Modern University

For Information and Technology

Department of Physics and
Engineering Mathematics

Lectures Notes
of
Engineering
Graphics
EMP051

Prepared By
Pro. Dr: Mohamed Elfawal
Dr: Amira Fuad
2024
1
Lectures Notes
of
Engineering
Graphics
EMP051

Prepared By
Dr: Mohamed Elfawal
Dr: Amira Fouad
2024

2
 Faculty vision
Placing the Faculty of Engineering among the most
renowned establishments regionally and
internationally, through pioneering the fields of
engineering education and scientific research, via
academic specialization and distinguished
programs, that fulfill the needs of society and
contribute to sustainable development.

Faculty Mission
Achieving a remarkable academic standard in
graduating distinguished engineers, on the
academic, professional, and ethical levels. Keeping
pace with the latest educational techniques.
Encouraging scientific and technological research.
Exchanging knowledge, through the highest
academic and professional standards, in order to
fulfill the needs of society and contribute effectively
to achieving sustainable development in Egypt.
 INTRODUCTION

Engineering drawing is a two dimensional representation of three dimensional objects. In general, it provides
necessary information about the shape, size, surface quality, material, manufacturing process, etc., of the object. It
is the graphic language from which a trained person can visualise objects. Drawings prepared in one country may
be utilised in any other country irrespective of the language spoken. Hence, engineering drawing is called the
universal language of engineers. Any language to be communicative, should follow certain rules so that it conveys
the same meaning to everyone. Similarly, drawing practice must follow certain rules, if it is to serve as a means of
communication. For this purpose, Bureau of Indian Standards (BIS) adapted the International Standards on code
of practice for drawing. The other foreign standards are: DIN of Germany, BS of Britain and ANSI of America.
Role of Engineering Drawing
The ability to read drawing is the most important requirement of all technical people in any profession. As
compared to verbal or written description, this method is brief and more clear. Some of the applications are :
building drawing for civil engineers, machine drawing for mechanical engineers, circuit diagrams for electrical and
electronics engineers, computer graphics for one and all. The subject in general is designed to impart the following
skills.
1. Ability to read and prepare engineering drawings.
2. Ability to make free - hand sketching of objects.
3. Power to imagine, analyse and communicate, and
4. Capacity to understand other subjects:
Drawing Instrument and Aids
The Instruments and other aids used in draughting work are listed below:
1. Drawing board
2. Triangle
3. T square
4. Compass
5. Protractor
6. Ruler
7. French curves
8. Drawing sheets
9. Pencils
10. Eraser
Drawing Paper
Drawing paper is the paper, on which drawing is to be made. All engineering drawings are made on sheets of
paper of strictly defined sizes, which are set forth in the respective standards. The use of standard size saves
paper and ensures convenient storage of drawings.

Desirable properties a good drawing paper:

It should be smooth and uniform in thickness.
It should be thick, strong and tough.
Fibers of drawing paper should not be disintegrated when a good eraser is used on it.

Paper Types:
1. Detail Paper (used for pencil work).
2. White drawing paper (used for finished drawing)
3. Tracing paper (used for both pencil and ink work and useful for replicating a master copy)

Paper Size:

Table 1.3 ISO Paper Sizes (plus rounded inch values)

Format A series B series C series

Size mm × mm in × in mm × mm in × in mm × mm in × in

0 841 × 1189 33.1 × 46.8 1000 × 1414 39.4 × 55.7 917 × 1297 36.1 × 51.1
1 594 × 841 23.4 × 33.1 707 × 1000 27.8 × 39.4 648 × 917 25.5 × 36.1
2 420 × 594 16.5 × 23.4 500 × 707 19.7 × 27.8 458 × 648 18.0 × 25.5
3 297 × 420 11.7 × 16.5 353 × 500 13.9 × 19.7 324 × 458 12.8 × 18.0
4 210 × 297 8.27 × 11.7 250 × 353 9.84 × 13.9 229 × 324 9.02 × 12.8
5 148 × 210 5.83 × 8.27 176 × 250 6.93 × 9.84 162 × 229 6.38 × 9.02
6 105 × 148 4.13 × 5.83 125 × 176 4.92 × 6.93 114 × 162 4.49 × 6.38
7 74 × 105 2.91 × 4.13 88 × 125 3.46 × 4.92 81 × 114 3.19 × 4.49
8 52 × 74 2.05 × 2.91 62 × 88 2.44 × 3.46 57 × 81 2.24 × 3.19
9 37 × 52 1.46 × 2.05 44 × 62 1.73 × 2.44 40 × 57 1.57 × 2.24
10 26 × 37 1.02 × 1.46 31 × 44 1.22 × 1.73 28 × 40 1.10 × 1.57

The tolerances specified in the standard are

• ±1.5 mm (0.06 in) for dimensions up to 150 mm (5.9 in),
• ±2 mm (0.08 in) for lengths in the range 150 to 600 mm (5.9 to 23.6 in) and
• ±3 mm (0.12 in) for any dimension above 600 mm (23.6 in).
 A1 A2
594x841 420x594

A4
A3 297x210
297x420

A5
594x841

Paper Layout:

The ISO standard (ISO 5457) require a 20mm border to the left hand edge (for filing) and a 10mm border
round the other three sides of the drawing sheet. However, the margin of paper can be increased according
to requirements and settings of printer/plotter.
 Portrait layout

Pencil:
Pencils are used to draw different lines, shapes, symbols and to write texts in engineering drawing. Based on the
hardness of lead pencils are classified in three major grades as hard, medium and soft. They are further sub-
divided and numbered as mentioned in table below:

