Agronomy for Sustainable Development (2019) 39: 37

https://doi.org/10.1007/s13593-019-0583-1

REVIEW ARTICLE

Efficacy of homemade botanical insecticides based on traditional

knowledge. A review
Julien Dougoud 1 & Stefan Toepfer 1 & Melanie Bateman 1 & Wade H. Jenner 1

Accepted: 17 May 2019 / Published online: 20 June 2019

# The Author(s) 2019

Abstract
Homemade botanical insecticides are widely used by subsistence and transitional farmers in low-income countries. Their use is
often driven by the limited availability or cost of commercial pesticides. Homemade botanical insecticides are often recommend-
ed by agricultural extension services and some development organizations. However, this could be questioned because scientific
evidence of their efficacy and safety may not be available or accessible. Although botanicals with insecticidal properties have
been widely studied, a synthesis focusing specifically on homemade preparations used in realistic field or storage conditions is
missing. In this paper, we review efficacy assessments of botanicals used to prepare homemade insecticides. This covers twelve
botanicals recommended by national extension partners in 20 countries within the global agricultural Plantwise program. These
are as follows: garlic (Allium sativum), neem (Azadirachta indica), chili pepper (Capsicum spp.), Siam weed (Chromolaena
odorata), mother of cocoa (Gliricidia sepium), chinaberry (Melia azedarach), moringa (Moringa oleifera), tobacco (Nicotiana
tabacum), clove basil (Ocimum gratissimum), tephrosia (Tephrosia vogelii), tree marigold (Tithonia diversifolia), and bitter leaf
(Vernonia amygdalina). This review shows that (1) all the selected botanicals contain active ingredients with insecticidal,
antifeedant, or repellent properties, and (2) homemade insecticides based on all the selected botanicals have been used with
some success to control pests or prevent damage, although efficacy was variable and often lower than the positive controls
(synthetic pesticides). Factors affecting the efficacy of homemade botanical insecticide include variation in active ingredient
content and concentration in plant material, as well as variation in the preparation process. In conclusion, there is some evidence
that homemade botanical insecticides could contribute to reducing losses in food production. Since further research is needed to
better understand their variable efficacy and potential health and environmental risks, those who promote the use of homemade
botanical insecticides should also communicate those “unknowns” to the farmers who use such products.

Keywords Pesticide . Pest control . Arthropod . Insect . Mite . Antifeedant . Deterrent . Repellent . Human safety .
Environmental safety . Food security

1 Introduction of crop protection in safeguarding yields and thus ensuring

food security. Although components of integrated pest man-
Globally, yield losses due to arthropods, diseases, and weeds agement are now widely applied in developed countries, reli-
are estimated to account for about 35% in major crops. Losses ance on pesticides to control pest outbreaks remains high
may exceed 50% in developing regions where pest control (Farrar et al. 2016; Vasileiadis et al. 2017). Synthetic pesti-
options are limited (Oerke 2006). In some cases, damage by cides are intensively used in developed and transitional coun-
pests, and arthropods in particular, can lead to even higher tries (FAO 2013). In developing countries, many subsistence
losses or total crop failure (Abate et al. 2000; Grzywacz and transitional farmers do not have access to synthetic pesti-
et al. 2014; Lingappa et al. 2004). This highlights the key role cides, or cannot afford them (Abate et al. 2000; Nyirenda et al.
2011). Similarly, commercial preparations of alternatives,
such as biological control agents or botanical pesticides (“bo-
tanicals”), are often not available and may also be expensive
* Wade H. Jenner
[email protected] (Amoabeng et al. 2014; Dougoud et al. 2018).
Botanicals were used for control of agricultural pests in
1
CABI, Rue des Grillons 1, CH-2800 Delémont, Switzerland ancient China, Egypt, Greece, and India already two millennia
37 Page 2 of 22 Agron. Sustain. Dev. (2019) 39: 37

ago (Isman 2006). Still today, traditional pest control using Zambia, Tanzania, Sierra Leone, Kenya, Ethiopia, and
botanicals for the protection of field crops or during storage Mozambique), in Central, South, and Southeast Asian
is widespread and popular among subsistence and transitional countries (particularly in Afghanistan, India, Myanmar,
farmers (Belmain and Stevenson 2001; Gerken et al. 2001). Nepal, Cambodia, and Sri Lanka), and to a lesser extent in
For example, up to 100% of the farmers in some regions of the Americas (particularly in Nicaragua). The most widely
Zimbabwe and Uganda report using botanicals or have used recommended botanical was, by far, neem, followed by chili
them (Makaza and Mabhegedhe 2016; Nyirenda et al. 2011). pepper, garlic, and tephrosia; however, 25 other botanicals
These typically involve simple preparations, such as ground or were also recommended in the extension materials reviewed
whole plant material, and aqueous extracts thereof (Fig. 1). (J. Dougoud, unpublished).
Globally, over 2500 plant species belonging to 235 families The appropriateness of the recommendation and use of
have been reported to have biological activities against pests botanicals for pest control can be questioned. In general, the
(Isman 2006; Roy et al. 2016; Saxena 1998; Stevenson et al. supporting evidence for the use of botanicals is very old and
2017). More specifically, the use of a wide variety of botani- their efficacy needs to be reevaluated. Some of the botanicals
cals for insect pest control is highlighted in many farmer sur- that are being used for pest control may lack active ingredi-
veys, such as with 10 botanicals being used by farmers in ents, which would make their use by smallholder farmers a
Northern Malawi, 7 in Zambia (Nyirenda et al. 2011), 34 in waste of time. Moreover, results may be unpredictable due to
the Lake Victoria basin in Uganda (Kamatenesi-Mugisha et al. varying active ingredient content and concentration in the
2010), or 11 in one district of the Tamil Nadu State in India used plant material (Sarasan et al. 2011), as well as differences
(Kiruba et al. 2008). in the preparation method. Finally, their toxicity to nontargets
In light of the limited availability and prohibitive cost of (species that are not the intended target) has often not been
synthetic pesticides for subsistence and transitional farmers, evaluated. Although there is gathering evidence that some of
some consider botanicals to be a valid alternative to synthetic the botanicals used for pest control are less toxic to nontargets
pesticides (Isman 2008). A number of government agricultur- than synthetic pesticides (Tembo et al. 2018), others may be
al departments actively promote botanical preparations in their hazardous to users, livestock, or the environment. Yet, the use
advisory materials. As such, national extension partners in of botanicals for pest control is so widespread that it cannot be
Plantwise (www.plantwise.org), a global agricultural ignored. Over the last decades, the efficacy of botanicals used
development program led by CABI (Centre for Agriculture in traditional pest management has been widely investigated
and Bioscience International), sometimes include homemade in research trials. However, a synthesis of the scientific infor-
pesticide preparations in their recommendations and extension mation on homemade botanical insecticides used by subsis-
materials. An analysis of 811 pest management decision tence and transitional farmers is missing.
guides developed by national extension partners in Plantwise This review was therefore conducted to investigate the sci-
(www.plantwise.org/KnowledgeBank/home.aspx) showed entific basis of homemade insecticides for 12 botanicals with
that botanical preparations are frequently recommended in regard to their efficacy and reliability at reducing arthropod
these extension materials in African countries (particularly in pest populations or their impact. Findings show the potential

Fig. 1 Women preparing a

homemade insecticide in Odisha
State, India. A woman is crushing
garlic cloves. A heap of neem
leaves can be seen on the bottom
left of the picture. Photo credit:
Basudev Mahapatra
Agron. Sustain. Dev. (2019) 39: 37 Page 3 of 22 37

