was summarized.
affected by the system design and control strategy.
Previous reviews have extensively covered various aspects of the
RFCS, as summarized in Fig. 1. They mainly focus on “system design” 2.1. Radiant floor structures and cold sources
[26,28,29], “thermal comfort analysis” [3,30,31], “system control” [32,
33], “economic analysis” [34,35], “system application” [36,37], “heat 2.1.1. Radiant floor structures
transfer and model” [38] and “cooling capacity” [10]. Although this The hydraulic radiant floor structure mainly consists of floor
review intersects with previously discussed topics in the literature, they covering (Tiles, marble, and concrete, etc.), weight-bearing (cement
have primarily focused on the entire radiant system. According to cur- screed, anhydrite screed, asphalt screed, and timber), and thermal
rent literature, there are significant differences between various types of diffusion layer (aluminum heat diffusion devices, and Steel heat diffu-
radiation terminals, including condensation risk, cooling efficiency, and sion devices), insulating insulation (Polystyrene foam and foamed con-
energy-saving benefits. The theories and application guidelines related crete, etc.), acoustic insulation (if present), structural bearing,
to different types of radiation systems are not universally applicable. contraction joints, expansion joints (movement joints), and construction
Although there has been independent research on the system, control, joints composition [39]. Based on the thermal response time, radiant
and parameter analysis of radiant floor, there is a lack of organization floors can be classified into two categories: medium-response radiant
and exploration of various technological developments. Therefore, it is floors and slow-response radiant floors [18], as illustrated in Fig. 3. The
necessary to make further efforts to review the opportunities and main difference between these two types lies in the placement of the
buried pipe and the presence of insulation. The most common type of
Fig. 1. The research points of RFCS mentioned in the previous review literature.
2
Fig. 2. The sustainable development methods for implementing the system.
Fig. 3. Structural representation of typical radiant floors [18]: (a) Medium-response radiant floor and (b) Slow-response radiant floor.
radiant floor is the concrete core radiant floor, in which pipes are floor. The cooling capacity of radiant floor demonstrates similar tends
embedded within the concrete layer [40]. Pipes pass through the con- across different response times [42]. Most simulation studies presume
crete slabs to deliver cooling to the interior and store in concrete slab. steady-state conditions.
The thermal capacity of the system is primarily determined by the According to the methods of construction and installation of hy-
thickness of the surface layer in which the pipes are embedded [41]. A draulic radiant floor, the hydraulic radiant floor can be categorized into
slow-response radiant floor possesses a larger heat storage capacity that two types: wet construction (also known as heavyweight system) and
can minimize the impact of indoor load and external climate on the dry construction (also known as lightweight system) [43], as shown in
indoor thermal environment. When turned on and off, charging and Fig. 4. In wet construction, pipes are covered with cement or mortar and
discharging phenomena occur. Medium-response radiant floor exhibits embedded directly into the building structure. The temperature distri-
good insulation and has lower thermal mass, leading to lower thermal bution on the surface of a floor constructed using the wet method is more
inertia and faster reaction times for floor. When the step change in uniform [44]. However, with advancements in technology, dry con-
control of the system is applied as input, it takes 9.7–18.8 h for the struction has become more popular. The pipes in dry construction are
surface temperature of the slow-response radiant floor system to reach placed on a heat insulation layer, making them easy to install and
95 % of the difference between its final and initial values, while the maintain. They are particularly useful for secondary air conditioning
medium-response takes 2.3–8.7 h. Due to the reduction in the cooling of system transformations [45,46]. Dry construction radiant floor has
the building envelope, Medium-response radiant systems are more smaller thermal resistance, which has prompted most research to focus
suitable for retrofitting existing buildings than slow-response radiant on their dynamic performance. Thomas et al. [47] established a finite
3
Fig. 4. Two pavement methods of radiant floor [45]: (a) Wet construction and (b) Dry construction.
element numerical model of the dry construction radiant floor and 2.1.2. Cold sources
tested the accuracy of the model through experiments. It was found that The indoor environmental parameters and indoor thermal comfort
the energy-saving advantage of light floor in steady-state mode was not affect the water supply temperature of the system, which is generally
significant compared to classical radiant floor. Zhao et al. [22] between 16 and 22 ◦ C [61]. Sometimes lower temperatures have been
compared the dynamic behavior of heavyweight system and lightweight chosen in certain studies [62]. Thus, RFCS offers more flexibility in
system and found that heavyweight floor when stably operated in selecting the cold source. Typically, traditional air conditioning systems
high-intensity solar radiation environments, exhibited better perfor- rely on chillers to produce cold water at around 7 ◦ C to meet air cooling
mance than lightweight floors, with a cooling capacity 3.06–5.73 W/m2 and dehumidification requirements. However, when using a chiller as
higher than that of low thermal capacity floors. They also proposed a the cold source of radiant floor system, it is necessary to mix
method for predicting peak cooling loads. high-temperature water or use heat exchanger to adjust the supply water
Active hollow core slabs developed and popular in Europe that uti- temperature [63]. To obtain high-temperature cooling water, alterna-
lize air as a heat transfer medium are also used in building cooling [48]. tive cold sources such as heat pumps [64,65], solar cooling systems [66],
Fig. 5 displayed the basic structure of active hollow core slabs, which evaporative cooling systems [67,68], and direct-ground cooling systems
employ fans to circulate air through hollow cores, enabling a cycle of [12] are preferred. These advanced technologies have gained popularity
charging, storage, and discharging. Underfloor ventilation system serves due to their applicability to radiant floor systems.
two primary functions: cooling the air in the pipe using the Heat pumps utilize a small amount of high-level energy to transfer
low-temperature floor, and providing radiative cooling to the room by heat from a low-level heat source to a high-level heat source, with a high
blowing cold air [48,49]. However, due to the limited air-to-floor con- coefficient of performance (COP). The incorporation of radiant floor
tact area, it is necessary to improve the composition of the radiant floor system can improve the COP of heat pumps and reduce the demand for
to enhance its cold storage capacity and make up for the insufficient primary energy. Under the same power generation source, the radiant
cooling supply. Active hollow core slabs necessitate sufficient ventila- floor systems using heat pumps have shown promise as energy-saving
tion space in the floor structure. Hydraulic radiant floors are more systems that reduce carbon emissions and exergy loss [69]. The COP
widely used and have unique advantages than active hollow core slabs. of the geothermal heat pump and radiant floor system can achieve 5.29,
Therefore, the review pays more attention to the water medium radiant effectively fulfilling the cooling demand of the building [70].
floor. However, the radiant floor systems have strong adaptability to direct
Based on the existing research, the radiant floor structure and ma- cooling from natural cold sources and the hybrid systems are more
terial aspects have been optimized, as presented in Table 1. The opti- environmentally-friendly and energy-efficient [63,71]. The use of nat-
mization goals primarily focus on the response capacity and cold storage ural cold sources comes with strict outdoor requirements. The temper-
capacity [43,50]. An uneven temperature on the surface of the radiant ature of water through the direct-ground cooling system and
floor can lead to thermal discomfort and localized condensation. By evaporative cooling system can fluctuate based on seasonal weather and
incorporating a steel base into the radiant floor, the uneven surface other operational factors [72]. Improper design of cooling requirements
temperature can be reduced, subsequently affecting the heat storage may result in soil energy imbalance or indoor overheating [73,74].
capacity. Despite the potential for longer response times, energy storage Therefore, natural cold sources are commonly used as an auxiliary
can enhance the cooling capacity of the floor and reduce peak load [51, source of the system. In fact, due to radiant floor energy storage, natural
52]. From the table, it can be seen that using phase change materials to cold sources can also provide considerable hours of acceptable thermal
improve the cold storage capacity of radiant floors has become a comfort for the room in extreme climates [68,75]. Fig. 6 displays the
research hotspot. The design of radiant floor should not only consider schematic diagram of the RFCS with direct-ground cooling system
performance but also factors such as installation flexibility and cost. employed in an office building [11,76]. The use of geothermal heat
exchangers as a cold source provided good thermal comfort without
requiring additional steam compression cycles [12]. Hybrid renewable
Fig. 5. Structure of active hollow core slabs [48].
4
Table 1
Summary of research on radiant floor structure.
Reference Year Description Illustration Findings
[52] 2011 The steel matrix was added into the PCM The developed radiant floor improves the uniformity of phase change
layer. material temperature in the floor, reduces the response time of the floor,
and can achieve indoor cooling and heating.
[53] 2015 PCM material was added to the hollows Due to the energy loss of prefabricated concrete slabs during the summer
of the hollow floor cold storage period, their discharge efficiency is low in summer, and
reasonable control is needed to optimize system energy consumption.
[54] 2020 The floor was fitted with metal plates Compared with concrete-based radiation panels, the new type of radiation
with nails. panel reduces operating costs, greenhouse gas emissions, and energy
consumption, and improves system response speed.
[55] 2021 The aluminum alloy fins were added Finned concrete radiant floor reduces temperature differences along the
between two pipes. thickness direction. The heat storage performance of system is influenced
by the height and material of the fins, but not by the thickness of the fins.
[56] 2021 Radiant floor system based on double- The radiation system can meet night energy storage and daytime discharge,
layer capillary phase change heat storage and the floor surface temperature at different water supply temperatures
was similar.
[57,58] 2022 Integrate PCM and reserve under-floor The thickness of the PCMs in the proposed system affects the duration of
space for forced ventilation storage at the cooling effect. In hot and humid conditions, a 6-cm thickness of phase
night change material is optimal.
[46] 2022 Tube mats are used to replace the Tube mats are used to reduce response time and provide more flexible
original plastic or metal pipes design and installation, but smaller pipe diameters may cause blockage
[59] 2022 Double-layer PCM The total thickness of the double-layer PCM layer in the radiant floor affects
its heat storage capacity. After parameter optimization, the indoor thermal
comfort rate of PCM Coupling Room is as high as 81.58 %.
[60] 2022 PCM (Hydrated salts The weather forecast can alleviate supercooling and overheating, and it is
) is installed above the mortar layer, and advisable to use a 6-h forecast time in summer.