Grade Items arranged ordering harder to

softer
Hard 9H> 8H> 7H>6H>5H>4H
Medium 3H>2H>H>F>HB>B
Soft 2B>3B>4B>5B>6B>7B
Selection of proper grade pencil or lead is important for quality drawing. One has to be careful in selecting
a lead because very hard lead might penetrate the drawing, on the other hand, soft lead may smear. Quality
and type of drawing paper is an important factor in selecting lead. One other importance consideration is
the importance of line to be drawn. Inferior lines (like border lines, guide lines, construction lines and any
other auxiliary lines needed to be erased later) are drawn using harder pencil. Comparatively softer grade
pencil is used for drawing superior items (like object line, texts, symbols etc.).
Common uses of different grade pencil are tabulated below:

Table 1.5 Pencil Usage Guideline for Different Line Types

Task Lead Task Lead Task Lead
Border Lines 3H, 2H Centerlines 2H,H Leaders 2H, H
Construction Lines 3H, 2H Phantom Lines 2H,H Hidden Lines 2H, H
Guide Lines 3H, 2H Long Break Lines 2H, H Cross Hatching Lines 2H,H
Lettering H, F, HB Visible Lines H, F, HB Extension Lines 2H, H
Dimension Lines 2H, H Cutting Plane Lines H, F, HB Short Break lines H, F, HB

T-square:
1. Used to draw horizontal straight line.
2. Used to guide the triangles when drawing
vertical and inclined lines.

Triangle:
1. Used to construct the most common angles (i.e. 300, 450 and 600) in technical drawings.
2. Used to draw parallel and perpendicular lines quickly and conveniently.

Protractor:
It is used for laying out and measuring angle.
Scale (ruler):
A number of kinds of scales are available for varied types of engineering design. Scales with beveled
edges graduated in mm are usually used.

Diagonal Scale

Compass
It is used to draw circles and arcs both in pencil and ink. It consists of two legs pivoted at the top. One leg
is equipped with a steel needle attached with a screw, and other shorter leg is, provided with a socket for
detachable inserts.

French curve:
It is used to draw irregular curves that are not circle arcs. The shape varies according to the shape of
irregular curve.
 Fig. 1.10 French Curves

Lettering of Engineering Drawing:

To meet design or space requirements, letters may be narrower and spaced closer together, in which case they
are called “Compressed” or “Condensed” letters. If the letters are wider than normal, they are referred to as
“Extended” letters. on the size of the letter. The middle line of P and R are on centerline of the
Scale
The proportion by which we either reduce or increase the actual size of the object on a
drawing is known as scale. It is not possible always to make drawings of an object to its
actual size as the extent of drawing paper is limited and also sometimes the objects are too
small to make it clearly understandable by drawing its actual size in drawing paper. Scale is
the technique by which one can represent an object comfortably as well as precisely within
the extent of drawing paper.
In other words, a scale is a measuring stick, graduated with different divisions to represent
the corresponding actual distance according to some proportion. Numerically scales
indicate the relation between the dimensions on drawing and actual dimensions of the
objects.
1. Uses of scale
✓ To prepare reduced or enlarged size drawings.
✓ To set off dimensions.
✓ To measure distances directly.
2. Sizes of Scales
✓ Full size scale
✓ Reducing scale
✓ Enlarging scale

Full Size Scale

The scale in which the actual measurements of the object are drawn to the same size on the
drawing is known as full size scale. It is represented as 1:1 scale. If possible, drawing
should be done in full scale.

Reducing Scale
The scale in which the actual measurements of the object are reduced to some proportion is
known as reducing scale. The standard formats of reducing proportions are:

12
1:2 - drawing made to one-half of the actual size 1:5 - drawing made to one-fifth of the
actual siz 1:10 - drawing made to one-tenth of the actual size 1:50 - drawing made to one-
fiftieth of the actual size
1:100 - drawing made to one-hundredth of the actual size

Enlarging Scale
The scale in which the actual measurements of the object are increased to some proportion
is known as reducing scale. The standard formats of enlarging proportions are:

2:1 - drawing made to twice the actual size

5:1 - drawing made to five times the actual size 10: - drawing made to ten times the
actual size

Lines
Lines are straight elements that have no width, but are infinite in length (magnitude), and
they can be located by two points which are not on the same spot but fall along the line.
Lines may be straight lines or curved lines. A straight line is the shortest distance between
two points.

13
 NAME SHAPE

Thick lines

Medium dashed lines

Thin lines : Continuous

Dashed-dotted

Angle
An angle is formed by the intersection of two lines. There are three major kinds of angles:
right angels, acute angles and obtuse angles.

Triangles
A triangle is a closed plane figure with three straight sides and their interior angles sum up
exactly 1800. The various kinds of triangles: a right triangle, an equilateral triangle, an
isosceles triangle, and an obtuse angled triangle.

14
Quadrilateral
It is a plane figure bounded by four straight sides. When opposite sides are parallel, the
quadrilateral is also considered to be a parallelogram.

Polygon
A polygon is a closed plane figure with three or more straight sides. The most important of
these polygons as they relate to drafting are probably the triangle with three sides, square
with four sides, the hexagon with six sides, and the octagon with eight sides. A polygon is
said to be “Regular Polygon” when all of its sides are equal in length and each of the
internal angles formed at corners are equal in magnitude. Some helpful relations to be
remembered for regular polygons are:

15
Circle
A circle is a closed curve with all points on the circle at the same distance from the center
point. The major components of a circle are the diameter, the radius and circumference.

Solids
They are geometric figures bounded by plane surfaces. The surfaces are called faces, and if
these are equal regular polygons, the solids are regular polyhedral

Techniques of Geometric constructions

16
To construct the above mentioned geometric figures, we have to know some principles and
procedures of geometric construction. Thus, the remaining of this chapter is devoted to
illustrate step-by-step geometric construction procedures used by drafters and technicians to
develop various geometric forms. First of all we have to be well-expertise in using set
squares particularly for drawing parallel and perpendicular lines. Fig. 4.7 illustrates it.