and limitations of the selected homemade botanical insecti- results obtained in trials that do not reproduce storage condi-
cides as alternatives to pesticides, with a discussion on factors tions (for storage applications) were used as complementary
affecting efficacy. Human and environmental safety, as well as information for discussion.
practical and economic aspects, are also briefly discussed. Over half of the publications identified during this lit-
erature search as documenting trials with homemade bo-
tanical insecticides did not follow basic scientific proce-
2 Methodology dures. For instance, the methodology was not sufficiently
described, no control treatment was included, no exact
2.1 Methodology and scope of information search figures were provided (e.g., results presented in charts
with no numerical value), or no statistical analysis was
The selection of the botanicals was based on (i) their recom- performed. Publications with any of these critical flaws
mendation in pest management decisions guides developed by were not considered for this review.
agricultural extension and plant protection partners in the
Plantwise program and (ii) availability of at least 5 literature
references documenting the efficacy of homemade botanical 2.2 Summarizing efficacy trial results
insecticides in conditions similar to farmer practice. The 12
botanicals reviewed are as follows: garlic, Allium sativum L. Table 1 summarizes efficacy trials performed using home-
(Asparagales: Amaryllidaceae); neem, Azadirachta indica made botanical insecticides in field and storage applications.
Juss. (Sapindales: Meliaceae); chili pepper, Capsicum spp. Results were grouped by botanical and plant material used and
(Solanales: Solanaceae); Siam weed, Chromolaena odorata then by host crop. It was not possible to group results by target
(L.) R. M. King & H. Rob (Asterales: Asteraceae); mother pest species or type because a substantial number of studies
of cocoa, Gliricidia sepium (Jacq.) Kunth ex Walp. (Fabales: were performed under natural conditions and did not distin-
Fabaceae); chinaberry, Melia azedarach L. (Sapindales: guish damage done by different pest species. Whenever a
Meliaceae); moringa, Moringa oleifera Lam. (Capparidales: study assessed efficacy using multiple parameters and results
Moringaceae); tobacco, Nicotiana tabacum L. (Solanales: were consistent, only one parameter was selected for this re-
Solanaceae); clove basil, Ocimum gratissimum L. (Lamiales: view; however, two or more parameters were selected when
Lamiaceae); tephrosia, Tephrosia vogelii Hook f. (Fabales: results were inconsistent. These parameters included the num-
Fabaceae); tree marigold, Tithonia diversifolia (Hemsley) A. ber of seeds produced; yield; pest mortality; pest population
Gray (Asterales: Asteraceae); and bitter leaf, Vernonia reduction; number of eggs laid; damage done to leaves, fruits,
amygdalina (Delile) (Asterales: Asteraceae). or whole plant; number of damaged grains; and grain weight
This review was based on a literature search using the on- loss during storage. Whenever available, data on yield were
line repository CAB Direct (https://www.cabdirect.org) and included.
Google Scholar (https://scholar.google.com). The search Not all plant material dosages and application frequen-
considered all the studies published over the last 30 years, cy could be included. When there was no statistical dif-
i.e., from 1987 to 2017. It focused on homemade botanical ference in efficacy between plant material dosages, the
insecticides used for arthropod control. Mixtures of botanicals lowest effective dosage was included; however, when
were not covered in this review. Homemade botanical there was a statistical difference between dosages, two
insecticides were reviewed for their efficacy in field and dosages were selected to underline a dose-dependent ef-
postharvest applications. Information on the economic fect. In a few cases, two different dosages were included
viability of these homemade plant protection products was even though they were not statistically different because
also collected, where available. Human, animal, and efficacy varied by a factor of two or more. This was taken
environmental safety is only briefly addressed as this as an indication that dosage deserves further investigation.
complex topic should be covered in another review. When a botanical was considered ineffective, only the
Only efficacy trials which used botanicals in their raw form highest dosage was selected to reduce the likelihood that
or which used simple preparation methods (grinding, the lack of effect was due to inadequate dosage.
pounding, aqueous extraction) were considered for the devel- In order to facilitate the comparison among trials, results
opment of Tables 1 and 2. For field applications, only field were transformed into percentages, which were calculated
trials were considered. For storage applications, laboratory based on the data given. When relevant, Abbott’s formula
trials under realistic storage conditions were included, such (Abbott 1925) was used. The efficacy percentages shown in
as botanicals added to stored grains or beans, due to the lim- Table 1 for both homemade botanical insecticides and positive
ited availability of on-farm trials. Results obtained using com- controls (i.e., a reference product such as a synthetic pesticide)
mercial extracts and solvents other than water, as well as re- are always relative to the negative controls (i.e., untreated or
sults obtained in laboratory trials (for field applications), or sprayed with water and adjuvants).
Table 1 Treatment details and efficacy of homemade insecticide preparations based on 12 botanicals. Results are grouped by botanical and plant material and then by host crop. There is no grouping by
target pest because a substantial number of studies were performed under natural conditions and did not distinguish damage done by different pest species

Plant material, dosage2 Crop Pest Efficacy (%) in comparison with negative control Source
37 Page 4 of 22

Parameter3 Botanical4 Positive control4,5,6

Garlic (Allium sativum)

Cloves, fresh, 30 g/l+1 Cabbage Brevicoryne sp., Plutella sp. Yield gain 5/9 − 10/25; 48*/24 Fening et al. 2013
Cloves, fresh, 50 g/l+1 Cabbage Brevicoryne sp., Hellula sp., Yield gain 349* 304* Baidoo and Mochiah 2016
Plutella sp., Trichoplusia sp.
Cloves, fresh, 100 g/l+1 Citrus Tetranychus urticae Pest red. 64* 87* Attia et al. 2011
Cloves, dried, 50 g/l+1 Cowpea Maruca sp., Clavigralla sp. Yield gain 263*/190* 1016*/816* Oparaeke et al. 2007
Cloves, dried, 160 g/l Cowpea Not specified Leaf damage red. 14 – Nta et al. 2013
Cloves, dried, 25 g/l Sunflower Aphis gossypii Pest red. 59* – Said et al. 2015
Cloves, fresh, 235 g/l+1 Yardlong beans Aphis spp. Pest red. 40* – Bahar et al. 2007
Neem (Azadirachta indica)
Cake, 100 g/l+1 Wheat Sitobion avenae Pest red. 22* 42* Aziz et al. 2013
Leaves, fresh, 50 g/l Chickpea Helicoverpa armigera Pest red. 40* 91* Kumar et al. 2015
Leaves, fresh, 50 g/l Cowpea Pod-sucking bugs Yield gain 320* 419* Degri et al. 2013
Leaves, fresh, 333 g/l Maize 13 maize pests Yield gain 38* 36* Montes-Molina et al. 2008a
Leaves, fresh, 333 g/l Maize 13 maize pests Pest red. 2 50* Montes-Molina et al. 2008a
Oil, 20 ml/l Eggplant Tetranychus macfarlanei Pest red. 7–54* 67*–91* Patil and Nandihalli 2009
Oil, 20 ml/l Eggplant Tetranychus macfarlanei Yield gain 15 29* Patil and Nandihalli 2009
Oil, 10 ml/l Black gram Bemisia tabaci Yield gain 27* 26*; 24* Gupta and Pathak 2009
Seeds, 25 g/l+1 Onion Thrips tabaci Yield gain 37* 57 Shiberu et al. 2012
Seeds, 1 pinch/plant+1 Maize Chilo sp., Busseola sp. Pest red. 46*/47* – Abate 2011
Seeds, 1 pinch/plant+1 Sorghum Chilo sp., Busseola sp. Pest red. 24*/9 – Attia et al. 2011
Seed kernels, 50 g/l Eggplant Tetranychus macfarlanei Pest red. 10*–42* 67*–91* Patil and Nandihalli 2009
Seed kernels, 50 g/l Eggplant Tetranychus macfarlanei Yield gain 15 29* Patil and Nandihalli 2009
Seed kernels, 5 g/plant Sorghum Sesamia calamistis Yield gain 38* 35* Okrikata et al. 2016
Seed kernels, 2.5 g/plant +1 Sorghum Sesamia calamistis Yield gain 39* 35* Okrikata et al. 2016
Seed kernels, 50 g/l Chickpea Helicoverpa armigera Pest red. 52* 91* Kumar et al. 2015
Seed kernels, 50 g/l+1 Wheat Sitobion avenae Pest red. 32* 42* Aziz et al. 2013
Seeds, 4 g/m2 Chili pepper Termites Yield gain 191*/46* 162*/20 Ibrahim and Demisse 2013
Leaves, fresh, 333 g/l Bean Soil pests Seed yield gain 113* 61 Montes-Molina et al. 2008b
Leaves, dried, 25 g/kg Stored cowpea Callosobruchus maculatus Pest red. 0 – Boeke et al. 2004b
Leaves, dried, 50 g/kg Stored maize Sitophilus zeamais Pest mortality 60* 87* Kossou 1989
Oil, 2.5 ml/kg Stored cowpea Callosobruchus maculatus Pest red. 100* – Ilesanmi and Gungula 2010
Oil, 10 ml/kg Stored wheat Sitophilus oryzae Weight loss red. 90* – Kemabonta and Falodu 2013
Seeds, 40 g/kg Stored bean Callosobruchus chinensis Damage red. 90* – Ahmad et al. 2015
Seeds, 25 g/kg Stored wheat Sitophilus zeamais Weight loss red. 100* – Ileke and Oni 2011
Seeds, 50 g/kg Stored wheat Sitophilus oryzae Weight loss red. 88* – Kemabonta and Falodu 2013
Seed kernels, 50 g/kg Stored maize Sitophilus zeamais Pest mortality 87* 87* Kossou 1989

Chili peppers (Capsicum spp.)