polyethylene pipe located above EPS
insulation.
energy systems can help alleviate energy intermittency issues [77]. The compensate for their shortcomings. The following provides an overview
COP of a radiant floor system that integrates ground temperature, water of different hybrid system studies and types of ventilation systems are
evaporation, and sky radiation can reach 19 during operation [78]. City introduced below.
tap water can also be used as a source of cooling for radiant floor systems
in residential buildings [79]. 2.2.1. System characteristic
Radiant floor system is inefficient as a standalone method in hot and
humid climates due to the risk of condensation on the floor surface. To
2.2. Combination with air system
improve cooling capability of system, natural night ventilation cooling is
commonly employed as an auxiliary cooling method in conjunction with
The air system is crucial for the radiant floor system to operate
radiant floor systems [65,80]. However, the enhancements provided by
effectively in hot and humid environments. Compared to the two, hybrid
natural ventilation alone are insufficient. It is common to integrate them
systems composed of both can combine their respective advantages and
5
Fig. 6. The cold source type of the radiant floor system. (a) Schematic diagram of the direct-ground cooling system with RFCS [11], and (b) Schematic drawing of
direct-ground cold source system in summer [76].
with convection systems in buildings (see Fig. 7), such as cooling sys- fresh air directly. Zarrella et al. [25] conducted a comprehensive study
tems (dry coil units, chilled beams) [81,82], dehumidification systems to compare five types of RFCSs used in residential buildings. The study
(dehumidifiers) [83], and cooling and dehumidification (wet coil units, revealed that, when indoor conditions were maintained constant, fan
air handler units (AHU), variable air volume (VAV)) [50,84,85]. These coil and mechanical ventilation provided better thermal comfort than
integrated convection systems offer a wider operating range and quick the dehumidification system. Moreover, mechanical ventilation can
response to changes in the indoor environment while controlling indoor improve indoor air quality. Radiant floor system integrated with sepa-
humidity. The optimal cooling proportion of radiant floor system in rate cooling and dehumidification systems allows for a larger range of
integrated system with large spaces is 0.76–0.77 [86]. temperature fluctuations in the radiation floor. Gu et al. [64] investi-
Ventilation systems help to enhance the cooling capacity of inte- gated a hybrid radiant floor system that integrated a fan coil unit and an
grated systems and improve the response capabilities. Cooling and outdoor fresh air dehumidifier. Their findings indicate that the fan coil
dehumidification systems are the most widely used to treat outdoor assists the radiant floor system in providing cooling and adjusting the
6
Fig. 7. Classification of integrated convective systems for radiant floor cooling systems.
environment in different areas, while the outdoor fresh air dehumidifier improve the response time of hybrid system. Compared to traditional
controls indoor air humidity to maintain air quality. Overall, a separate convective air conditioning, the combination of a ventilation system and
fan coil in hybrid system can not only achieve satisfactory indoor ther- a radiant floor system reduces the cooling energy required for ventila-
mal comfort but also achieve multi-zone control. On the other hand, tion. This is due to the lower air mass flow rate, which results in reduced
dehumidification systems which integrate solar heat and indoor air heat ventilation system noise and a smaller ventilation pipeline volume [31].
recovery reduce the moisture content in the air, making them suitable Fig. 8 shows a system diagram of RFCS with different ventilation types.
for room with high latent heat loads or where maintaining low indoor The ventilation methods for RFCS include displacement ventilation
humidity levels is necessary [87]. If only considering the removal of the [86], mixing ventilation [89], personalized ventilation [90], and
typical indoor latent load, the exergy efficiency of the condensing underfloor ventilation [91,92].
dehumidification system can be 3 to 4 times higher than that of the Displacement ventilation offers strong sewage discharge capability
desiccant wheel dehumidification system [88]. and has low operating costs. The combination of radiant floor system
and displacement ventilation system has a direct and positive effect on
2.2.2. Ventilation types the indoor thermal environment, and the presence of radiant floors aids
Anti-condensation control on radiant floor surfaces and maintaining heat transfer [93]. The ventilation vents near the floor effectively isolate
indoor air quality are essential responsibilities of the ventilation system. the indoor humid air from the floor and reduce the risk of condensation
Integrated systems help to maximize the efficiency of the cooling system on radiant surfaces. Two potential issues arise: the effect of supply air
[83] and make the radiant floor system adaptable to different climates temperature on the heat transfer of the radiant floor and the distribution
[23,65]. When radiant floor systems have large thermal mass, it can of indoor temperature gradients when vents close to the floor. However,
Fig. 8. Schematic diagram of radiant floor system and different ventilation methods [31]: (a) displacement ventilation (DV) + radiant panel, (b) mixing ventilation
(MV) + radiant panel, (c) personalized ventilation (PV) + radiant panel, and (d) underfloor ventilation (UFAD) + radiant panel.
7
it does not cause thermal discomfort on the feet/calves [94,95]. Schellen that the interaction between underfloor ventilation system and the
et al. [96] found that the vertical temperature gradients in the room with radiant floor system is not immediately evident. The composite system
radiant floor system combined displacement ventilation could up to 4 ◦ C not only enhances chiller efficiency and augments the cooling capacity
and provides better comfortable conditions than combined mixing of the radiant floor system but also prevents condensation on the radiant
ventilation. In high-space buildings, the combination of displacement surface. The underfloor ventilation modality is suited for public build-
ventilation and radiant floor system allows for thermal comfort adjust- ings or residential buildings where the diffusion area is free of
ment solely in the occupied space [62]. The radiant floor system inte- pollutants.
grated displacement ventilation system has been successfully applied to
the departure hall and check-in hall of Terminal 3 of Xi’an Xianyang
2.3. Combination with radiant terminals
International Airport. This system provides good thermal comfort dur-
ing cooling periods, as well as a 34 % reduction in energy consumption
The cooling capacity of a radiant floor system is the key point of its
compared to traditional jet ventilation systems [83].
application, the energy-saving potential of a radiant system increases as
Except for displacement ventilation, other ventilation types com-
it takes on a greater indoor load. Radiant floor system can be used with
bined with radiant floor systems have received less research attention
other radiant terminals within a building to enhance cooling capacity
[31]. Mixing ventilation is commonly used in traditional air condition-
[72]. There are three main methods of combining radiant terminals
ing and maintains lower vertical air temperature differences in the room
(Fig. 10): radiant floor + radiant ceiling [104,105], radiant floor +
[89,97]. The better ventilation results can be accomplished when the
radiant wall [6], and radiant floor + radiant wall + radiant ceiling [51].
supply air temperature equals or is lower than the room temperature for
Due to the dominant role of heat transfer in the active chilled beam
mixing ventilation [98]. Mixing ventilation mainly dilutes the air to
systems, they are not discussed in this chapter due to the dominant role
maintain indoor air quality, but it is not efficient in removing pollutants
of convective heat transfer [3]. The most common combination is the
from dead spaces in the room under cooling conditions. The combina-
use of radiant floor and radiant ceiling which is prevalent in thermally
tion of mixing ventilation with a radiant floor system could elevate the
activated buildings. These buildings use non-insulated pipes embedded
risk of airborne pollutant transmission due to reduced ventilation vol-
in the floor slab to evenly distribute heat upwards and downwards,
ume. In fact, mixed ventilation is more typical in radiant floor heating
being referred to as radiant floor/ceiling cooling system [105]. The
systems than in RFCS [31].
asymmetric thermal radiation can be reduced by a symmetrical config-
Personalized ventilation systems supply fresh air directly to the
uration of the radiation surface [106]. Furthermore, the combination of
personnel breathing zone and are linked to indoor facilities [99]. Due to
radiant walls and radiant floor can provide uniform thermal comfort
the need for duct design in personalized ventilation systems, which can
[107]. Carli et al. [6] conducted a study on an office building in Austria
affect the layout and aesthetics of the room, ductless personalized
that used a combination of radiant walls and radiant floor and found that
ventilation systems have been developed. Ductless personalized venti-
the operating temperature of an office was below 26 ◦ C during the
lation systems intake fresh air distributed in the upper zone near the
cooling period. Finally, the integration of phase change materials on
floor and transports it to the breathing area of each user [100]. The
different radiant surfaces can create cool surface effects and provide a
application of ductless personalized ventilation systems requires the
new avenue for improving indoor thermal comfort [51].
cleanliness of the air in the upper zone near the floor, often used with
To improve the efficiency of radiant cooling systems while ensuring
displacement ventilation. Liu et al. [101] reported that combining
indoor thermal comfort, integrating various radiant surfaces is effective.
ductless personalized ventilation with radiant floor and displacement
However, there are still certain issues that require attention. The pri-
ventilation systems can create an improved local thermal environment
mary area of concern is the cooling and heating capabilities of the
and pollutant removal effect. The ductless personalized ventilation re-
radiant terminals and distribution of the indoor load. Tian et al. [61]
duces the vertical air temperature difference between 1.1 m level and
conducted experiments in Canadian climate conditions to analyze the
0.1 m level by 1.79 ◦ C. It is recommended a flow rate of 5 L/s and an air
thermal comfort and thermal environment of radiant floor/ceiling
intake height of 0.1 m for ductless personalized ventilation.
cooling system. The results indicate that 67 % of the subjects felt over-
Like personalized ventilation systems, underfloor ventilation systems
cooling in summer due to inappropriate system design. Another issue to
also require available underfloor space. The heat transfer performance
be considered is the response time of the system, which can vary
of the radiant floor is affected by wind speed and underfloor air supply
significantly among different types of radiant systems, posing challenges
temperature [102]. Fernández Hernández et al. [103] have developed a
in controlling the system [18]. Finally, condensation risk on radiation
novel composite floor air distribution system (refer to Fig. 9) and found
surfaces can also be problematic. To combat this issue,
Fig. 9. Radiant cooling floor integrated with an underfloor air distribution system [103].
8
Fig. 10. Composite diagram of radiant floor and other radiant terminals: (a) Radiant floor + radiant ceiling, (b) Radiant floor + radiant wall, and (c) Radiant floor +
radiant wall + radiant ceiling.
anti-condensation measures should be comprehensively designed and operation and management of these strategies.
implemented across each surface [108].
3.2. Control method