How to Bisect a Line or an Arc

To bisect a line means to divide it in half or to find its center point. In the given process, a
line will also be constructed at the exact center point at exactly 900.

Given: Line A-B

Step 1: Set the compass approximately two-thirds of the length of line A-B and swing an
arc from point A.
Step 2: Using the exact same compass setting, swing an arc from point B.
Step 3: At the two intersections of these arcs, locate points D and E
Step 4: Draw a straight-line connecting point D with point E. Where this line intersects line
A-B, it bisects line A-B. Line D-E is also perpendicular to line A-B at the exact center
point.

How to Divide a Line into a Number of Equal Parts Given: Line A-B
Step 1: Draw a construction line AC that starts at end A of given line AB. This new line is
longer than the given line and makes an angle preferably of not more than 300 with it.
Step 2: Find a scale that will approximately divide the line AB in to the number of parts
needed (5 in the example below), and mark these divisions on the line AC. There are now
‘n’ equal divisions from A to D that lie on the line AC (5 in this example).
Step 3: Set the adjustable triangle to draw a construction line from point D to point B. Then
draw construction lines through each of the remaining ‘n-1’ divisions parallel to the first
line BD by sliding the triangle along the straight edge. The original line AB will now be
accurately divided.

17
 D
C

How to Bisect an Angle

To bisect an angle means to divide it in half or to cut it in to two equal angles.
Given: Angle BAC
Step 1: Set the compass at any convenient radius and swing an arc from point A
Step 2: Locate points E and F on the legs of the angle, and swing two arcs of the same
identical length from points E and F, respectively.
Step 3: Where these arcs intersect, locate point D. Draw a straight line from A to D. This
line will bisect angle BAC and establish two equal angles: CAD and BAD.

How to Draw an Arc or Circle (Radius) through Three Given Points Given: Three
points in space at random: A, B and C.
Step 1: With straight line, lightly connect points A to B, and B to C,
Step 2: Using the method outlined for bisecting a line, bisect lines A-B and B-C
Step 3: Locate point X where the two extended bisectors meet. Point X is the exact center
of the arc or circle.
18
Step 4: Place the point of the compass on point X and adjust the lead to any of the points A,
B, or C (they
are the same distance), and swing the circle. If all work is done correctly, the arc or circle
should pass through each point.

How to Transfer an Odd Shape (Triangular) Given: Triangle ABC.

Step 1: Letter or number the various corners and point locations of the odd shape in
counterclockwise order around its perimeter. In this example, place the compass point at point
A of the original shape and extend the lead to point B. Swing a light arc at the new desired
location. Letter the center point as A' and add letter B' at any convenient location on the arc.
It is a good habit to lightly letter each point as you proceed.
Step 2. Place the compass point at letter B of the original shape and extend the compass lead
to letter C of the original shape.
Step 3. Transfer this distance, B-C, to the layout.
Steps 4 and 5. Going back to the original object, place the compass point at letter A and
extend the compass lead to letter C. Transfer the distance A-C as illustrated in Figure. Locate
and letter each point.
Step 6. Connect points A', B', and C’ with light, straight lines. This completes the transfer of
the object. Recheck all work and, if correct, darken lines to the correct line weight.

19
How to Transfer Complex Shapes
A complex shape can be transferred in exactly the same way by reducing the shape into
simple triangles and transferring each triangle using the foregoing method.

Given: An odd shape, A, B, C, D, E, F, G.

Step 1: Letter or number the various corners and point locations of the odd shape in
clockwise order around the perimeter. Use the longest line or any convenient line as a
starting point. Line A-B is chosen here as the example. Lightly divide the shape into
triangle divisions, using the baseline if possible. Transfer each triangle in the manner
described in previous procedure. Suggested triangles to be used in example are ABC, ABD,
ABE, ABF and ABG.

20
Step 2: This completes the transfer. Check all work and, if correct, darken in lines to correct
line thickness.

How to Draw A Pentagon (5 Sides)

Given: The locations of the pentagon center and the diameter of circle that will
circumscribe the pentagon.
Step 1: Draw the circle with given diameter taking given location as center (C). Letter a
diameter as HB.
Step 2: Draw a perpendicular CD that meets the circumference at D.
Step 3: Bisect radius CB at A.
Step 4: With A as center, and CD as radius, strike arc DE that meets the radius CH at E.
Step 5: With D as center, and DE as radius, strike arc EF that meets the nearest
circumference at F.
Step 6: Draw line DF, this is the length of one side. Now set off distances DE around the
circumference of the circle, and draw the sides through these points.

21
How to Draw a Hexagon (6 Sides)

Given: The locations of the hexagon center and the diameter of circle that will circumscribe
the hexagon.

Step 1: Draw the circle with given diameter taking given location as center.
Step 2: Extend the compass upto a length equal to the radius of the ciecle.
Step 3: Starting from any point, say A1, on the circumference, cut 6 equal segments and
mark the points as A1, A2, A3, A4, A5 and A6.
Step 4: Join each 2 consecutive points to obtain the hexagon A1 A2 A3 A4 A5A6.

How to Draw an Octagon (8 Sides)

Given: The locations of the octagon center and the diameter of circle that will be inscribed
by the octagon.

Step 1: Draw the circle with given diameter taking given location as center.
Step 2: Draw any two mutually perpendicular diameters.
Step 3: Draw tangents to the circle at the ends of diameters to obtain a square.
Step 4: Draw diagonals of the square. Diagonals will intersect the circle at 4 points.
Step 5: Draw tangent to the circle at the 4 intersection points obtained in step 4. These
tangents will meet the sides of square drawn in step 3. Now darken the obtained octagon.

22
How to Draw any Sided Regular Polygon

i. Given: Number of sides and the diameter of circle that will circumscribe the polygon.