Agron. Sustain. Dev. (2019) 39: 37

Fruits, fresh, 20 g/l+1 Bean Yield gain − 16/25* − 33/35* Fening et al. 2014
Table 1 (continued)

Plant material, dosage2 Crop Pest Efficacy (%) in comparison with negative control Source

Parameter3 Botanical4 Positive control4,5,6

Megalurothrips sp., Bemisia sp.,

Empoasca spp., Aphis sp.
Fruits, fresh, 30 g/l + Cabbage Brevicoryne brassicae Pest red. 89* 22; 100* Amoabeng et al. 2013
Fruits, fresh, 30 g/l + Cabbage Plutella xylostella Pest red. 91* 48*; 100* Amoabeng et al. 2013
Agron. Sustain. Dev. (2019) 39: 37

Fruits, fresh, 30 g/l+1 Cabbage Brevicoryne sp., Plutella sp. Yield gain 17/23 − 10/25; 48*/24 Fening et al. 2013
Fruits, fresh, 20 g/l+1 Cabbage Brevicoryne sp., Plutella sp., Bemisia sp. Yield gain 7/26 3/8 Fening et al. 2014
Fruits, fresh, 70 g/l+1 Cabbage Brevicoryne sp., Hellula sp., Plutella sp., Yield gain 445* 304 Baidoo and Mochiah 2016
Trichoplusia sp.
Fruits, dried, 5 g/plant Sorghum Sesamia sp. Yield gain 37* 35* Okrikata et al. 2016
Fruits, dried, 25 g/kg Stored cowpea Callosobruchus maculatus Pest red. 0 – Boeke et al. 2004b
Fruits, dried, 10 g/kg Stored cowpea Callosobruchus maculatus Weight loss red. 25* 81*–87* Yusuf et al. 2011
Fruits, dried, 50 g/kg Stored cowpea Callosobruchus maculatus Weight loss red. 88* 81*–87* Yusuf et al. 2011
Fruits, dried, 10 g/kg Stored cowpea Callosobruchus maculatus Damage red. 87*–95* – Onu and Aliyu 1995

Siam weed (Chromolaena odorata)

Leaves, fresh, 30 g/l+1 Cabbage Brevicoryne sp., Plutella sp. Yield gain 143*/73* 82*/94* Amoabeng et al. 2014
Leaves, dried, 10 g/l+1 Cabbage Brevicoryne sp., Hellula sp., Plutella sp. Yield gain 154*/188* 186*/156 Ezena et al. 2016
Leaves, fresh, 30 g/l + Cabbage Brevicoryne brassicae Pest red. 94* 22; 100* Amoabeng et al. 2013
Leaves, fresh, 30 g/l + Cabbage Plutella xylostella Pest red. 100* 48*; 100* Amoabeng et al. 2013
Leaves, fresh, 50 g/l Cowpea Pod-sucking bugs Yield gain 307* 419* Degri et al. 2013
Leaves, dried, 100 g/l+1 Okra Podagrica spp. Yield gain 76/69* 150*/119* Onunkun 2012

Mother of cocoa (Gliricidia sepium)

Leaves, fresh, 333 g/l Maize 13 maize pests Yield gain 21* 36* Montes-Molina et al. 2008a
Leaves, fresh, 333 g/l Maize 13 maize pests Pest red. −6 50* Montes-Molina et al. 2008a
Leaves, fresh, 23 g/l Capsicum Polyphagotarsonemus latus Pest red. 14* – Jiménez-Martínez et al. 2016
Leaves, fresh, 333 g/l Bean Soil pests Seed yield gain 156* 61 Montes-Molina et al. 2008b
Leaves, dried, 10 g/kg Stored bean Zabrotes subfasciatus Pest mortality 54* – Rendón-Huerta et al. 2013
Leaves, dried, 16 g/kg Stored cowpea Callosobruchus maculatus Weight loss red. 62* 99* Ojo et al. 2016
Leaves, dried, 40 g/kg Stored cowpea Callosobruchus maculatus Weight loss red. 81* 99* Ojo et al. 2016
Chinaberry (Melia azedarach)
Leaves, fresh, 4 g/l Cabbage Pieris brassicae Yield gain 58* 69* Singh et al. 2013
Fruits, fresh, 100 g/l+1 Citrus Tetranychus urticae Pest red. 53* 87* Attia et al. 2011
Green fruits, dried, 200 g/l Citrus Phyllocnistis citrella Pest red. 51* 96* McKenna et al. 2013
Fruits, dried, 20 g/kg Stored wheat Sitophilus zeamais Pest mortality 91* – Espinoza et al. 2012
Leaves, dried, 20 g/kg Stored wheat Sitophilus zeamais Pest mortality 92* – Espinoza et al. 2012
Leaves, dried, 50 g/kg Stored bean Callosobruchus maculatus Pest red. 48*/76* – Hafez et al. 2014
Leaves, dried, 10 g/kg Stored bean Zabrotes subfasciatus Pest mortality 28 – Rendón-Huerta et al. 2013
Leaves, dried, 10 g/kg Stored bean Zabrotes subfasciatus Damage red. 53* – Rendón-Huerta et al. 2013
Moringa (Moringa oleifera)
Page 5 of 22 37
Table 1 (continued)

Plant material, dosage2 Crop Pest Efficacy (%) in comparison with negative control Source

Parameter3 Botanical4 Positive control4,5,6

37 Page 6 of 22

Leaves, dried, 25 g/l Watermelon Diabrotica sp., Phyllotreta sp., Yield gain 52 378* Alao and Adebayo 2015
Bactrocera sp.
Leaves, dried, 100 g/l Watermelon Diabrotica sp., Phyllotreta sp., Yield gain 238* 378* Alao and Adebayo 2015
Bactrocera sp.
Leaves, dried, 67 g/kg Stored cowpea Callosobruchus maculatus Weight loss red. 31* – Longe 2016
Leaves, dried, 20 g/kg Stored cowpea Callosobruchus maculatus Damage red. 28* – Ojo et al. 2013
Leaves, dried, 100 g/kg Stored cowpea Callosobruchus maculatus Damage red. 66* – Ojo et al. 2013
Leaves, dried, 50 g/kg Stored maize Prostephanus truncatus Damage red. 89* – Osipitan et al. 2014
Oil, 7.5 ml/kg Stored cowpea Callosobruchus maculatus Pest red. 100* – Ilesanmi and Gungula 2010
Oil, 25 ml/kg Stored wheat Sitophilus oryzae Weight loss red. 37 – Kemabonta and Falodu 2013
Seeds, 67 g/kg Stored cowpea Callosobruchus maculatus Weight loss red. 79* – Longe 2016
Seeds, 50 g/kg Stored wheat Sitophilus oryzae Weight loss red. 27 – Kemabonta and Falodu 2013

Tobacco (Nicotiana tabacum)

Leaves, fresh, 30 g/l + Cabbage Brevicoryne brassicae Pest red. 100* 22; 100* Amoabeng et al. 2013
Leaves, fresh, 30 g/l + Cabbage Plutella xylostella Pest red. 91* 48*; 100* Amoabeng et al. 2013
Leaves, fresh, 30 g/l+1 Cabbage Brevicoryne sp., Plutella sp. Yield gain 111*/90* 82*/94* Amoabeng et al. 2014
Leaves, dried, 10 g/l+1 Yardlong bean Aphis spp. Pest red. 72* – Bahar et al. 2007
Leaves, dried, 12,5 g/l+1 Onion Thrips tabaci Yield gain 40* +57* Shiberu et al. 2012
Leaves, dried, 25 g/kg Stored cowpea Callosobruchus maculatus Pest red. 100* – Boeke et al. 2004b
Leaves, dried, 67 g/kg Stored cowpea Callosobruchus maculatus Weight loss red. 100* – Longe 2016

Clove basil (Ocimum gratissimum)