3. Control strategies
According to the control classification of the heating, ventilation, air-

3.1. Current research status
conditioning and cooling system, the control strategy of the RFCS can
also be divided into four types [109]: conventional control, rule-based
The control issues of air conditioning include nonlinear dynamic
control, hybrid, soft-computing control, and advanced control.
behavior of the system, variable and uncertain disturbances, time-
varying set points, passenger-centered ventilation nature, integration
3.2.1. Conventional control
of modern technologies, and energy efficiency [109,110]. Radiant floor
Conventional control strategies for indoor temperature control
systems require more complex control methods due to the small tem-
include manual control, ON/OFF control, feedback control, and PID
perature difference between the indoor temperature set point and the
control. The traditional ON/OFF control is a basic and uncomplicated
cold source, as well as the high thermal mass of radiant surfaces.
control that does not require intricate parameter settings. The frequent
The traditional control strategies are effective [111], but advanced
switching of system water pumps can be prevented by applying a dead
control strategies have been shown the potential to significantly reduce
zone control at the set point. At the same time, energy consumption will
energy consumption [81]. The primary aim of control strategy is to
be reduced [21,105,115]. However, the system responds to indoor en-
achieve better thermal comfort and energy performance by regulating
vironments through on/off control, which can lead to temperature lag
supply water temperature, supply water flow rate, supply air tempera-
under high thermal inertia and variable climate conditions [65]. Many
ture, and supply air flow rate [41]. Indoor control parameters include
current buildings have added digital control, and PID control is mainly
indoor air temperature, operative temperature, predicted mean vote
based on feedback closed loop, it is mainly used in modern buildings
(PMV), and indoor dew point temperature. Traditional control strategies
with variable frequency motors [109]. Employing PID control, floor
make control decisions based on identifying changes in indoor param-
surface temperature can be precisely regulated by controlling the indoor
eters, which may pose a risk of indoor overheating [88]. To reduce
air temperature with an accuracy of ± 0.05 ◦ C [128]. Conventional
control delays, control actions are predicted in advance based on dis-
control strategies are commonly adopted in real building environments
turbances. Nonetheless, the mutual influence between temperature and
due to their cost-effectiveness and simplicity. However, RFCSs exhibit
humidity control can lead to increased control error [27,112]. As a
nonlinearity and slow response characteristics, and improper selection
result, various control strategies have been studied for RFCS to ensure
of the controller parameters could result in its unstable output [129].
both thermal comfort and cost-effectiveness. Table 2 provides an over-
Engineers need to invest significant time and knowledge in tuning and
view of the current state of research on control strategies for the RFCS.
calibrating the PID parameters (proportional, integral, and derivative).
About two-thirds of the research have been conducted via simulation, as
Reliable and sensitive algorithms are needed to assist in selecting control
it makes simulation methods more convenient and comprehensive for
parameters for adaptive changes in system parameters.
conducting systematic multi-factor analysis. While experimental evalu-
ations have demonstrated the efficacy of complex control strategies,
3.2.2. Rule-based control
comparatively little research has been conducted on the practical
Rule-based control is an interesting optimization method, including
9
Table 2
A summary of the literature on the control strategies applied to the RFCS.
Reference Year Location/ Method System Control strategies Main findings
Building type
[105] 2007 Germany, Italy/ Simulation VS + RFC Variable water supply temperature Controlling water supply temperature based on outdoor
Office building control, Dead zone control temperature conditions ensures satisfactory indoor
conditions while minimizing energy use for cooling, pump.
The temperature dead zone should not be greater than 2 K.
[24] 2008 Korea/Residence Experiment, DOAS + Outdoor reset control with indoor The control strategy improves the ability of the composite
Simulation RF temperature feedback system to cope with internal load changes.
[113] 2008 Switzerland/ Simulation VS + RF Unknown but bounded control Unknown but bounded control method can manage
Office unforeseen daily variations and room-to-room fluctuations
in heat gain, allowing for automatic switching of the
cooling/heating modes.
[114] 2009 Switzerland/ Simulation, RFC Pulse width modulation control The PWM control can reduce the power consumption of the
Laboratory Experiment pump by more than 50 %, and fit into newly developed
TABS control solutions.
[63] 2011 Central Europe/ Simulation RF Pulse width modulation, Variable water The pulse width modulation control can reduce the power
Office Building supply temperature control, Night requirements of the water-circulating pump by more than
operation 50 % compared to continuous operation.
[80] 2014 Korea/Residence Simulation VS + RF ON/OFF control, Feedback control Proper operation of outdoor air-cooling strategy can reduce
the cooling energy consumption of more than 20 %.
[115] 2014 Belgium/Office Simulation AHU + Peak shaving strategy, Intermittent ON/ The 6 % reduction in primary energy consumption at night
building RF OFF control, night operation, Variable operations which was the best and the TABS allowed for
water supply temperature control significant load control.
[116] 2014 India/Office Experiment DOAS + Variable water supply temperature The simplest and most robust strategy is to control manifold
building RF control, Intermittent control valves based on a fixed return water temperature.
[13] 2015 United States/ Simulation DOAS + Model predictive control, Feedback The low-lift cooling system saves 24 % more electricity
Office building RFC control than the variable air volume system when using model
predictive control.
[117] 2015 India/ Simulation FCS/ Intermittent ON/OFF control The DOAS-integrated radiation system outperforms the fan
Commercial DOAS + coil unit-integrated system. Compared to original
building RFC scheduled operation, The radiant system can save more
than 10 % of operating energy when turned off 4 h before.
[111] 2015 Denmark/Office Simulation VS + RF Intermittent ON/OFF control Compared with room temperature feedback control,
building schedule intermittent control has better thermal comfort.
[112] 2016 United States/ Simulation AHU + Proportional integral control, Model Predictive control enables system precooling, load transfer,
Office building RF predictive control and can result in a 10 % reduction in energy consumption.
The coordinated control of the system saves about 2 %
more energy than that of RFCS.
[75] 2017 United States/ Simulation VS + RFC Intermittent control, Feedback control Compared with conventional start-stop control, this
Office Building method can reduce power cost and energy consumption by
40 % or 35 % while maintaining indoor thermal comfort.
[118] 2018 United States/ Experiment RF Variable water supply temperature, The air temperature replaces the operative temperature to
Laboratory regional flow control control the radiation system. Ceiling fans will help reduce
any excessive delamination and provide thermal comfort at
higher zone temperatures.
[119] 2018 United States/ Experiment, VS + RF Pulsed flow control method, The pulsed flow control method improves the efficiency of
Laboratory Simulation Intermittent control, Variable water cooling/heating unit systems at different temperatures,
supply temperature providing more precise capacity control at partial load and
requiring lower initial equipment cost.
[120] 2018 United States/ Simulation AHU + Distributed model predictive control, Predictive control reduced system power consumption by
Office building RF Feedback control 27 % compared to feedback control
[121] 2019 China/ Experiment AHU + Model predictive control, Proportional- Compared with PID controller, model predictive control
Laboratory RF integral-derivative control (PID control) controller has a shorter response time, better stability, and
17.5 % energy saving.
[122] 2019 United States/ Experiment AHU + Model predictive control, Feedback Model predictive control used peak-valley electricity to
Office building RF control save about 34 % of the cost of system and 29–50 % less
energy than an all-air system in the same building.
[16] 2020 China/Office Simulation DOAS + Intermittent control, Night operation, The radiant surface reaches its maximum cooling effect
building RFC Supply water temperature curves approximately 1 h after it is turned off. Daytime cooling
energy consumption is low, while nighttime cooling
reduces the peak cooling requirement of the chiller by 25
%.
[123] 2020 Belgium/Office Experiment VS + RFC Rule-based control, Model predict The cloud-based white-box model predictive control is
building control implemented and can be operated remotely in an office
building. Model predict control minimizes thermal comfort
deviations and saves energy.
[124] 2021 China/Office Simulation VS + RF Variable flow and Variable air volume The control strategy can respectively control the two
building closed-loop control cooling ends of the air supply and RF to reach the required
temperature.
[125] 2021 Sweden/Office Experiment, RF Intermittent on/off control, Feedback The operational strategies applied to building in this study
building Simulation control moderately affected the heat extraction rate of the buried
pipe direct supply system.
[126] 2022 China/Office Simulation VS + RFC Intermittent operation of standby Intermittent ventilation system scheme has good energy-
Building cooling saving effect. It allows for control of indoor dry bulb
(continued on next page)
10
Table 2 (continued )
Reference Year Location/ Method System Control strategies Main findings
Building type
temperature and dew point temperature during system idle