Step 1: Draw the circle with given diameter taking given location as center. Mark a
diameter. As example let us draw a 7 sided polygon. Mark the diameter as 0-7.
Step 2: Divide the diameter in “n” equal segments using parallel line method. Here n=7 for
our case.
Step 3: Construct an equilateral triangle (0-7-8) with the diameter (0-7) as one of its sides.
Step 4: Draw a line from the apex (point 8) through the second point on the line (point 2)
and extend line 8-2 until it intersects the circle at point 9.
Step 5: Now 0-9 is the length of each side of the polygon. Taking 0-9 as radius of compass,
cut the circumference in 7 equal segments to obtain the corners of the seven sided polygon
and connect the points.

ii. Given: Length of one side and number of sides (i.e. 5 for pentagon, 6 for hexagon, 8
for octagon etc.)

Step 1: Calculate one internal angle of the polygon using formula (n-2)rr ;N
Step 2: Draw a line of length equal to the given side.
Step 3: Draw the obtained internal angle at one end of the line and set off distances equal to
the given side.
Step 4: Continue repeating the step 3 until you reach another end of 1st line. Thus the
polygon will be drawn.
23
iii. Given: Number of sides and diameter of out scribing circle.

Step 1: Draw the circle. Using protractor, Draw an angle equal to 360° at the center of
circle where n =n number of sides.
Step 2: The lines drawn for the angle cuts the circle at A and B. Then AB is the length of
one side. Now set off distances AB around the circumference of the circle, and draw the
sides through these points.

iv. Given: Number of sides and diameter of inscribing circle.

Step 1: Draw the circle. Using protractor, Divide the central 3600 angle into “n” number of
equal part by drawing “n” number of angles each equal to 360° at the center of circle where
n = number of sides. n
Step 2: The lines drawn for the angles cuts the circle at A, B, C, D…. etc. At each point of
intersection draw a tangent to the circle. The tangents will meet each other at 1, 2, 3, 4……
etc. Then 1-2-3-4-….. is the required polygon.

How to Locate the Center of a Given Circle Given: A circle without a center point.
Step 1: Using the T-square, draw a horizontal line across the circle approximately halfway
between the estimated center of the given circle and the uppermost point on the
circumference. Label the end points of the chord thus formed as A and B.
Step 2: Draw perpendicular lines (90°) downward from points A and B. Locate points C
and D where these two lines pass through the circle.
Step 3: Carefully draw a straight line from point A to point D and from point C to point B.
Where these lines cross is the exact center of the given circle. Place a compass point on the
center point; adjust the lead to the edge of the circle and swing an arc to check that the
center is accurate.
How to Draw Arc Tangent to a Straight Line and a Curve

Given: Straight line AB, an arc with a center point O or radius r, and a required radius (R)
of arc tangent.
Step 1: Take a radius equal to r + R , place the needle of compass at the center of given

24
curve and draw an arc EF.
Step 2: Draw a line CD parallel to AB at a distance R so that the line CD and arc EF
intersects at point G.
Step 3: Taking G as center and R as radius draw an arc. This arc will touch the line AB and
the given arc.

How to Draw Arc Tangent to Two Arcs of Different Radius

Given: Two arcs AB, CD with their center point O1 and O2 or radius r1 and r2, and a
required radius (R) of arc tangent.
Step 1: If radius of arcs are not given but their center location is known, say O1 and O2 ;
Take any point P on the 1st arc and taking it as center draw an arc EF with radius R. Join
O1P and extend it until it meets the curve EF at Q. Take O1 as center and O1Q as radius
draw another arc QS. If the radius of arcs are given then simply take O1 as center and draw
the arc QS by taking radius equal to r1+R.
Step 2: Following similar method as in step 1, draw another arc TS taking O2 (Center of
2nd arc) as center such that TS intersects QS at S.
Step 3: Take S as center and R as radius, draw an arc that will touch the given 2 arcs.

How to Draw Straight Tangent to Two Arcs of Different Radius

Given: Two arcs of different radius and their center location A and B or radius r1 , r2 and
center distance AB.

Step 1: Consider the two given circles with centers A and B respectively. If r1 , r2 and AB
are given draw them accordingly.
Step 2: Draw any radius of the curve having larger diameter, BC, in example. Cut
BD=radius of curve with smaller diameter. Taking center as B and radius as CD draw an
arc EF. If value of r1 , r2 are given simply draw the arc EF taking radius as r2- r1 and
center as B.
Step 3: Using set square draw a tangent AF to the arc EF from point A.
Step 4: Join BF and extend it until it meets the given curve at P.

25
Step 5: Complete the rectangle AFPQ. Then PQ will be the required tangent.

How to Draw an Ellipse (Four-centered Approximate Method) Given: Major and

Minor axis length (say, a and b respectively).
Step 1: Draw a line PQ=a and find out its mid-point O. At O draw a perpendiculars
OR=OS=b/2.
Step 2: Taking center O and radius OP, draw an arc PA that intersects the extended minor
axis (RS) at A.
Step 3: Join PR. Taking R as center and RA as radius draw an arc that intersects PR at B.
Step 4: Bisect PB at C and draw a perpendicular at C that intersects the extended minor axis
(RS) at D. The line CD also intersects PO at E.
Step 5: Draw OE’ equal to OE and OD’ equal to OD. Join DE’, D’E and D’E’ and extend
them.
Step 6: Taking D and D’ as centers and DR or D’S as radius draw 2 arcs MRN and KSL
respectively.
Step 7: Taking E and E’ as centers and PE or QE’ as radius draw another 2 arcs KPM and
NQL respectively. Thus the ellipse will be completed.

Exercise

26
27
Draw in full scale the drawing below, use the axes in the sheet - do
not draw the dimensions in the drawing.