Leaves, fresh, 30 g/l + Cabbage Brevicoryne brassicae Pest red. 86* 22; 100* Amoabeng et al. 2013
Leaves, fresh, 30 g/l + Cabbage Plutella xylostella Pest red. 100* 48*, 100* Amoabeng et al. 2013
Leaves, dried, 200 g/l+1 Cowpea Clavigralla tomentosicollis Yield gain 703*/704* 2250*/2317* Oparaeke 2006
Leaves, dried, 10 g/kg Stored rice Sitophilus oryzae Weight loss red. 94* – Law-Ogbomo and Enobakhare 2007
Leaves, dried, 50 g/kg Stored maize Prostephanus truncatus Damage red. 77* – Osipitan et al. 2014
Leaves, 1.26 g/kg Stored maize Prostephanus sp., Sitotroga sp., Weight loss red. − 4–40 99*–100* Mlambo et al. 2017
Sitophilus sp., Tribolium sp.
Tephrosia (Tephrosia vogelii)
Leaves, dried, 10 g/l + Bean Aphis sp., Ootheca sp., Epicauta sp. Yield gain 60* 31* Mkenda et al. 2015a
Leaves, fresh, 50 g/l Cowpea Maruca vitrata Pest red. 85* 92* Olaitan and Abiodun 2011
Leaves, fresh, 50 g/l Cowpea Riptortus dentipes Pest red. 53* 81* Olaitan and Abiodun 2011
Leaves, dried, 100 g/l+1 Cowpea Aphis sp., Ootheca spp., Epicauta spp. Yield gain 563*/107* 635*/214* Tembo et al. 2018
Leaves, dried, 25 g/l Watermelon Diabrotica sp., Phyllotreta sp., Bactrocera sp. Yield gain 46 378* Alao and Adebayo 2015
Leaves, dried, 100 g/l Watermelon Diabrotica sp., Phyllotreta sp., Bactrocera sp. Yield gain 287* 378* Alao and Adebayo 2015
Leaves, dried, A chemotype, 10 g/kg Stored cowpea Callosobruchus maculatus Pest mortality 69* – Belmain et al. 2012
Leaves, dried, B chemotype, 50 g/kg Stored cowpea Callosobruchus maculatus Pest mortality 10 – Belmain et al. 2012
Leaves, dried, 10 g/kg Stored cowpea Callosobruchus maculatus Pest mortality 72* 100* Mkenda et al. 2015b
Leaves, dried, 100 g/kg Stored cowpea Callosobruchus maculatus Pest mortality 90* 100* Mkenda et al. 2015b
Agron. Sustain. Dev. (2019) 39: 37
Table 1 (continued)

Plant material, dosage2 Crop Pest Efficacy (%) in comparison with negative control Source

Parameter3 Botanical4 Positive control4,5,6

Leaves, dried, 10 g/kg Stored maize Sitophylus zeamais Pest mortality 93* 100* Ogendo et al. 2003
Tree marigold (Tithonia diversifolia)
Leaves, dried, 10 g/l + Bean Aphis sp., Ootheca sp., Epicauta sp. Yield gain 53* 31* Mkenda et al. 2015a
Agron. Sustain. Dev. (2019) 39: 37

Leaves, fresh, 50 g/l+1 Cowpea Clavigralla sp., Nezara sp., Ootheca sp., Yield gain 422* 944* Owolade et al. 2004
Maruca sp., Megalurothrips sp.
Leaves, dried, 100 g/l+1 Cowpea Aphis sp., Ootheca spp., Epicauta spp. Yield gain 363*/108* 635*/214* Tembo et al. 2018
Leaves, dried, 10 g/kg Stored cowpea Callosobruchus maculatus Pest mortality 67* – Adedire and Akinneye 2004
Leaves, dried, 40 g/kg Stored cowpea Callosobruchus maculatus Pest mortality 88* – Adedire and Akinneye 2004
Leaves, dried, 10 g/kg Stored cowpea Callosobruchus maculatus Pest mortality 20* 100* Mkenda et al. 2015b
Leaves, dried, 100 g/kg Stored cowpea Callosobruchus maculatus Pest mortality 37* 100* Mkenda et al. 2015b
Leaves, dried, 20 g/l, 40 ml/kg Stored cowpea Callosobruchus maculatus Weight loss red. 91* – Obembe and Kayode 2013

Bitter leaf (Vernonia amygdalina)

Leaves, dried, 10 g/l + Bean Aphis sp., Ootheca sp., Epicauta sp. Yield gain 40* 31* Mkenda et al. 2015a
Leaves, fresh, 100 g/l Cowpea Pod-sucking bugs (5 species), Maruca sp. Yield gain 189* 294* Degri et al. 2012
Leaves, dried, 200 g/l+1 Cowpea Clavigralla tomentosicollis Yield gain 386*/386* 2250*/2317* Oparaeke 2006
Leaves, dried, 100 g/l+1 Cowpea Aphis sp., Ootheca spp., Epicauta spp. Yield gain 322*/31 635*/214* Tembo et al. 2018
Leaves, dried, 100 g/l+1 Okra Podagrica spp. Yield gain 76/96* 150*/119* Onunkun 2012
Leaves, dried, 4 g/m2 Chili pepper Termites Yield gain 61/− 1 162*/20 Ibrahim and Demisse 2013
Leaves, dried, 10 g/kg Stored cowpea Callosobruchus maculatus Pest mortality 23* 100* Mkenda et al. 2015b
Leaves, dried, 100 g/kg Stored cowpea Callosobruchus maculatus Pest mortality 63* 100* Mkenda et al. 2015b
Leaves, dried, 25 g/kg Stored cowpea Callosobruchus maculatus Damage red. 93* – Musa and Adewale 2015
Leaves, dried, 10 g/kg Stored rice Sitophilus oryzae Weight loss red. 95* – Law-Ogbomo and Enobakhare 2007
+
Adjuvants were added to the preparation
*Statistically superior to the negative control at p < 0.05
1
Adjuvants not included in the negative control
2
/kg refers to /kg stored produce
3
red. reduction
4
Results over multiple growing periods/locations separated by slashes
5
Results obtained with two different synthetic pesticides are separated by a semicolon
6
Figures in italic indicate that the positive control is statistically different (superior or inferior) to the homemade botanical insecticide at p < 0.05
Page 7 of 22 37
 37 Page 8 of 22

Table 2 Summary of the efficacy of homemade preparations based on 12 botanicals in reducing pest populations and/or in increasing yield, in comparison with negative and positive controls. Results are
expressed as percentage of comparisons which are inferior, nonsignificant, and superior

Botanical Application type Comparisons with negative controls Comparisons with positive controls

No. of studies No. of Inferior (%) NS (%) Superior (%) No. of No. of Inferior (%) NS (%) Superior (%)
comparisons studies comparisons

Garlic (Allium sativum) Field 7 9 0 33 67 4 8 50 50 0

Neem (Azadirachta indica) Field 11 24 0 18 82 10 22 45 55 0
Storage 6 8 0 13 88 1 2 50 50 0
Chili peppers (Capsicum spp.) Field 5 10 0 50 50 5 14 7 79 14
Storage 3 5 0 20 80 1 2 50 50 0
Siam weed (Chromolaena odorata) Field 5 9 0 11 89 5 11 9 64 27
Mother of cocoa (Gliricidia sepium) Field 3 4 0 25 75 2 3 33 33 33
Storage 2 3 0 0 100 1 2 100 0 0
Chinaberry (Melia azedarach) Field 3 3 0 0 100 3 3 100 0 0
Storage 3 5 0 20 80 0 0 NA NA NA
Moringa (Moringa oleifera) Field 1 2 0 50 50 1 2 50 50 0
Storage 5 8 0 25 75 0 0 NA NA NA
Tobacco (Nicotiana tabacum) Field 4 6 0 0 100 3 7 0 57 43
Storage 2 2 0 0 100 0 0 NA NA NA
Clove Basil (Ocimum gratissimum) Field 2 4 0 0 100 2 6 33 33 33
Storage 3 3 0 33 67 1 0 100 0 0
Tephrosia (Tephrosia vogelii) Field 4 7 0 14 86 4 7 43 43 14
Storage 3 5 0 20 80 2 3 67 33 0
Tree marigold (Tithonia diversifolia) Field 3 4 0 0 100 3 4 75 0 25
Storage 3 5 0 0 100 1 2 100 0 0
Bitter leaf (Vernonia amygdalina) Field 6 10 0 40 60 6 10 60 40 0
Storage 3 3 0 0 100 1 2 100 0 0

NS nonsignificant, NA not applicable

Agron. Sustain. Dev. (2019) 39: 37
Agron. Sustain. Dev. (2019) 39: 37 Page 9 of 22 37