periods, ensuring stable operation.
[60] 2022 Italy/Laboratory Experiment, FCS + RF Intermittent control based on weather The strategy of adjusting the temperature setpoint based on
Simulation forecast the weather forecast data can alleviate building
undercooling or overheating and recommend a forecast
range of 6 h for the cooling season.
[11] 2022 China/Office Experiment VS + RF Intermittent control, Pre-cooling According to indoor initial thermal environment and
building control thermal gain, the control method of RFCS is proposed to
realize the dynamic optimal control.
[84] 2022 China/ Experiment FCS + RF Water supply temperature control, Intermittent control reduces system energy consumption by
Laboratory Intermittent control increasing the cooling time of the RF and reducing the
cooling time of the FC.
[27] 2022 China/Office Simulation VS + RF Collaborative control, ON/OFF control The collaborative control strategy based on the PMV-based
building prediction overcame the hysteresis of the cooling energy
supply and demand, and reduce fluctuation of energy
consumption.
[127] 2023 China/Office Simulation VS + RF ON/OFF control, Water supply The application potential of control strategy is affected by
building temperature control, Pre-cooling climate. Optimizing control strategy can reduce the
control influence of outdoor climate on indoor thermal comfort.
Note: TABS: thermo-active building system, VS: ventilation system, RF: radiant floor system, RFC: radiant floor/ceiling system, AHU: air handling unit, DOAS:
dedicated outdoor air system, FC: fan coil.
gain scheduling, state-space multivariable, transfer function controllers, of mining control data. Qin et al. [140] proposed a data-driven fuzzy
and nonlinear controllers. It operates on a series of predefined rules, logic model. The model utilized outdoor air temperature, outdoor rela-
building models through “if-then-else” statements [130]. tive humidity, and the average temperature of supply and return water
Gain scheduling uses a set of linear controllers to regulate nonlinear as input, and floor surface temperature, indoor air temperature, and
system [131,132]. The scheduling variable of the gain scheduling can be indoor air humidity as output. The method fuzzed the coupling variables
the outdoor temperature, while the controlled variable can be the of indoor air temperature and floor surface temperature. It was discov-
radiant layer temperature [32]. The technique can leverage previous ered that the hysteresis between floor surface temperature and indoor
operating data to optimize control variables and parameters and handle air temperature was insignificant.
imprecise and uncertain inputs to produce signal responses. Therefore, it Hybrid, soft-computing control is inherently nonlinear and does not
can provide a better solution for different radiant floor systems with rely on precise computational models or extensive calculations.
different thermal masses [133]. Compared to traditional methods, it offers advantages in addressing is-
State-space variable and transfer function approaches can be used to sues of uncertainty, imprecision, and optimization.
model radiant floor systems mathematically [18,134]. These methods
enable the calculation of cooling loads or describe the energy interaction 3.2.4. Advanced control
between the radiant floor and the room. Radiative and convective heat The use of RFCS to control indoor environments is complicated due
transfer coefficients can be determined through empirical values or to various indoor and outdoor factors. The thermal inertia of building
experimentation. The delay time between the heat input of the radiant can affect the operating performance of the system. Advanced control
floor system and the regional air temperature can be determined based strategies can address the complexity and limitations involved in
on the transfer function between the cold floor and the regional air balancing building energy consumption and indoor thermal comfort. By
temperature. This allows for a reduction in peak power and energy implementing advanced control in near-zero energy buildings with
consumption of the system [135]. Rule-based control serves as the RFCS, higher energy efficiency and improved comfort can be achieved
foundation for complex control, and it requires assumptions and sim- compared to original control strategy of the building [141].
plifications based on the experience of designers when setting up the Advanced control mainly includes model predictive control and
algorithm model. However, these assumptions and simplifications may adaptive control and requires comprehensive data and models chal-
limit the adaptability of the model. lenging data and models. Its optimization targets are usually indoor
thermal comfort and energy when applied to RFCS controls. Previous
3.2.3. Hybrid, soft-computing control studies have investigated the application of advanced control in air
Hybrid, soft-computing control methods, such as artificial intelli- conditioning systems [26,133,142]. The model predictive control can
gence, fuzzy logic, genetic algorithm, nonlinear hybrid, and data-driven optimize the operating state of system in a future period by predicting
control, do not require complex learning procedures and can optimize disturbance. Weather forecasting and internal load forecasting provide
control parameters by incorporating relevant empirical knowledge. Su effective basis for the execution of the method [15,143]. Adaptive
et al. [136] used a genetic algorithm reverse neural network to optimize control can perform TABS control for specific regions based on multiple
the anti-condensation control of the RFCS. The weights and thresholds of linear regression and continue to learn and improve, allowing it to
the reverse neural network were optimized using genetic algorithm to address indoor disturbances in a timely fashion [13]. The stability of
accurately forecast the pre-dehumidification time and energy con- advanced control can be threatened by several factors, and improve-
sumption of the office. This allowed the designer to select the best ments in systems and models can mitigate these issues [109]. Despite the
control strategies. However, the results obtained through soft computing rapid development of hardware technology, model predictive control for
methods cannot determine whether they are the optimal solution [137, RFCSs requires longer computational time for prediction. The complex
138]. design and high cost brought using advanced control in actual buildings
Various methods are constantly reorganized and improved, making still need to be considered.
“soft computing” more and more refined [139]. Hybrid and soft
computing methods have also been applied to analyze the dynamic
performance of radiant floor systems, aiming to improve the efficiency
11
3.3. Anti-condensation control performance parameters.
The building cooling load consists of both latent heat load and sen- 3.4.1. Thermal comfort
sible heat load. Radiant floor system can only handle the sensible load, Indoor thermal comfort is a critical criterion for assessing the efficacy
and cannot bear the indoor latent heat load. Excess humidity will cause of control strategies. It encompasses both general thermal comfort and
discomfort for occupants, condensation on the radiant surface, and local thermal discomfort, with thermal comfort range of each evaluation
reduction of performance of radiant floor heat transfer. The cause of index can be divided into three categories (as displayed in Table 3) [14].
condensation on the radiant floor is when the surface temperature drops
below the indoor dew point temperature. To address this issue and 3.4.1.1. General thermal comfort. The key factors affecting overall
improve the cooling capacity of the system, it is important to lower the thermal comfort can be boiled down to six main ones: metabolic rate,
temperature of the radiant surface while lowering the indoor dew point thermal resistance of clothing, air temperature, radiant temperature, air
[41,144]. The high thermal mass RFCS has been evaluated in hot and velocity, and indoor air humidity [151]. Although satisfaction of occu-
humid climates and found to be effective in multi-zone residential pants with the indoor environment can also be used to evaluate thermal
buildings [145]. comfort, objective evaluative criteria are typically employed when
The minimum recommended radiant floor temperature in the stan- assessing system control strategies. While metabolic rate and thermal
dard is 19 ◦ C [14]. However, in actual buildings, the furniture will cause resistance of clothing are generally set as fixed values in research due to
uneven temperature on the floor surface and make it difficult to accu- their relationship with personnel behavior, the evaluation of indoor
rately control the temperature of the floor surface. To prevent conden- thermal comfort is primarily based on the last four factors.
sation, an anti-condensation method is used by maintaining the supply Indoor air temperature is often representative of the ambient air
water temperature 1–2 ◦ C higher than the indoor dew point temperature temperature of the occupant [151]. Typically, in experimental studies,
or turning off the system when the floor temperature drops below the temperature measuring points are placed at 1.1 m [95]. The recom-
indoor dew point temperature [146,147]. Based on the experimental mended indoor air temperature by the International Organization for
study, the type of the radiation panel structure can influence the Standardization (ISO 7730) is between 24 and 26 ◦ C [14]. Compared to
condensation limit, resulting in the condensation temperature difference traditional convection air conditioning systems, RFCSs can maintain
between the dew point temperature and floor temperature reached better thermal comfort in buildings [117], with indoor air temperatures
3.2~6.5 ◦ C. The waste of anti-condensation energy consumption can be comfortably ranging between 25.8 and 29.2 ◦ C [152]. The radiant floor
reduced when anti-condensation applied in system based on the system exchanges heat with the indoor heat source through both
sub-cooling degree [148]. Compared with flow rate control, water convective and radiant heat transfers and lower mean radiation tem-
temperature control is more effective in responding to radiant floor perature can increase the tolerance of indoor air temperature. It is
surface anti-condensation [149]. In addition to regulating radiant floor essential to consider the indoor mean radiant temperature. However,
heating, the ventilation system also plays a crucial role [23,25]. It can be evaluating thermal comfort can be achieved more comprehensively
controlled by variable air volume according to different zones, sched- using operative temperature since it represents the impact of both air
ules, or indoor humidity. Lim et al. [147] found that the combination of temperature and mean radiant temperature within the indoor environ-
outdoor temperature feedback control and dehumidification control can ment. The equation for calculating indoor operative temperature is
reduce the operating time of the dehumidification system by half. shown in Equation (1) [151], and Table 3 displays the recommended
During the startup phase of the radiant floor system, there is also a operative temperature ranges based on clothing insulation and meta-
high risk of condensation on the radiant surface. Pre-dehumidification bolic rate of occupants.
control is used to solve the condensation problem during opening
[136,150]. Pre-dehumidification refers to opening the ventilation sys- to= Ata + (1-A)tr (1)
tem for a period before the start of the radiant floor system to ensure that
where to is the operative temperature; ta is the average air temperature;
the indoor environment meets the necessary standards. The control of
tr is the mean radiant temperature; A is a coefficient as a function of the
pre-dehumidification time can avoid wasting unnecessary initial energy
average air speed (When the average air speed <0.2 m/s, A is 0.5; when
consumption, which can be calculated or predicted based on the thermal
the average air speed is in the range of 0.2–0.6 m/s, A is 0.6; when the
inertia parameters of the radiant floor [150].
average air quality is in the range of 0.6–1 m/s, A is 0.7.)
The pre-dehumidification time is a critical factor in preventing
Radiant floor systems can follow the design values of conventional
condensation from forming on the radiant floor surface. Regrettably,
all-air systems for relative humidity and wind speed [153]. Under the
only limited studies have analyzed this important aspect.
standard indoor temperature of 26 ◦ C in summer, the indoor relative
humidity range needs to be controlled at 40–60 % [14]. The thermal
3.4. Evaluation indices for the control strategies
discomfort caused by higher indoor relative humidity can be compen-
sated by lower mean radiant temperature [152], or integrated with
The comparison between different strategies can be divided into
dehumidification equipment to overcome. The indoor relative humidity
short-term and long-term evaluations. The short-term evaluation focuses
design values for rooms that use dehumidification are shown in Table 3
on hourly comparisons of thermal comfort and energy consumption of
[154]. Since the system often works in conjunction with ventilation
different control strategies in a typical period. This evaluation will
systems, Indoor air velocity need to be considered. To increase energy
visually display indoor and system parameters using graphical repre-
efficiency and reduce consumption, ventilation volume is based on in-
sentations [121]. It offers a detailed analysis of strategy operation,
door carbon dioxide concentration and minimum air change ratio in the
including parameter trends and system conditions. On the other hand,
room [71,155]. This ensures indoor fresh air demand and keeps the
the long-term evaluation aims to assess the overall stability and per-
indoor air velocity below the limit of 0.24 m/s. Although some tropical
formance of strategies throughout their entire cycle. It calculates the
countries have local standards for minimum indoor wind speed [35], it
distribution hours of different parameter ranges, the average value of
is rarely used as an evaluation index for control strategies.
parameters, and the sum of parameters in the cycle [14,105,127].
Thermal comfort is an essential factor in evaluating indoor envi-
Thermal comfort analysis mostly focuses on calculating the hours of the
ronments, and predicted mean vote/predicted percentage dissatisfied
parameter distribution, expressed through the proportion of the distri-
(PMV/PPD) is the most commonly used framework [27], mainly used to
bution time, since mean values cannot represent extreme value param-
evaluate instantaneous thermal comfort indoors. For indoor parameters
eters. The evaluation parameters of different strategies fall into three
involving a certain time period or operating cycle, it is necessary to
categories: thermal comfort parameters, economic parameters, and
12
Table 3
Range of different thermal comfort parameters [14,154].
Category Operative Design relative humidity for Maximum mean air PMV PPD PD1 PD2 Minimum floor surface
temperature (◦ C) dehumidification (%) velocity (m/s) (%) (%) (%) temperature (◦ C)
A 23.5–25.5 50 0.12 − 0.2–0.2 <10 <3 <10 19