O
5

2
O
2

R
6

R
3
60

28
 O85
Draw in full scale the
drawing given, use the
given axes below , do not

O 6 S
LE
6 HO
O
5

R
2

R
7
3H
OLE

R
S

9
draw the dimensions in
your drawing.

29
30
31
 MENSIONING

Objectives
Objectives of studying dimensioning are:
➢ To know the purposes of dimensioning

➢ To understand the differences between dimension line, extension line, leaders etc.

➢ To know the guidelines of dimension system.

➢ To learn to draw the dimension of technical drawings as per the standard

Purpose of Dimensioning
The purpose of dimensioning is to provide a clear and complete description of an object. A complete set
of dimensions will permit only one interpretation needed to construct the part. In some cases, engineering
drawing becomes meaningless without dimensioning. Maintaining scale only does not make a drawing
sufficient for manufacturer. By direct measurement from drawing according to the scale is very laborious,
time-consuming and such a part cannot be manufactured accurately. In general dimensioning system
provides following information
✓ Sizes and locations of features

✓ Material’s type

✓ Number required

✓ Kind of surface finish

✓ Manufacturing process

✓ Size and geometric tolerance

General Conditions for Dimensioning

✓ Accuracy: correct values must be given.

✓ Clearness: dimensions must be placed in appropriate positions.

✓ Completeness: nothing must be left out, and nothing duplicated.

✓ Readability: the appropriate line quality must be used for legibility.

Elements of Dimension System

✓ Extension lines
 ✓ Dimension lines

✓ Arrowheads

✓ Leaders

✓ Texts, numbers and symbols.

Fig. Dimensioning Elements

Rules for Dimensioning

General Rules for Dimensioning
✓ Dimensioning should be given within the extent of the view in general.

✓ Dimensioning should not be duplicated in other view.

✓ No subtraction or addition should be required to define or locate a feature.

✓ Dimensioning should be inserted on relatively larger available view to make it clear.

✓ One system of dimensions either unidirectional or aligned has to be used throughout the

drawing.
✓ Dimensioning to the hidden lines should be avoided, in general.

✓ Dimensioning should be made on the view, which represents the shape of the part best.

✓ A zero must be placed before decimal point.

Rules of Extension Lines
Extension lines are the lines that indicate the point or line or space on the drawing to which dimension is
being applied. Following conditions should be maintained while inserting an extension line:
✓ A gap of 1mm has to be kept between extension line and visible line.

✓ An extension line should be extended about 3mm from the outmost dimension line.

✓ Extension lines may cross each other without break.

✓ Center lines can be used as extension lines.

✓ Extension lines are drawn usually perpendicular to dimension lines. But for

overcrowded drawing they can be drawn at an oblique angle as well.

Wrong

Rules of Dimension Lines

Dimension lines are the lines that show the dimensions of a specific portion indicated by
extension lines. Following conditions should be maintained while inserting a dimension line:
✓ Dimension line should be approximately 10mm away from visible line.

✓ Spacing between consecutive parallel dimension lines may also be kept as 10mm.

✓ Dimension lines are broken near the middle to allow space for dimensions.

✓ As far as possible dimension lines should be placed outside the view.

✓ Dimension lines should not cross each other.

✓ Center lines should never be used as dimension lines.

✓ If space between extension lines is very short for inserting arrows, the arrows

may be provided outside the extension lines.

✓ .
 Fig. Dimension and Extension lines

Rules of Arrowhead
Arrowheads are used at both ends of dimension lines and at the ends of leaders. They are usually
drawn freehand. Following conditions should be maintained while inserting an arrowhead:
✓ As far as possible all arrowheads should be identical in shape and size throughout the

drawing.
✓ An approximate ratio of the length to width of arrowhead as 3:1 should be maintained.

✓ Arrowheads must touch the line. It must not be either away from the line or cross the

line.

Dimensioning of Arcs
The dimension figure and the arrowhead should be inside the arc, where there is sufficient space. If space
is limited then leaders can be used comfortably.
Fig. Dimensioning of Arc
 ISOMETRIC AND PROJECTION

All forms of engineering and technical work require that a two dimensional surface (paper) be used to
communicate ideas and the physical description of a variety of shapes. To provide necessary information
about an object to the manufacturer or to any other concerned party, it is usual practice to provide
projection(s) of that object.

Projection

Projection is the process in which the rays of sight are taken in a particular direction from an object to form
an image on a plane. If straight lines (rays) are drawn from various points on the contour of the object to
meet a transparent plane, thus the object is said to be projected on that plane. The figure or view formed
by joining, in correct sequence, the points at which these lines meet the plane is called the projection of the
object.

Picture Plane/Plane of Projection

The plane or surface on which the rays of sight are projected and combined to form a view is called picture
plane.

View
The image formed on picture plane by projecting rays of sight is called a view.

Projector
The lines or rays drawn from the object to the plane are called projectors.
 Types of Projection
1. Orthographic/ multi view Projection

2. Pictorial Projection

3. Perspective Projection

Orthographic Projection
'ORTHO' means right angle and orthographic means right angled drawing. When the projectors are
perpendicular to the plane on which the projection is obtained, it is known as orthographic projection.
Following six views are possible in orthographic projection of a solid object.
a. Top View

b. Front view

c. Left View

d. Right View

e. Rear view

f. Bottom view

Pictorial Projection
The Projections in which the description of the object is completely understood in one view is known as pictorial
projection. They have the advantage of conveying an immediate impression of the general shape and details of the
object, but not its true dimensions or sizes. Pictorial projections may be of two types as
a. Axonometric
b. Oblique
Fig. Orthographic Views
Axonometric Projection
It is a type of parallel pictorial projection in which an object appears to be rotated to show its all
three dimensions. Axonometric projections are classified according to how the principle axes are
oriented relative to the projected surface. There may be three types as:
i. Isometric

ii. Dimetric
iii. Trimetric

Fig. 7.3 Axonometric Projections

Oblique Projection
It is a type of parallel pictorial projection in which projectors are parallel to each other but they are not
perpendicular to the picture plane. The angle is usually kept 150-450. This may be of two types:
iv. Cavalier Projection: In this case, the dimensions along all the axes are plotted in full scale.
v. Cabinet Projection: In this case, the dimensions along the diagonal axis are plotted by
reducing it to half of the actual value. Dimensions along other axes are plotted in full scale.