3 Efficacy of homemade botanical insecticides insect pest control gave results superior to negative controls in
15 out of 18 instances and resulted in a yield increase in all 9
3.1 Garlic (Allium sativum) trials where yield was assessed. In comparison with synthetic
pesticides, neem aqueous extracts were comparable in 10 out
The pesticidal activity of garlic cloves has been attributed to of 15 instances, but were inferior in 5 instances. The efficacy
sulfur-containing compounds that arise from the enzymatic of neem aqueous extracts or of an oil emulsion against mite
degradation of allicin (Huang et al. 2000; Prowse et al. pests in field applications was documented only by Patil and
2006; Yang et al. 2012; Zhao et al. 2013). Garlic extracts have Nandihalli (2009); both preparations reduced mite population,
been shown in laboratory trials to have acaricidal properties but did not impact yield. Efficacy of neem oil against fruit flies
(Dąbrowski and Seredyńska 2007; Roobakkumar et al. 2010) attacking watermelon has been reported, but appropriate sta-
and insecticidal properties against coleopteran, dipteran, lepi- tistics were not provided (Degri and Sharah 2014).
dopteran, and hemipteran pests (Abdalla et al. 2017; Denloye Ground neem plant material successfully and consistently
2010; Prowse et al. 2006; Yang et al. 2012; Zhao et al. 2013). controlled coleopteran pests in storage applications trials
In field application trials, garlic aqueous extracts resulted in (Ahmad et al. 2015; Boeke et al. 2004b; Ileke and Oni 2011;
a varying level of control of hemipteran pests (Bahar et al. Ilesanmi and Gungula 2010; Kemabonta and Falodu 2013;
2007; Baidoo and Mochiah 2016; Fening et al. 2013; Kossou 1989). It did not provide any control in only 1 instance
Oparaeke et al. 2007; Said et al. 2015), lepidopteran pests out of 8, although this may be explained by the low quantity of
(Baidoo and Mochiah 2016; Fening 2013; Oparaeke et al. neem leaves used (Tables 1 and 2). The efficacy of ground
2007) as well as mites (Attia et al. 2011) (Table 1). Results neem in storage is supported by farmer participatory trials
were not significantly different in 3 out of 9 trials (Table 2), conducted by Paul et al. (2009) and earlier studies (Lale and
yet, in 1 trial, the 2 synthetic pesticides used as a positive Abdulrahman 1999; Pereira and Wohlgemuth 1982).
control had no significant effect either. In comparison with
positive controls, the efficacy of garlic aqueous extracts was 3.3 Chili peppers (Capsicum spp.)
statistically lower in half of the comparisons (Table 2). In 5 out
of 7 studies, adjuvants were added to the preparations and Capsaicin is the main compound that gives chili peppers their
those may have influenced their efficacy (see discussion for spiciness. Capsaicin-rich commercial insecticide formulations
details). Other studies suggest that garlic-based homemade are widely available. Capsaicin has repellent and insecticidal
pesticides may be used to control mites on tomato (Kaputa properties, for example, against hemipterans (Bergmann and
et al. 2015) and fruit flies on watermelon (Degri and Sharah Raupp 2014; Dayan et al. 2009). Antonious et al. (2006, 2007)
2014), but the authors did not perform relevant statistical tests. indicate that other compounds may contribute to the insecti-
cidal activity of preparations based on chili peppers.
3.2 Neem (Azadirachta indica) In field application trials, chili pepper aqueous extracts
have been used to control hemipteran pests (Amoabeng
The insecticidal activity of neem has been attributed to limo- et al. 2013; Baidoo and Mochiah 2016; Fening et al. 2013,
noids. It is considered that azadirachtin A is the most active 2014), lepidopteran pests (Amoabeng et al. 2013; Baidoo and
compound, but other limonoids may contribute to the efficacy Mochiah 2016; Fening et al. 2013, 2014; Okrikata et al. 2016),
of neem insecticides (Boursier et al. 2011; Isman et al. 1990; and thysanopteran pests (Fening et al. 2014), yet the results
Lynn 2010; Nathan et al. 2005) and may even prevent resis- obtained were inconsistent. Chili pepper aqueous extracts
tance build-up against azadirachtin A (Feng and Isman 1995). were superior to negative controls in 5 out of 10 instances.
Commercial extracts of neem are widely used for control of a However, in 4 of the 5 trials where chili pepper aqueous ex-
wide range of insects as well as mites. The insecticidal and tracts were ineffective, the synthetic pesticides used as posi-
acaricidal properties of commercial neem-based products tive control were also ineffective (Fening et al. 2013, 2014);
have been largely demonstrated (Morgan 2004). therefore, those trials are not conclusive (Table 1). The posi-
Homemade aqueous extracts based on neem plant material tive controls were superior to chili pepper aqueous extracts
(leaves, seeds, seed cake, and unformulated oil) have been only in 1 out of 14 instances, underlining that further research
successfully used for the control of blattodean pests (Ibrahim is needed for a conclusion.
and Demisse 2013), hemipteran pests (Aziz et al. 2013; Degri In storage application trials, ground chili pepper fruits con-
et al. 2013; Gupta and Pathak 2009), lepidopteran pests trolled the cowpea weevil Callosobruchus maculatus in 2
(Abate 2011; Attia et al. 2011; Kumar et al. 2015; Okrikata studies (Onu and Aliyu 1995; Yusuf et al. 2011) but was not
et al. 2016), and thysanopteran pests (Shiberu et al. 2012) in effective in a third study (Boeke et al. 2004b) (Table 1).
field application (Tables 1 and 2). Out of 8 trials against lep- However, the efficacy of this practice is supported by farmer
idopteran pests, neem aqueous extracts showed efficacy in 7 participatory trials conducted over 5 years in Ghana (Belmain
trials. Foliar or soil application of neem aqueous extracts for and Stevenson 2001). Moreover, a study by Belmain et al.
37 Page 10 of 22 Agron. Sustain. Dev. (2019) 39: 37

(1999) has shown that chili pepper was effective in killing and Aqueous extracts of both leaves and fruits controlled lepi-
repelling various species of weevil attacking stored grains, dopteran pests (McKenna et al. 2013; Singh et al. 2013) and
although this publication does not provide exact figures. mites (Attia et al. 2011) in the field, although efficacy was
inferior to positive controls (Tables 1 and 2). Other studies
3.4 Siam weed (Chromolaena odorata) indicated that aqueous extracts of chinaberry may be used to
control serpentine leaf miners on Swiss chard (Abou-Fakhr
One of the main constituents of Siam weed’s essential oil, the Hammad et al. 2000) and cabbage aphids on cabbage
monoterpenoid α-pinene, has insecticidal and repellent activ- (Kibrom et al. 2012), but the authors did not provide statistical
ities against coleopteran storage pests (Avlessi et al. 2012; details.
Huang et al. 1998; Kim et al. 2010; Kossouoh et al. 2011; In storage applications, Chinaberry ground plant material
Owolabi et al. 2010). The insecticidal properties of the essen- has been successfully used for control of coleopteran storage
tial oil (Bouda et al. 2001) and extracts (Lawal et al. 2015) of pests in 2 studies (Espinoza et al. 2012; Hafez et al. 2014) and
Siam weed have been demonstrated on coleopteran pests in led to a reduction of grain damage (despite a nonsignificant
the laboratory. effect on the pest population) in a third study conducted by
In field applications, aqueous extracts of Siam weed con- Rendón-Huerta et al. (2013) (Tables 1 and 2).
trolled coleopteran pests (Onunkun 2012), lepidopteran pests
(Amoabeng et al. 2013, 2014; Ezena et al. 2016), and hemip-
teran pests (Amoabeng et al. 2013, 2014; Degri et al. 2013; 3.7 Moringa (Moringa oleifera)
Ezena et al. 2016) (Table 1). Siam weed aqueous extracts were
consistently (8 out of 9 instances) superior to negative controls Lectins in moringa seeds have larvicidal activity on the mos-
and often comparable (7 out of 11 instances) to positive con- quito Aedes egypti and on the flour moth Anagasta kuehniella
trols (Table 2). A study by Devi et al. (2013) suggested that (Agra-Neto et al. 2014; de Oliveira et al. 2011). Laboratory
Siam weed is effective in controlling mites on tea, but the trials performed by Kamel (2010) on the fall armyworm
authors did not provide statistical evidence. S. frugiperda indicate that moringa seed oil has antifeedant
and insecticidal properties.
The efficacy of moringa homemade botanical insecti-
3.5 Mother of cocoa (Gliricidia sepium) cide has been primarily assessed in storage applications,
except in 1 study by Alao and Adebayo (2015) in which
Major secondary metabolites of mother of cocoa, coumarins, aqueous extracts of moringa controlled dipteran and cole-
were reported to have insecticidal properties against coleop- opteran pests in the field (Tables 1 and 2). Ground
teran, dipteran, and lepidopteran pests as well as antifeedant moringa leaves controlled coleopteran pests during stor-
properties against fall armyworm Spodoptera frugiperda age in 3 studies (Longe 2016; Ojo et al. 2013; Osipitan
(Kaniampady et al. 2007; Moreira et al. 2007; Vera et al. 2014). However, results obtained with seed powder
et al. 2006). In the laboratory, extracts of mother of (Kemabonta and Falodu 2013; Longe 2016) and seed oil
cocoa have been shown to possess insecticidal activities (Ilesanmi and Gungula 2010; Kemabonta and Falodu
against coleopteran, dipteran, and lepidopteran insects 2013) were inconsistent.
(Parvathi and Jamil 1999; Sharma et al. 1998) as well
as acaricidal activities (Sivira et al. 2011).
Mother of cocoa aqueous extracts controlled various insect 3.8 Tobacco (Nicotiana tabacum)
pests (Montes-Molina et al. 2008a, 2008b) and mites
(Jiménez-Martínez et al. 2016) in field application trials in 3 Tobacco owes its insecticidal properties to nicotine and other
out of 4 instances (Tables 1 and 2). In storage applications, related alkaloids. Nicotine pesticides have a long history, but
ground leaves of mother of cocoa controlled coleopteran their use is decreasing because of its high toxicity to humans
pests, according to Ojo et al. (2013) and Rendón-Huerta (Isman 2006).
et al. (2013). Tobacco aqueous extracts controlled hemipteran pests
(Amoabeng et al. 2013, 2014; Bahar et al. 2007), lepidop-
3.6 Chinaberry (Melia azedarach) teran pests (Amoabeng et al. 2013, 2014), and
thysanopteran pests (Shiberu et al. 2012), and their effi-
Chinaberry contains limonoids, whose insecticidal and cacy was comparable or superior to positive controls
antifeedant properties have been demonstrated on coleopter- (Tables 1 and 2). In storage applications, the efficacy of
an, dipteran, and lepidopteran pests in laboratory trials ground tobacco leaves was documented in only by Boeke
(Banchio et al. 2003; Carpinella et al. 2003; Chun Huang et al. 2004b and Longe 2016, with an efficacy of 100%
et al. 1995). against cowpea weevils in both studies.
Agron. Sustain. Dev. (2019) 39: 37 Page 11 of 22 37