B 23–26 60 0.19 − 0.5–0.5 <20 <5 <10 19
C 22–27 70 0.24 − 0.7–0.7 <30 <10 <15 17
Note: a The criteria for Vertical air temperature difference is 1.1 and 0.1 m above floor.
b
The criteria for operative temperature and maximum mean air velocity are based on typical levels of activity, for clothing of 0.5 clo in summer.
quantify the number of hours beyond the comfort zone based on mea- where PD2 is the local discomfort caused by cold floor; tf is the tem-
surement or simulation results. The equations for calculating the num- perature of the floor surface.
ber of hours beyond the PMV comfort zone and the adaptive model There are temperature variations in the radiation between different
comfort zone is as follows [151]: surfaces within indoor environments, thus an evaluation of the indoor
∑ temperature asymmetry is needed within the system. The room with
EHp = Hdisc (2) RFCS can easily result in vertical temperature differences in the radia-
tion. It can lead to discomfort when exposed to for extended periods
where EHp is the exceedance hours calculated for the PMV comfort zone; [161]. Among the three local thermal discomfort indicators, the impact
Hdisc is a discomfort hour (Hdisc = 1 if |PMV| - 0.5 > 0 and 0 otherwise). of radiation temperature asymmetry on discomfort is least described in
∑(
EHt = H>upper + H<lower
)
(3) relation to cold floors. Radiation temperature asymmetry can be used to
quantify the effects of indoor uneven radiation. ASHRAE 55–2017 [151]
where EHt is the exceedance hours calculated for the adaptive model set the maximum allowable temperature difference of 5 ◦ C. The
comfort zone; H>upper and H>lower is are discomfort hours outside the non-symmetric radiation effect cannot be balanced out between
[ ] different parts of the human body, while outdoor conditions and the
comfort zone boundaries tlower , tupper , (H>upper = 1 if top > tupper and
building envelope can impact the exchange of thermal radiation with
0 otherwise; H>lower = 1 if top < tlower and 0 otherwise).
the human body [159]. Occupiers located near windows may be sub-
However, recent research found that PMV tends to overestimate the
jected to non-symmetric radiation from multiple directions. Currently,
thermal sensation of occupants [156], especially when evaluating
there is limited research that considers indoor radiation asymmetry as
different system configurations [96]. This is mainly affected by uneven
an indicator when evaluating system control strategies.
thermal conditions, and the difficulty in quantifying the view factor
between the human body and the surrounding environment results in
3.4.2. Economy
simplified calculations for mean radiant temperature [157], which in
Economic evaluation is a crucial factor in determining the feasibility
turn affects the values of operative temperature and PMV.
of control strategies. Evaluation of economy considers both the initial
investment cost and the operating cost of the system. However, it can be
3.4.1.2. Local thermal discomfort. The evaluation of local discomfort challenging to quantify these costs accurately due to variations in
includes vertical air temperature difference, warm/cold floor, and regional conditions. There are no specific normative constraints on
radiant temperature asymmetry [14]. The RFCS can create a vertical air evaluation scope, and the current evaluation criteria are based on the
temperature difference [94]. The vertical temperature gradient is principle of “less is better.” As a result, costs are often minimized when
influenced by the form of ventilation. It should be within 3 K from the incorporated as an expected goal in control strategies [13].
ankle level to the head level [158]. The range of air temperature dif- The evaluation of system operating costs for different control stra-
ference from the ankle level to the head level should also be limited. If tegies mainly involves comparing system energy consumption or elec-
the vertical air temperature difference is below 8 ◦ C, Equation (4) can be tricity costs. Energy consumption can be broken down into partial
used to determine the local discomfort (PD1) caused by it [14]. energy consumption and overall energy consumption, with refrigeration
100 equipment and transportation energy making up the overall energy
PD1 = ( ) (4)
1 − exp 5.76 − 0.856Δta,v consumed. Comparisons for the entire cooling season are usually made
for RFCS, and experimental testing may reduce the comparison time.
where PD1 is the local discomfort caused by vertical air temperature Some regulations [155] stipulate an upper limit for the average energy
difference; Δta,v is the vertical are temperature difference. consumption index of newly built buildings. On the other hand, the
The radiant floor system focus on the lower body and can achieve difference of electricity costs is mainly affected by the operating time of
similar levels of thermal comfort at a higher surface temperatures [159]. the system, the thermal inertia of the system, and the peak valley elec-
Nevertheless, the human hands and feet are more sensitive to thermal tricity price [162]. While initial investment is minimally affected by the
comfort, and cold floors can easily cause local discomfort and coldness control strategy, different methods do require different configurations of
[160]. The investigation is required to comprehensively understand the system components and control accuracy, leading to cost differences
subjective thermal sensation experienced by individuals on cold floor. [81,122]. The economic gap between two compared radiant floor
The recommended minimum floor temperature is 19 ◦ C in areas where cooling systems can be measured by the payback period, which refers to
sedentary or standing individuals wearing standard footwear are present the number of years needed for reduced operating costs to repay the high
[158]. The standardized threshold for localized thermal comfort can initial investment cost of the system. The evaluation of payback period is
vary significantly depending on temporal conditions and requires of great significance for high-cost and low-energy consumption RFCSs,
appropriate adjustments based on the floor surface material and occu- such as systems utilizing renewable energy or new radiant floor
pant behavior [95]. Equation (5) demonstrates the effect of a cold floor structures.
(PD2) on local thermal discomfort [14] (Equation (5) does not consider
the long-term operation of electrically heated floors or situations 3.4.3. Performance of systems
involving barefoot contact by occupants). To optimize system performance and efficiency, it is important to
consider internal and external adjustments. Exergy is the part of energy
PD2 = 100–94⋅exp (− 1.387 + 0.118tf - 0.0025t2f ) (5) that can be maximally converted into work when the system undergoes a
13
reversible transformation from any state to equilibrium with the refer- be classified into four types based on temperature and humidity: high
ence state. It emphasizes the efficient utilization of energy and is an temperature and high humidity, high temperature and low humidity,
important concept in energy analysis. Like economic evaluation, there is and low temperature and high humidity [84]. RFCS is subjects to cli-
no specific scope or limitation for exergy analysis. However, it is an matic disturbances mainly from solar radiation, infiltration, and venti-
effective tool used to assess operating performance and potential of a lation [176]. RFCS is used in conjunction with ambient energy to
system for optimization under varying conditions [163]. Exergy analysis condition the building, the climate not only impacts the thermal comfort
is based on combining the first law of thermodynamics with the second evaluation of the building’s interior but also its energy efficiency [13,78,
law of thermodynamics [164]. This analysis can determine the impact of 177].
operating temperatures and energy and flow rates within the system In low humidity areas, RFCS can operate independently in the indoor
[165]. Moreover, exergy analysis can also be utilized as a method for environment based on the control strategy used. But in high humidity
system evaluation. To analyze the system, an equilibrium equation must areas, as mentioned in section 2.3, radiant floor system needs to be in-
be established in advance, as demonstrated in Equation (4) [69,163]. tegrated with ventilation systems to overcome climate effects [46,127].
The use of RFCS has grown quickly in high-humidity areas, and it pro-
Exergy input + Exergy consumed = Exergy stored + Exergy output (4) motes energy efficiency in high humidity environments [11]. Li et al.
Exergy analysis often overlooks the causes of exergy loss and the [177] found that RFCS is suitable for all climate zones in the United
utilization of internal resources. The commonly used evaluation in- States. In fact, RFCS is more energy efficient in environments with lower
dicators include exergy loss and exergy efficiency. Exergy loss is a humidity than in environments with higher humidity due to the high
decrease in energy quality in a system, mainly occurring in cold source energy consumption of cooling and dehumidification systems [23,84].
and transportation systems. Exergy analysis can evaluate exergy loss and The pre-cooling strategy can be used to reduce the peak cooling load and
efficiency. Exergy efficiency refers to the percentage of exergy used increase the cooling capacity in high temperature climate. Chandra-
effectively in the input system. The closer the exergy efficiency ap- shekar and Kumar [67] performed pre-cooling on a RFCS in a university
proaches 1, the better the thermodynamic perfection of the system. The building and found that the pre-cooling effect shifted the peak indoor
calculation equation for efficiency is shown in Equation (5) [69]. temperature by 2 h and reduced energy consumption. RFCS demon-
strates impressive self-regulating capabilities in high solar radiation
Exergy Loss environments. The radiant floor has a cooling emission rate of 39–50
ηex = 1 − (5)
Exergy input W/m2 when facing a mixture of cooling loads (convection and radiant),
The RFCS is efficient as a low-exergy system composed of multiple while the radiant floor has a cooling emission rate of 150–226 W/m2
subsystems [69]. Dealing with small temperature differences, it is when only receiving short wave radiation (solar energy) [178]. How-
possible to minimize the exergetic value of the heat flux in relation to its ever, the intermittent operation of the system would be significantly
energetic value [166,167]. However, conducting thermal analysis can influenced by the intensity of solar radiation [179]. The application of
be complex due to numerous design parameters. To improve accuracy RFCS in transitional seasons is easy to cause simultaneous cooling and
and efficiency, optimizing the calculation process is necessary. heating, which leads to energy waste [20].
With the influence of human activities on the environment, the
climate environment in the same area is also constantly changing. To
4. Application
promote the application of RFCS in various regions of the world, the
recommendations for the effective implementation of RFCS in different
4.1. Case studies
climates are summarized (Fig. 11). Normally, the recommendations are
affected by additional limitations, for example, natural night ventilation
The use of radiant floor for heating is widespread, it is also effective
needs to consider rainy days and air pollution. Further research is
for building heating during winter [149]. Nevertheless, there are rela-
needed on the optimal operating parameters of RFCS under different
tively few architectural reports on radiant floor heating and cooling
climate types to avoid both condensation on radiant surfaces and energy
system. The cases where they have been implemented in practical
inefficacy [127]. Some traditional control strategies have been com-
buildings are summarized in Table 4. It is evident that buildings
bined with climatic conditions, adjusting water supply parameters of
equipped with radiant floor heating and cooling systems exhibit high
RFCS according to the outdoor conditions [11,24,180]. Advanced con-
energy efficiency and provide significant economic benefits. This can be
trol strategies [15,112] also use weather forecasting to predict and
attributed to the use of natural cold sources like cooling towers or
correct the next operation of the system, thus maintaining better thermal
direct-ground cold source. Theoretically speaking, the natural cold
comfort in the room.
source may be impacted by the environment, leading to unstable water
supply temperatures, but performance results during testing have been
consistently satisfactory. Excessive use of natural cold sources can be 4.3. Building types
avoided by optimizing the utilization time of natural cold source [168].
The investigation of indoor thermal comfort is divided into measure- RFCS can be used in many types of buildings, such as office buildings
ment and questionnaire surveys. Although the radiation surface tem- [11,181], residential buildings [25,145], hospitals [177], educational
perature is uneven due to pipeline laying and other factors [122], little buildings [19], museums [182], airports [30,183], etc. The physical
research has explored the temperature distribution of radiant surface characteristics of the building will affect the system type and control
and asymmetric radiation. The occupants and test results generally meet strategy selection of the RFCS and indoor thermal comfort [176].
the requirements for thermal comfort, barring special human interfer- Most of the current research on RFCS is focused on commercial
ence. However, overcooling or overheating may still occur in certain buildings [184]. These buildings have a small shape factor that makes
periods [169,170]. In addition, the dehumidification control of the them less susceptible to outdoor climate. Moreover, the working hours
system can be affected by the behavior of residents [145]. In conclusion, occupancy pattern of some commercial buildings is relatively uniform.
the application results of the radiant floor heating and cooling system Due to commercial buildings tendency to maintain positive pressure, the
have achieved good application, especially in energy-saving buildings. changes in indoor humidity load caused by infiltration can be ignored
[13]. Although indoor positive pressure is beneficial for reducing the
pollution of outdoor air, it can cause moisture to penetrate the building
4.2. Climate types envelope. So, in high outdoor air quality or dry climates, balanced
ventilation or slight negative pressure will be preferred indoors. Talami
Climate is an important factor in the application of RFCS, which can and Jakubiec [17] performed a sensitivity analysis of 13 design
14
Table 4
Application cases of radiant floor cooling and heating system.
Reference Year Location Climates Building type System System cold/heat Monitoring period Building diagram
source
[171] 2005 Hamburg, Temperate Office building VS + CHP-plant, the July 2002–Aug.
Germany marine climate RF condensing boiler, 2002
direct-ground cold
source
[19] 2007 Biberach, Temperate Vocational VS + Groundwater, heat 2005