Fig. Oblique Projection

 Perspective Projection
It is a type of pictorial projection in which projectors are not parallel to each other and they occur
at an angle to the picture plane in such a way that they converge to a point as if an observer sees the
view on the picture plane from that point. In case of perspective projection observer is considered
to be at finite distance where in case of any other type of projection observer is considered to be at
infinity.

Fig. 7.5 Perspective Projection

Details of Orthographic Projection
Basically, Orthographic projection is any single projection made by dropping perpendiculars to a plane. In
short, orthographic projection is the method of representing the exact shape of an object by dropping
perpendiculars from two or more sides of the object to planes, generally at right angles to each other;
collectively, the views on these planes describe the object completely. Descriptive geometry is basically the
use of orthographic projection in order to solve for advanced technical data involving the spatial relationship
of points, lines, planes, and solid shapes. The most common means of understanding these types of
orthographic projection is - The Glass Box method.

The Glass Box Method

The Glass Box method was used primarily for descriptive geometry problems. It can be suitably used for
understanding the generation of orthographic views. Key points of “the glass box method” are:
✓ The user imagines that the object is enclosed in a transparent “box” said to be “the

glass box”.
✓ Each view of the object is established on its corresponding glass box surface.

✓ To obtain a view, perpendicular projectors are drawn originating at each

point of the object and extending to the related box surface.

✓ The box is imagined as hinged so that it can be unfolded on to one flat plane

(the paper). The box is unfolded to obtain the arrangement of views.

In figure ..the vertical lines of sight (A) and horizontal lines of sight (B) are assumed to meet at
infinity. The line of sight is always perpendicular to the plane of projection, represented by the
surfaces of the glass box (top, front, and right side). Projection lines(C) connect the same point on
the plane of projection from view to view, always at right angle. A point is projected up on the
plane of projection where its projector cuts that image plane. In the figure .., point 1, which
represents a corner of the given object, has been projected on to the three primary image planes.
When it intersects the horizontal plane (top plane of projection), it is identified as 1H, when it
intersects the frontal plane (front plane of projection), it is identified as 1F, and where it intersects
the profile plane (right side plane of projection), it is labeled 1P.
When there is no enough place for normal location of figures, we can use an arrow and the inscription
of the view to locate it in any free space on the drawing sheet.

Necessary Number of Projections :

The component is drawn in so many figures that are unconditionally necessary for exact
determination of its shape and for complete dimensioning the component.

Representation of simple components:

Very complicated component is composed of the simple principal geometrical bodies. First of all we have
to learn how to depict these geometrical bodies in technical way. Technical depicting differs from the exact
orthogonal projection to simplify and to clarify the drawing.
Pictorial View Orthogonal Projection Technical Depicting
1. Drawing of Rectangular
prism

-Flat surface is identified by

diagonals of thin lines
-Dimensions are simplified
by dimension multiplier

Pictorial View Orthogonal Projection Technical Depicting

2. Drawing of Regular
Square prism

-Flat surface is identified by

diagonals of thin lines
-Dimensions are simplified
by dimension multiplier or by
the symbol
Center lines are drawn up to -The Center line represents
several mm out of the outline the axis of symmetry
, and it can be continued
along both views
3. Drawing of Regular
Square Truncated
Pyramid
 -Flat surface is identified by
diagonals of thin lines
-Dimensions are simplified
by dimension multiplier or by
the symbol
-The Center line represents
the axis of symmetry.

Pictorial View Orthogonal Projection Technical Depicting

4. Drawing of a Cylinder

-Plan is replaced BY the

symbol of diameter 
-The Center line represents
the axis of symmetry
5. Drawing of Frustum of a
Cone.

-Plan is replaced BY the

symbol of diameter 
-The Center line represents
the axis of symmetry

Exercise
52
Projection

53
54
55
56
57
58
59
60
Missing Views

61
62
63
64
65
 Exersics of Missing Views
Draw the three views for the given Figure scale1:1

66
67
68
 Sectioning Views
Sectioning
It is defined as an imaginary cut made through an object to expose the interior or to reveal the shape
of a portion.
Sectional View

A view is a view of an imaginary surface, exposed by an imaginary slicing-open of an object,

allowing interior details to become visible. A sectional view is sometimes referred to as a cross
section or simply section. It is a view in which all or a substantial portion of the view is sectioned

69
70
71
72
73
74
75
76
Solved Examples

77
78
 1- Section Elevation at B-B
2- Section Side View at A-A
3- Section Plan at E-E

E E

1- Section Elevation at B-B

2- Section Side View at A-A
3- Section Plan at E-E

E E

79
Section Elevation at B-B
Section Side View at A-A
Section Plan at E-E

Section Elevation at B-B

Section Side View at A-A
Section Plan at E-E

80
 Section Elevation at B-B
Section Side View at E-E
Plan

11

Section Elevation at B-B

Section Side View at E-E
Section Plan at A-A

12

81
82
83
84
Perspective projection is a method of graphic representation of an object on a single
plane called picture plane as seen by an observer stationed at a particular position
relative to the object. As the object is placed behind the picture plane and the observer
is stationed in front of the picture plane, visual rays from the eye of the observer to the
object are cut by the picture plane. The visual rays locate the position of the object on
the picture plane. This type of projection is called perspective projection. This is also
known as sceno graphic projection or convergent projection.
Method of preparing a perspective view differs from the various other methods of
projections discussed earlier. Here, the projectors or visual rays intersect at a common
point known as station point. A perspective projection of a street with posts holding
lights, as viewed by an observer from a station point, is shown in Fig. 10.9. The observer
sees the object through a transparent vertical plane called picture plane as shown in
Fig.I0.9(a). The view obtained on the y,•cture plane is show in Fig. 10.9(b). In this view,
the true shape and size of the street will not be seen as the object is viewed from a station
point to which the visual rays converge. This method of projection is theoretically very
similar to the optical system in photography and is extensively employed by architects to
show the appearance of a building or by artist-draft man in the preparation of illustrations
of huge machinery or equipment.