3.9 Clove basil (Ocimum gratissimum) In field applications, marigold tree aqueous extracts have
been successfully used against hemipteran pests (Mkenda
Clove basil essential oil and of some of its constituents have et al. 2015a; Owolade et al. 2004; Tembo et al. 2018), cole-
insecticidal and repellent activities against coleopteran pests opteran pests (Mkenda et al. 2015a; Owolade et al. 2004), or
and are repellents to houseflies in laboratory trials (Kéita et al. lepidopteran and thysanopteran pests (Owolade et al. 2004),
2001; Ogendo et al. 2008; Ouedraogo et al. 2016; Singh and resulting in increased yield in all 3 studies (Tables 1 and 2). In
Singh 1991). storage applications, ground tree marigold leaves controlled
Homemade aqueous extracts of clove basil controlled he- the cowpea weevil in all 3 studies, although the efficacy varied
mipteran pests (Amoabeng et al. 2013; Oparaeke 2006) and (Adedire and Akinneye 2004; Mkenda et al. 2015b; Obembe
lepidopteran pests (Amoabeng et al. 2013) in field applica- and Kayode 2013).
tions (Tables 1 and 2). Results of storage trials are inconsis-
tent, with 1 out of 3 trials showing no efficacy against coleop- 3.12 Bitter leaf (Vernonia amygdalina)
teran pests (Law-Ogbomo and Enobakhare 2007; Mlambo
et al. 2017; Osipitan et al. 2014). However, the efficacy of Sesquiterpene lactones with insecticidal activities against co-
clove basil in storage applications is supported by farmer par- leopteran pests and with repellent activities against lepidop-
ticipatory trials (Belmain and Stevenson 2001), indicating the teran pests have been isolated from bitter leaf (Ganjian et al.
adequacy of this botanical for storage applications. 1983; Green et al. 2017).
In field applications, bitter leaf aqueous extracts were used
3.10 Tephrosia (Tephrosia vogelii) to control coleopteran pests (Mkenda et al. 2015a; Tembo
et al. 2018), hemipteran pests (Degri et al. 2012; Mkenda
Tephrosia contains rotenoids, to which it owes its insecticidal et al. 2015a; Oparaeke 2006; Onunkun 2012; Tembo et al.
properties (Isman 2008; Stevenson et al. 2012). Rotenone has 2018), and lepidopteran pests (Degri et al. 2012), with a pos-
been used as an insecticide for over 150 years (Isman 2008). itive outcome in 6 out of 8 instances and with a level of control
In field applications, tephrosia aqueous extracts have been inferior or similar to the positive controls (Tables 1 and 2).
used successfully to control coleopteran pests (Alao and However, the application of ground plant material to the soil
Adebayo 2015; Mkenda et al. 2015a; Tembo et al. 2018), was not effective against termites (Ibrahim and Demisse
dipteran pests (Alao and Adebayo 2015), hemipteran 2013). In storage applications, bitter leaf ground plant material
pest (Mkenda et al. 2015a; Tembo et al. 2018), and was used to control coleopteran storage pest (Law-Ogbomo
lepidopteran pests (Olaitan and Abiodun 2011) and Enobakhare 2007; Mkenda et al. 2015b; Musa and
(Table 1). In comparison with positive controls, the ef- Adewale 2015), with a positive outcome in all 4 instances
ficacy was often similar or inferior (3 instances each), (Tables 1 and 2).
but was superior in 1 instance (Table 2).
In storage applications, tephrosia ground leaf material con-
trolled coleopteran pests (mortality rates of 69% and above) in 4 Interpreting the results
4 out of 5 instances (Belmain et al. 2012; Mkenda et al. 2015b;
Ogendo et al. 2003). The 1 trial with a negative result had used 4.1 Assessing efficacy
a rotenoid-poor chemotype, underlining the importance of
plant material selection (Belmain et al. 2012). The potential Efficacy of commercial pesticide products is assessed as part
of tephrosia for storage application is supported by trials per- of the registration process. According to the guidelines pub-
formed by Ogendo et al. (2004). In comparison with the pos- lished by the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United
itive controls, ground tephrosia leaves were less effective in 2 Nations (FAO 2006), this should include the testing of pesti-
out of 3 comparisons. Results of this study were provided as cides in comparison with a negative control and to a positive
charts with no numerical values and could thus not be includ- control, i.e., a reference product such as a synthetic standard
ed in the summary tables. pesticide or a standardized botanical extract. For major
pest/crop combinations, these guidelines recommend at least
3.11 Marigold tree (Tithonia diversifolia) 8 fully supportive trials (or more should the results be incon-
sistent) conducted over at least two seasons, but fewer trials
A major constituent of marigold tree essential oil, the are acceptable for minor pests or crops. Minimal efficacy
monoterpenoid α-pinene, has insecticidal and repellent activ- levels should not be cast in stone, and low efficacy levels
ities against coleopteran storage pests (Huang et al. 1998; may be acceptable as long as they provide benefits to the
Moronkola et al. 2006). Sesquiterpene lactones in tree mari- grower, in particular if the product has no or low risk to non-
gold have been shown to be toxic to the coleoptera target species. Negative impacts on the target crop (yield or
Callosobruchus maculatus (Green et al. 2017). quality reductions), risks of resistance build-up, and other
37 Page 12 of 22 Agron. Sustain. Dev. (2019) 39: 37