Germany marine climate training school RF pump, boiler
[19] 2007 Aachen, Temperate Office building VS + Borehole heat 2005

Germany marine climate RF exchangers, heat pump
[169] 2009 Calgary, Temperate the ICT Building VAV + Cooling coils, the 2004, 2006
Canada continental at the University RFC campus water network
climate of Calgary
[168] 2010 Germany Temperate House VS + Rainwater storage tank, 2006–2007

marine climate RFC heat pump, solar
collector
[83] 2015 Xian, China Moist continental Airport AHU + Cooling tower, water –
warm temperate RF chiller, heat exchange
monsoon climate station
[172] 2016 Ancona, Italy Subtropical the Leaf House AHU + Geothermal heat pump, 2010
humid climate RF ground coupled heat
exchanger solar
collector, boiler
[173] 2016 Denmark Temperate House AHU + Heat pump Sep. 26, 2013–10
marine climate RF Oct. 2014
[174] 2017 Colorado, Temperate Educational VS + Cooling tower, natural 2016–2017

United States continental building RF gas condensing boiler
climate system
(continued on next page)
15
Table 4 (continued )
Reference Year Location Climates Building type System System cold/heat Monitoring period Building diagram
source
[174] 2017 State of Temperate The Lovejoy VS + Cooling tower, 2016–2017