1. Horizon Plane (H.P.): This is the imaginary horizontal plane perpendicular to the picture
plane and passing through the station point. This plane lies at the level of the observer.
2. Horizon Line (H.L.): This is the line of intersection of the horizon plane with the picture
plane. This plane is parallel to the ground line.

Top view
 i ACiP

.
I• CP
I --- Fr.ont view
HP

observer
(eye}

Fig. 10.10 Elements of perspective view

3. Axis ofVision (A.V.): This is the line drawn perpendicular to the picture plane and passing
through the station point. The axis of vision is also called the line of sight or perpendicular
axis.
4. Centre ofVision (C.V.): This is the point through which the axis of vision pierces the picture
plane. This is also the point of intersection of horizon line with the axis of vision.
5. Central Plane (C.P.): This is the imaginary plane perpendicular to both the ground plane and
the picture plane. It passes through the centre of vision and the station point while containing
the axis of vision.
6. Visual Rays (V.R.): These are imaginary lines or projectors joining the station point to the
various points on the obje t. These rays converge to a poi
Perspective Projection of Straight Lines

In Visual Ray Method, perspective. projection of a straight line is drawn by first

marking the perspectives of its end points and then joining them.

Problem :

Draw the perspective projection of a straight line AB, 60mm long, parallel to and IO mm
above the ground plane and inclined at 45° to PP. The end A is 20 mm behind the picture
plane. Station point is 35 mm in front of the picture plane and 45mm above the ground
plane and lies in a central plane passing through the mid-point of AB.

Top View
1. Draw PP and mark a 20 mm above it.
2. Draw ab= 60 mm (True length of AB) inclined at 45° to PP
 ‫‪3. From the mid-point of ab erect a vertical line to represent the CP.‬‬
‫‪4. Along the central plane mark sp 35 mm below pp.‬‬
‫‪5. Join an and b with sp to represent the top view of the visual rays.‬‬
‫‪6. Mark the piercing points a and b on asp and bsp respectively.‬‬
‫‪Front View‬‬
‫‪7. Draw GL at any convenient distance below PP.‬‬
‫‪8. Draw a1 b1 parallel to and 10 mm above GL.‬‬
‫‪9. Draw HL 45 mm above GL.‬‬
‫‪10. Mark sp1 at the intersection of CP & HL.‬‬
‫‪11. Join SP1 with a1 and b1,‬‬
‫‪1 1‬‬ ‫‪1‬‬ ‫‪1‬‬
‫‪12. From a1 and b1 (piercing points) erect verticals to intersect sp a and sp b (the front view‬‬
‫‪of the visual rays) at A and B respectively.‬‬
‫‪13. AB is the required perspective projection.‬‬

‫الهندسه الوصفيه)‪(Descriptive Geometry‬‬

‫تمثيل الخط المستقيم‬
‫يحدد الخط المستقيم في الفراغ بمسقطيه األفقي و الرأسي ‪ ,‬اى ان المستقيم ‪ AB‬في الفراغ‬
‫يكون مسقطه األفقي ( '‪ ) A'B‬ومسقطه الرأسي ( "‪ . ) A"B‬وأى نقطة تقع على المستقيم أب تقسمه في الفراغ بنفس نسبة‬
‫تقسيمها في المساقط ‪.‬‬

‫أى ان اذا كانت)‪ (C‬تقسم أب مثال بنسبة ‪ 3 : 1‬في الفراغ فإ)'‪ ( C‬تقسم )'‪ (A'B‬بنسبة ‪3 : 1‬‬
‫وهـكـذا‪.‬اي ان ‪AC/CB=A'C'/C'B'=A''C''/C''B''=1/3‬‬

‫رسم مساقط الخط المستقيم كالتالي‪ :‬يمكن‬

‫بمعلومية احداثيات نقطتي نهايتيه الراسية )‪ (Y‬واالفقية )‪ (Z‬والمسافة بين خطي التناظر في اتجاه موازي لخط‬
‫االرض )‪.(G.L‬‬
‫بمعلومية االحداثيات الثالثة )‪.(X,Y,Z‬‬

‫ملحظة*‬
‫واذا لم يوازي أي ‪,‬اذا وازى الخط المستقيم أي من المستويات الثالثة فأن مسقطه على ذلك المستوي يمثل الطول الحقيقي للمستقيم‬
‫من المستويات قيكون مسقطه على المستوي المسقط اقصر من طوله الحقيقي‪.‬‬
 ‫ألثر‪ //‬هو نقطة تقابل المستقيم او امتداده في الفراغ مع المستوي‬

‫ألثـر ألفـقـي ‪ :‬هو تقابل المستوي ألفقي مع المستقيم او تقابل المستقيم مع مسقطه الفقي ويرمز له بالرمز ‪.‬‬
‫))‪((H‬‬
‫وإليجاد األثر أألفقي نمد المسقط الرأسي للمستقيم الى ان يقابل خط األرض ثم نرسم منه عمودا على خط األرض الى ان يقابل‬
‫المسقط األفقي‬