risks for agronomic sustainability should be included in the 2014; Kar et al. 2008; Onunkun 2012; Singh et al. 2013).
efficacy evaluation. Commercial pesticides based on some of However, this review was conditioned by the availability of
the botanicals covered in this review (e.g., neem, garlic, chili literature. Negative results may not have been published, and
pepper) are available and are generally tested this way. this may have biased our analysis in two different ways: by
However, no homemade botanical insecticide has been tested overevaluating the efficacy of the botanicals included in this
in this way. As shown in Table 1, the efficacy studies compiled review or by making it impossible to include further and
in this review at best included trials conducted over two grow- potentially ineffective botanicals because of a lack of
ing periods or in two separate locations. literature. This last hypothesis is supported by farmer
As Table 1 shows, there is a limited number of publications participatory trials conducted by Belmain and Stevenson
documenting the efficacy of a given botanical on a specific (2001) and laboratory trials performed by Boeke et al.
pest or pest/crop combination. The efficacy of the control (2004b) indicating that a significant proportion of the botani-
achieved by homemade botanical insecticides was generally cals used by farmers may have no or little efficacy.
inconsistent among trials (Tables 1 and 2). This may be attrib-
uted to the variability in secondary metabolite (active ingredi-
ents) content or concentration in the plant material used or the 5 Factors affecting efficacy
processing and application methods, as illustrated by
Kamanula et al. (2017) and by Stevenson et al. (2012). Yet, 5.1 Variation in active ingredient in botanical plant
this should not obscure that, in a local context, a homemade material
botanical insecticide produced using a defined procedure and
using plant material from a constant source could possibly A wide range of factors affects secondary metabolite content
produce consistently reliable results. and concentration in plants and thus the concentration of ac-
In the compiled studies, the chemical characterization of tive ingredients in botanical insecticicdes. Different plant parts
the plant material used was rarely performed and quantifica- are highly variable in active ingredient content and concentra-
tion of the active ingredients was performed only once, and tion. The plant’s genotype, a wide range of environmental
this is in line with earlier observations made by Isman and factors, and the development stage of the plant can strongly
Grieneisen (2014). Inconsistencies may also have arisen from affect both content and concentration (Canter et al. 2005;
the misidentification of botanicals. Indeed, plant names vary Figueiredo et al. 2008; Gahukar 2014). Among the 12 botan-
across locations, and the same local name may be used for icals included in this study, this has been particularly docu-
similar yet distinct botanicals. This could be avoided by com- mented for neem (Elteraifi and Hassanali 2011; Gahukar
paring gathered botanicals with type specimens documented 2014; Prakash et al. 2005; Sidhu et al. 2003; Yakkundi et al.
in herbariums (Belmain and Stevenson 2001). For each botan- 1995), Siam weed (Avlessi et al. 2012; Kossouoh et al. 2011),
ical considered in this review, the trial methodology varied and tephrosia (Stevenson et al. 2012), but can be expected to
among the studies cited, e.g., plant part used, dosage, adju- be relevant for all botanicals. Such variations can dramatically
vants, target host and pest, or the preparation method. Hence, impact the efficacy of homemade botanical insecticides. For
the cited references are difficult to compare and can only be example, at least one chemotype of tephrosia is totally inef-
considered as indicative. This underlines that, although this fective (Belmain et al. 2012). Furthermore, active ingredients
review gives a highly valuable insight into the potential of may break down over time, and this may be affected by stor-
homemade botanical insecticide for arthropod pest control, age conditions, as reported with neem seeds (Yakkundi et al.
further research would be needed to validate which specific 1995). Three strategies have been suggested to reduce varia-
pests can effectively be targeted by a selected botanical. tion in active ingredient content and concentration in plant
material: the collection of plant material from a large number
4.2 Absence of evidence is not evidence of absence of plants (Mkenda et al. 2015a); the selection and propagation
of plant material with an appropriate content and an elevated
This analysis suggests that homemade insecticides based on concentration of secondary metabolites (Belmain et al. 2012;
all 12 selected botanicals may or may not provide, under dif- Canter et al. 2005); or the identification of optimal harvest
ferent circumstances, control of arthropod pests. Homemade timing (Yakkundi et al. 1995).
botanical insecticides based on other botanicals have provided
control of pests, such as Mexican tea, Dysphania 5.2 Processing and adjuvants
ambrosioides L. (Asterales: Asteraceae) (Mazzonetto et al.
2013; Mkenda et al. 2015b; Pamela Nuñez et al. 2010; Paul The method of processing homemade botanical insecticides
et al. 2009; Tapondjou et al. 2003) or billygoat weed, can impact their efficacy in numerous ways, yet this is not well
Ageratum conyzoides (L.) Mosyakin & Clements documented. Boursier et al. (2011) showed that a neem seed
(Caryophyllales: Amaranthaceae) (Amoabeng et al. 2013, aqueous extract whose active ingredient concentration is
Agron. Sustain. Dev. (2019) 39: 37 Page 13 of 22 37

much higher than recommended for commercial products Some field trials with homemade botanical insecticides
could be obtained using a seed dosage typical of a traditional show that lower pest mortality may not always mean lower
Malian recipe. Yet, they also showed how azadirachtin content efficacy (Aziz et al. 2013; Charleston et al. 2006; Mkenda
in the extract may be influenced by factors such as extraction et al. 2015a; Montes-Molina et al. 2008a; Tembo et al.
time and process or the shelling of the kernels prior to grind- 2018). Natural enemies also play an important role in the
ing. Some traditional preparation methods may be suboptimal. reduction of pest populations, and the application of pesticides
For instance, whole leaves of botanical source plants are often of either synthetic or natural origin can harm them (Cloyd
mixed directly with grains for protection during storage even 2012; Pimentel et al. 1992). Some botanical insecticides, such
though pulverization is considered to enhance efficacy as bitter leaf, neem, tephrosia, and tree marigold, may have a
(Belmain and Stevenson 2001). low toxicity towards natural enemies (Aziz et al. 2013;
The addition of adjuvants such as surfactants or stickers to Mkenda et al. 2015a; Mkindi et al. 2017), and the use of such
pesticides is a common practice and is aimed at enhancing products can favorably shift the pest/natural enemy balance
their efficacy through better coverage and longer persistence and result in a prolonged efficacy of the control intervention
(Witt 2012). Similarly, small quantities of vegetable oil and/or (Naranjo and Ellsworth 2009).
soap or starch are often added during the preparation of aque- Some plant species used for the preparation of homemade
ous extracts and before or after extraction. These are thought botanical insecticides also have fungicidal and/or bactericidal
to improve extraction or coverage of the foliage (Kaputa et al. properties, such as tephrosia (Owolade et al. 2004), neem
2015; Mochiah et al. 2011). Authors added adjuvants to aque- (Hassanein et al. 2010), and Siam weed (Avlessi et al. 2012).
ous extracts in about half of the reviewed studies, and this may Others may simultaneously act as a foliar fertilizer, such as
have had an influence on efficacy. mother of cocoa (Montes-Molina et al. 2008b). These proper-
The most widely used adjuvant was soap, either as bar ties may positively impact yields. On the other hand, some
flakes or liquid soap. Laboratory trials have shown that small botanicals have been reported to have allelopathic properties,
concentrations of household soap diluted in distilled water such as Siam weed (Sahid and Sugau 1993), so their use may
may have an outstanding insecticidal activity (Lee et al. negatively affect crop growth. These observations under-
2006; Liu and Stansly 2000). Although field trials indicate line the importance of full-season field trials that take
that small concentrations of household soap (1 ml/l) do not yield into account, as this allows a better understanding
statistically significantly affect pest populations (Amoabeng of how homemade botanical insecticides can contribute to
et al. 2014; Mkenda et al. 2015a), higher amounts of soap will preventing yield losses.
likely do so. Besides its direct action on insects, soap also
affects surface tension of spray mixture and should thus log-
ically improve coverage and therefore efficacy of the active 6 Safety
ingredient. Furthermore, enhanced extraction has also been
reported using a surfactant (10 ml/l) for extraction of rotenoids 6.1 Human safety
from tephrosia plant material, indicating that the addition of an
easily available surfactant such as soap would enhance the Risks linked to pesticide use depend on their toxicity and on
extraction of less polar compounds, such as azadirachtin the exposure of applicators or consumers. Pesticides are nor-
(Belmain et al. 2012; Morgan 2009). mally assessed as part of the registration process. According to
the guidelines published by the Food and Agriculture
Organization of the United Nations and the World Health
5.3 Complex interactions and implications Organization, assessments shoud include the acute toxicity
of formulated product in order to identify appropriate protec-
The efficacy of insecticides is commonly understood as their tive measures. The acute toxicity of the active ingredient and
ability to kill a target pest. Some botanicals, such as pyrethrum its metabolites or degradates should be assessed in order to
or tobacco, contain compounds that have a neurotoxic activity, identify health hazards linked to short-term exposure.
causing the rapid death of arthropod pests. However, a large Subchronic and chronic effects, mutagenicity, carcinogenicity,
number of botanicals and their compounds act in a more subtle and reproductive and developmental toxicity should be
way. For instance, azadirachtin, the main active ingredient of assessed to identify the risks related to a long-term exposure.
neem, affects the metabolism of insects, leading to female Moreover, exposure of farm workers and applicators, as well
infertility and disruption of the molting process. Neem and as residue in the crop produce, should be evaluated to define
chinaberry, as well as other botanicals of the Lamiaceae and whether the risks linked to pesticide use are acceptable (FAO
Asteraceae family, have been shown to possess antifeedant and WHO 2013, 2016). With the exception of neem products,
properties. Other botanicals, such as citronella (Cymbopogon such safety assessments have not been conducted with home-
spp.), have repellent properties (Isman 2006). made botanical insecticides, or only partially. A major
37 Page 14 of 22 Agron. Sustain. Dev. (2019) 39: 37