Oregon, maritime climate Opsis Building RFC photovoltaic system
United States
[122] 2019 Indiana, Continental Herrick Building AHU + Chiller, gas boiler 27 Jan. 2018–5
United States humid climate RF Feb. 2018 and 13
Aug. 2017–22
Aug. 2017
[175] 2022 Shandong, Warm temperate Office building VS + Direct-ground cold June 2015–Aug.
China continental RF source, heat pump 2015
monsoon climate
area
Fig. 11. Summary of suggestions for the application of RFCS in different climate types.
parameters for office buildings with RFCS installed, found that solar heat all-air cooling system. Due to the high insulation standards of buildings
gain coefficient and area ratio of window to wall played a key role in and the low energy efficiency of the system during nighttime, apart-
thermal comfort, operation, and energy consumption of RFCS. It was ments or single-family residences are usually controlled as one control
determined that buildings with square or compact rectangular shapes area [41].
achieved better energy performance. The control of a system is typically The building envelope structure connects the indoor climate envi-
based on the difference in heat loss or gain and the heat or cooling ronment with the external environment, and its insulation performance
required for the typical room [41]. The commercial building area is can have a significant impact on building energy consumption [186].
relatively large, and the buildings will be divided into areas based on the For building envelope structures using RFCS, their thermal storage ca-
north-south direction to ensure the accuracy of system control [41]. In pacity, permeability, and internal surface heat transfer need to be
different commercial building types, the average energy saving of RFCS considered [23,82]. The thermal resistance of the envelope can signifi-
varies between 6.84 % and 48.0 % [177]. cantly impact system operation [187]. Radiant floor systems cool the
The behavior of occupants in residential buildings is a crucial factor building envelope, which can lead to long response times and wasted
in the application of RFCS. Random occupant behavior significantly energy when the envelope has considerable heat storage capacity. In
affects the cooling demand and thermal comfort of the RFCS, and a good fact, RFCS has shown positive results when applied in high-rise buildings
control strategy needs to adapt to various occupant behaviors [126, [19]. Large surface areas of transparent materials are utilized in build-
185]. The research on the control of RFCS in residential buildings fo- ings, causing excessive internal surface heat and transmission of solar
cuses more on conventional control strategies (as shown in Table 2). radiation [107]. Large space buildings can vertically divide space,
Unlike in office buildings, the control strategies of RFCS in residential effectively cooling only the occupied space. The radiant floor will be
buildings are more reliant on external climate conditions and conven- maximized cooling capacity under solar radiation, which will also in-
tional strategies [41]. Furthermore, the use of lighter-weight radiant crease the temperature difference between the supply and return water
floor in residential buildings can also reduce the response time of the [83]. It is recommended to combine natural ventilation, natural cold
system and provide better thermal comfort for the interior. Andersen source, and sunshade design for optimization. If the high-quality inter-
et al. [71] studied the operation of the RFCS in residential buildings and connection and linkage between the internal functions of buildings and
discovered that the RFCS generates higher peak temperatures than the the radiant floor cooling systems are achieved, it is expected to bring
16
more opportunities for the radiant floor cooling systems. system control increases as the heat storage capacity of RFCS and the
internal loads of buildings increase. Model predictive control shows an
5. Discussion 11 %–15 % difference in electricity between RFCS with and without
precooling strategies [13]. Decoupling control of indoor parameters is
5.1. Floor structure and ventilation an interesting approach to mitigate condensation risks while improving
operational performance of radiant floor cooling systems. Through
Although several conventional floor structures have been proposed literature studies, the adoption of advanced control strategies to replace
in standards, there is still a lack of detailed research and data references conventional ones in actual buildings is limited, presenting challenges to
on the characteristics of new composite materials. Radiant floors treat their widespread application. The model established in advanced stra-
the sensible heat load indoors through both radiant and convective heat tegies is prone to deviate from the actual building, resulting in control
transfer, and the thermal performance of multi-layer floors would be imbalance. Although the model will be validated based on actual
significantly impacted by the pipe spacing and surface material. The building measurement data, changes in equipment and building condi-
piping materials (PE-X, PE-RT, PB, and PP, etc.) and surface materials of tions can compromise the performance of the model. Many studies
radiant floor heating systems of radiant floor systems, should possess highlight the need for future optimization of system models. Multi-stage
excellent thermal conductivity. In contrast, insulation materials need to calibration of floor cooling systems can improve model accuracy by 50
have good insulating properties to reduce downward heat loss. Research % [189]. Consequently, the development of equipment fault early
on the composition materials of radiant floor systems, particularly in monitoring and predictive diagnosis [190,191] based on RFCS is vital to
studying the thermal conductivity under various operating conditions, is ensure stable system operation and effective implementation of control
primarily conducted through experimental methods. It should be noted strategies.
that the surface temperature of the floor is non-uniform, and it is The initial investment of RFCS can be higher than that of traditional
influenced by solar radiation and furniture arrangement. This is not only air conditioning systems, and an economic assessment is required to
hindering anti-condensation but also hampering cooling. The inclusion determine its feasibility for application. Exergy analysis provides a more
of a high thermal conductivity matrix in the floor can effectively accurate evaluation of the system overall performance. Exergy losses
improve the issue [52]. Accurately estimating the thermal performance typically occur in transportation and cold source systems, and exergy
of radiant floor systems is beneficial for optimizing floor structures. analysis of RFCS helps explore the system potential for minimizing
However, there is limited research on how integrating different types of losses. However, there are relatively few studies on optimizing RFCS
radiant floor systems into a system affects long-term energy efficiency of operation control based on exergy analysis. Relative comparison can be
the system. In particular, when considering cost variations in innovative employed as a method for evaluating control strategies, involving the
designs of radiant floor structures, payback period becomes a crucial comparison of multiple cases to a base case or pairwise comparisons
criterion in engineering design. It is important to evaluate the extent to [112,123]. Many control strategies have been proven strong application
which energy savings offset the high costs of radiant floor. Many studies potential, but the choice of a base strategy they contrast varies across
focus on enhancing the responsiveness or cooling capacity of floor [29, studies. Therefore, reliable evaluation methods are needed to guide the
52]. For instance, the radiant panel with a short response time may selection and application of strategies in practical projects.
eliminate the need for pre-cooling strategies. Improvement of the con-
struction reliability and anti-condensation performance of radiant floors 5.3. Risk of condensation
would hold potential for the application of RFCS.
The ventilation system is the sole bearer of indoor latent load and The primary limitation of RFCS is the occurrence of condensation on
generally employs cooling dehumidification. Dehumidifiers may also be the floor surface. Therefore, the surface temperature of the radiant floor
utilized in situations with high latent load. The capacity of the ventila- is typically maintained above the dew point temperature. When the
tion system is closely related to the capacity of the radiant system [188]. radiant floor system operates under high loads, measures need to be