‫‪ -2‬األثـر الـرأسـي ‪ :‬هو تقابل المستوي الرأسي مع المستقيم تقابل المستقيم مع مسقطه الراسي‬
‫ويرمز له بالرمز))‪((V‬‬
‫‪ .‬وإليجاد األثر الرأسي نمد المسقط األفقي للمستقيم الى ان يقابل خط األرض ثم نرسم منه عمودا على خط األرض حتي‬

‫يقابل المسقط الرأسي للمستقيم‪.‬‬

‫‪ -3‬زاوية ميل المستقيم على المستوي االفقي )‪: (α‬هي الزاوية المحصورة بين المستقيم ‪ AB‬او‬
‫امتداده ومسقطه االفقي '‪A'B‬او امتداده‪.‬‬

‫‪ -4‬زاوية ميل المستقيم على المستوي الراسي)‪: (β‬هي الزاوية المحصورة بين المستقيم ‪ AB‬او‬
‫امتداده ومسقطه الراسي ''‪A''B‬او امتداده‬

‫المواضع المختلفة للمستقيمات بالنسبة لمستويات االسقاط ‪-:‬‬

‫‪ -1‬مستقيم في وضع عام أى ال يوازي أحد مستويات االسقاط ويتحدد بمعلومية مسقطي أى‬
‫نقطتين عليه وله اثر افقي ‪ H‬واثر راسي ‪ , V‬و يكون على هذه الصورة‬

‫‪ -2‬مستقيم افقي ‪ :‬اى يوازى المستوى األفقي‬

‫‪....‬كل نقطة على هذا المستقيم بعدها ثابت على المستوى األفقي‪.‬‬
‫‪....‬المسقط الرأسي يوازي خط األرض ‪.‬‬
 ‫‪....‬المسقط األفقي يظهر بطوله الحقيقي‪.‬‬
‫‪....‬الزاوية بين المسقط األفقي وبين خط األرض تساوي زاوية ميل المستقيم على المستوى الرأسي‬
‫‪ ..‬له أثر رأسي وليس له أثر افقي‪.‬‬

‫‪ -3‬مستقيم وجهي ‪ :‬أى يوازي المستوي الرأسي (عكس األفقي(‬

‫‪....‬كل نقطة على المستقيم بعدها ثابت عن المستوي الرأسي‪.‬‬
‫‪....‬المستوي األفقي يوازي خط األرض‪.‬‬
‫‪....‬المستقيم الرأسي يظهر بطوله الحقيقي‪.‬‬
‫‪....‬الزاوية بين المسقط الرأسي وخط األرض تساوي زاوية ميل المستقيم على األفقي‬
‫‪....‬له أثر أفقي وليس له أثر رأسي‪.‬‬

‫‪ -4‬مستقيم جانبي ‪ :‬أى يوازي المستوي الجانبي‬

‫‪....‬كل نقطة بعدها ثابت عن المستوي الجانبي‪.‬‬
‫‪....‬المسقطين األفقي والرأسي يتعامدان مع خط األرض‪.‬‬
‫‪....‬المسقط الجانبي يظهر بطوله الحقيقى‪.‬‬
‫‪....‬له أثرين أفقي ورأسي‪.‬‬
‫‪....‬تظهر زاويتي ميل المستقيم على المستويين الرأسي ألفقي بشكلهما الحقيقي‪.‬‬
‫‪ -5‬مستقيم رأسي ‪ :‬أى مستقيم عمودي على المستوي األفقي ويوازي المستوي الراسي‪.‬‬
‫‪....‬يظهر بطوله الحقيقي على المسقط الرأسي‪.‬‬
‫‪....‬مسقطه الرأسي عمودي على خط األرض‪.‬‬
‫‪....‬يظهر كنقطة في المستوي األفقي‪.‬‬
‫‪....‬له أثر افقي يقع على نفس النقطة وليس له أثر رأسي ‪. α = 0‬‬

‫‪ -6‬مستقيم عمودي على المستوي الرأسي‪:‬‬

‫‪....‬مسقطه األفقي عمودي على خط األرض‪.‬‬
‫‪....‬يظهر بطوله الحقيقي في المسقط األفقي‪.‬‬
‫‪....‬مسقطه الرأسي عبارة عن نقطة‪.‬‬
‫‪....‬له أثر رأسي وليس له أثر أفقي‪. β=0‬‬
 :‫ مستقيم عمودي على المستوي الجانبي‬-7
. ‫ مسقطيه األفقي والرأسي يوازيان خط األرض‬....
.‫المسقطين األفقي والرأسي يظهران بطولهما الحقيقي‬....
.‫المسقط الجانبي يظهر كنقطة‬....
.α = 0‫ و‬β=0‫ليس له اثر أفقي وال راسي ولكن له أثر جانبي‬....

Bibliography
1. Dr. Amalesh Chandra Mandal, Dr. Md. Quamrul Islam, Mechanical Engineering
Drawing, 2007, 1st ed., Dhaka – Associate Printing Press.

2. Wuttet Taffesse, Laikemariam Kassa, Lecture Notes on Engineering Drawing,

2005, 1st ed., Ethiopia Public Health Training Initiative – Ethiopia Ministry of
Education.

3. David L. Goetsch, John A. Nelson, William S. Chalk, Technical Drawing

Fundamentals Cad Design, 1986, 2nd ed., New York – Delmar Publishers Inc.
4. R.K. Dhawan, A Textbook of Machine Drawing, 2001, 2nd ed., New Delhi – S.
Chand & Company Ltd.

5. M.B. Shah, B.C. Rana, Engineering Drawing, 2009, 2nd ed., New Delhi – Dorling
Kindersley (India) Pvt. Ltd.

6. K. Venkata Reddy, Textbook of Engineering Drawing, 2008, 2nd ed., Hyderabad –

BS Publications.
96