Numerous studies have documented that the energy efficiency of taken to reduce the dew point temperature to prevent condensation. The
ventilation systems is lower than that of radiant systems, which moti- improvement of airtightness and insulation performance of the building
vates minimizing the energy consumption of ventilation. Approximately envelope and incorporation of shading can mitigate outdoor environ-
24 % of studies set the ventilation air change rate at 0.5–1 h− 1, 47 % at mental influences [79]. Additionally, an integrated auxiliary system can
1-2 h− 1. The remaining 29 % opt to design the air change rate based on assist in managing the latent and sensible heat loads inside the space.
the occupants indoors. However, the improper use of the ventilation Different indoor environment of the same building zone needs to be
system may weaken the impact of the radiant floor system on the indoor regulated through air systems. In cases of significant latent load, using
environment, especially when convective heat gains are dominant separate dehumidification and cooling systems is preferable [87].
[178]. Therefore, it is recommended to improve the floor materials and Pre-dehumidification is necessary before activating the radiant floor,
structure to lower the supply water temperature of the radiant system and due to the thermal inertia of the system, it is still crucial to continue
and increase the capacity of the radiant floor system. controlling indoor humidity after the radiant system is turned off.
Airflow design near the floor and indoor heat source design can also
5.2. System operation control indirectly reduce the condensation risk of floor, but there is significant
uncertainty in system operation.
The design of control strategies for RFCS aims to achieve real-time The measures for releasing condensation on radiant floor mainly
responsiveness to the building interior conditions while reducing en- focus on system regulation, and the design of floor materials is also an
ergy consumption. Extensive research has been conducted on control important aspect, such as applying a film layer to the radiant surface to
strategies, employing simulation and experimentation as the primary isolate the air and prevent condensation (Fig. 12 [192]). This film layer
research methods. Simulation methods often utilize predefined internal ensures the transmission of infrared radiation between the radiant sur-
loads and occupant behavior, leading to building load variations that face and the indoor environment. Consequently, the surface temperature
heavily depend on external climate conditions. While abrupt thermal of the film is maintained above the dew point temperature, ensuring
environments provide greater resemblance to actual conditions, there is satisfactory indoor thermal comfort even when the supply water tem-
insufficient research on control strategies in such environments. Occu- perature of the radiant system is low. Passive condensation prevention is
pant behavior and equipment accuracy also affect the implementation of highly appealing for the application of RFCS [192,193]. However, the
control strategies, resulting in deviations between simulation and mechanical performance of materials applied on the surface of radiant
experimental results [75]. The importance of precooling strategies in floor poses a significant technical challenge. If this challenge is
17
Fig. 12. Schematic representation of radiation heat transfer for a condensation-free radiant cooling system with double-skin infrared-transparent membranes [192].
overcome, it will greatly enhance the performance potential of radiant renovation and upgrading are gradually being valued [197]. In the
floor systems. Thus, it is recommended to conduct research from various process of construction and renovation, the integration of RFCS into
perspectives, such as floor structure and system controls, in order to buildings may provide opportunities for further expansion at a lower
mitigate the risk of condensation on the radiant surface and simulta- cost. Building retrofits present challenges beyond installation and
neously improve the cooling capacity of the system. maintenance, including complex strategy transitions and limitations of
Risk assessment for condensation in RFCS is crucial for the possibility ventilation systems [46]. Clearly, incorporating thermal storage is
of system application. The condensation rate on the radiant surface of encouraged in the design of RFCS, which requires exploration of the
the floor is a basic index to evaluate the condensation on the floor sur- power grid and energy storage.
face [108], although it is seldom utilized in system evaluations. Building Radiant floor cooling and heating systems can be viable solutions for
simulations provide a means for early assessment of both building dy- achieving nearly zero energy buildings [75]. It is worth noting that
namics and condensation risks [183,194]. As the maturity of the pre- increasing the energy storage capacity and reducing the response time of
diction algorithm, the risk of condensation can be accurately predicted the RFCS are both research hotspots, and the inherent relationship be-
based on models or equations without experiments and simulations tween the two has reference value for the application direction of the
[195]. However, despite the potential of this promising approach, its system. The coordination between climate and application scenarios
implementation in RFCS has not been reported in the literature. should pay careful attention to fully meet energy and thermal comfort
requirements.
5.4. Radiant floor heating and cooling system
6. Conclusion
Radiant floor systems are commonly utilized for heating buildings;
however, there are fewer applications that simultaneously integrate In the context of rapid development in low-carbon energy, the RFCS
both radiant cooling and heating functions. For example, even in resi- has emerged as one of the most sustainable air conditioning systems.
dential buildings equipped with radiant floor heating systems, split air This review provided a comprehensive overview of the construction of
conditioning units are still commonly selected for cooling. Compared to radiant floors, the composition of radiant floor cooling systems, control
building heat load, the peak demand for building cooling load is large strategies for systems, and anti-condensation. The review also con-
and load fluctuates is greater, and the efficiency of centralized cooling ducted a thorough review of the application of RFCS to evaluate the
sources is low. Variable refrigerant flow system can achieve the same or balance between innovation and engineering design. Currently, research
better performance than RFCS under the same control strategy [13]. efforts are focused on the control and optimization, though there are still
Therefore, it is necessary to explore the building and climate conditions limitations in practice and innovation. Nonetheless, RFCSs still maintain
that are suitable for the application of radiant floor cooling and heating a vibrant, and investigating the latest developments in various aspects
systems, and develop efficient composite cooling sources. To achieve can help in adapting to the energy transition. The main discussions can
optimal cooling and heating effects with radiant floor system, it is be summarized as follows:
essential to consider the heat transfer mechanism and design conditions The control of RFCS is one of the major challenges, which is closely
[196]. tied to anti-condensation and system design. Consequently, research on
With the increase or decrease in the number of buildings, building RFCS primarily revolves around control strategies. Thermal comfort,
18
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The Development of Radiant Floor Cooling System (RFCS) : System Type, Control Strategy, and Application

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Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

The development of radiant floor cooling system (RFCS): System type,

Fig. 2. The sustainable development methods for implementing the system.

Fig. 5. Structure of active hollow core slabs [48].

3.2. Control method

According to the control classification of the heating, ventilation, air-

temperature and dew point temperature during system idle

3.3. Anti-condensation control performance parameters.

A 23.5–25.5 50 0.12 − 0.2–0.2 <10 <3 <10 19

[19] 2007 Biberach, Temperate Vocational VS + Groundwater, heat 2005

[19] 2007 Aachen, Temperate Office building VS + Borehole heat 2005

[168] 2010 Germany Temperate House VS + Rainwater storage tank, 2006–2007

[174] 2017 Colorado, Temperate Educational VS + Cooling tower, natural 2016–2017

(continued on next page)

[174] 2017 State of Temperate The Lovejoy VS + Cooling tower, 2016–2017

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