difference between homemade botanical insecticides and the use of synthetic pesticides (Belmain and Stevenson 2001;
commercial pesticides is that the former contains a cocktail Isman 2017; Kamatenesi-Mugisha et al. 2008). Smallholder
of active ingredients with unknown concentrations, as well as farmers who cannot afford to buy synthetic pesticides also will
a long list of compounds with unknown properties in variable not be able to buy appropriate protective equipment. This
concentrations. Moreover, although concentration in plant underlines that more safety assessments should be conducted
material may be low, exposure during processing has not been so that safe botanicals and preparation methods can be identi-
assessed and may be high. As a result, even when safety as- fied. Yet, certain homemade botanical insecticides may repre-
sessments exist, the risks identified in laboratory trials are sent a relatively safe alternative. This is particularly relevant
difficult to extrapolate to real-life situations. Plant protection when considering that highly hazardous pesticides are still
legislation in many countries does not allow the use of home- often used in low-income countries, resulting all too often in
made preparations, something that often contradicts the reality farmer poisonings (Grzywacz et al. 2014; Kesavachandran
in farming. Therefore, some countries legally allow the use of et al. 2009; Ngowi et al. 2007; Weinberger and Srinivasan
such preparations, at least for noncommercial farming 2009), thus incurring significant hidden societal costs
(Belmain and Stevenson 2001; Klein et al. 2015). (Bourguet and Guillemaud 2016; Soares and Porto 2012).
Neem products, in particular neem oil and aqueous ex- Yet, the principle of precaution should be applied to home-
tracts, have a low subchronic and chronic toxicity. Results of made botanical insecticides. Exposure to botanicals known to
acute toxicity trials are more ambiguous but generally point to pose a significant risk to human health should generally be
a low toxicity to mammals (Boeke et al. 2004a). Scattered data avoided.
are available for other botanicals covered in this review.
Aqueous ethanol extracts of Siam weed had a low mammalian 6.2 Environmental safety
toxicity in acute and subchronic toxicity trials (Ogbonnia et al.
2010). Clove basil and marigold tree essential oils and In parallel to human health risks, adverse effects of pesticide
ethanolic and aqueous extracts have been shown to have an use on nontarget organisms—such as natural enemies of pests,
extremely low acute mammalian toxicity, and subchronic tox- pollinators and also birds, fish, or mammals—depend on their
icity trials suggest that aqueous extracts of tree marigold are toxicity and on exposure. These risks should be assessed as
relatively safe (Kamatenesi-Mugisha et al. 2010; Passoni et al. part of the registration process to define whether they are
2013). Although these data need to be validated and acceptable (FAO and WHO 2013, 2016). Data on environ-
complemented, the above plants have been used for centuries mental fate is also normally required for the registration
as a traditional medicine, and this supports the idea that they of pesticides. Bioaccumulation is generally considered
have a relatively low toxicity. Bitter leaf, chili pepper, garlic, less likely to occur with homemade botanical insecticides
and moringa are consumed as food or spice. The long use as they contain naturally occurring substances, which are
history of these botanicals indicates that their use as a pesticide known to degrade more quickly than many synthetic com-
represents minimal risk. Compounds occurring widely in food pounds, as illustrated by natural pyrethrins vs. synthetic
are granted the status of “Generally Recognized As Safe” by pyrethroids (Smith and Stratton 1986).
the Food and Drug Administration of the United States of Thorough environmental safety assessments have not been
America (FDA 2019). In contrast, tobacco contains nicotine, conducted with most botanical insecticides as they are not as
which has a high acute toxicity. Nicotine is classified as highly heavily regulated. The toxicity of commercial neem pesticides
hazardous (class Ib) by the World Health Organization (WHO to natural enemies has been reviewed by El-Wakeil et al.
2009), and nicotine pesticides are now banned in most coun- (2013). The authors conclude that neem toxicity is usually
tries. For this reason, Plantwise discourages the use of significantly lower compared with synthetic pesticides, al-
tobacco-based homemade botanical insecticides. Tephrosia though some nontarget species may be particularly suscepti-
contains rotenone, which is classified as moderately hazard- ble. The few available studies on the impacts of homemade
ous (class II) because of its acute toxicity and it has been botanical insecticides on nontarget species suggest that aque-
linked to Parkinson’s disease (Tanner et al. 2011; WHO ous extracts often have a relatively lower impact on natural
2009). Finally, ingestion of chinaberry is reported to have enemies compared with broad-spectrum insecticides.
caused human and animal poisonings. However, some authors Aqueous extracts of Siam weed and tobacco had lower im-
argue that active ingredient concentrations in plants like pacts on nontarget ladybirds, hoverflies, and spiders compared
tephrosia and tobacco are low, and that the use of these botan- with emamectine benzoate (Amoabeng et al. 2013). In a trial
icals for pest control by subsistence farmers is unlikely to conducted by Mkenda et al. (2015a), aqueous extracts based
cause intoxications (Belmain et al. 2012; Isman 2008). on tephrosia and tree marigold had no impact on ladybirds and
Smallholder farmers who use homemade botanicals to con- limited or no impact on spiders. An aqueous extract based on
trol agricultural pests do so primarily for economic reasons but bitter leaf had no impact on spiders but suppressed ladybird
are also worried about potential health issues resulting from population to a degree similar to lambda-cyhalothrin. More
Agron. Sustain. Dev. (2019) 39: 37 Page 15 of 22 37

recently, trials conducted by Mkindi et al. (2017) confirm the livelihoods of farmers. This also means that botanicals used
relatively low toxicity of tephrosia, tree marigold, and bitter in homemade insecticides and known to be invasive should
leaf aqueous extracts on hover fly, lacewing, lady bird, and never be introduced into areas where they are presently absent.
spider populations. Another example is provided by Singh
et al. (2013), who observed that an aqueous extract of china-
berry had a lower impact on ladybird populations in compar- 7 Economic viability and practicality
ison with malathion.
Data on pollinator toxicity of homemade botanical insecti- Before botanicals can be processed, they must be grown, col-
cides are also lacking (IOBC 2018). Laboratory trials indicate lected in nature, or bought from the market. Processing may
that commercial neem extract may be harmful to bees and require a heavy workload, and homemade botanical insecti-
wild pollinators (Bernardes et al. 2017), but no impact could cides may require more frequent applications than synthetic
be detected in the field (Naumann et al. 1994). Pure pesticides. Benefit/cost impact studies, which take into ac-
azadirachtin is classified to be moderately toxic to bees, and count the total costs, including labor of homemade botanical
the use of the pesticides falling in this category is usually not insecticide preparation and application, give an insight into
recommended on blooming plants or areas that are visited by their economic viability.
bees (Cluzeau 2002; Maciorowski 1994). A commercial garlic The total costs are often reported to be substantially lower
extract as well as rotenone-based product proved to have le- compared with the cost of buying and applying a commercial
thal and sublethal effects on bees but not on wild pollinators in chemical pesticide (Gupta 2005; Gupta and Pathak 2009;
laboratory trials (Xavier et al. 2010; Xavier et al. 2015). Mkenda et al. 2015a). In 1 case, the total costs of homemade
Rotenone is classified as relatively nontoxic to bees, and the botanical insecticides were comparable with the synthetic pes-
use of the pesticides falling in this class is usually not restrict- ticide (Amoabeng et al. 2014); however, this is mainly be-
ed (Cluzeau 2002; Devillers 2002). cause the local daily wage used in this study was 8.33 USD,
Other nontarget organisms include other arthropods, fungi, which is considerably more than the daily income of many
molluscs, aquatic organisms, mammals, or birds, yet toxicity subsistence farmers in the world (FAO 2015).
of homemade botanicals to these organisms is often not Among the botanicals selected for this review, benefit/cost
known. However, the use of tephrosia products for poison ratios have been calculated for field applications use of home-
fishing illustrates the potential risk posed by homemade bo- made botanical insecticides based on 7 of the 12 botanicals.
tanical insecticides to the environment (Neuwinger 2004; This is most well documented in a number of studies on neem
Pubchem 2018). homemade botanical insecticides that found profitable benefit/
These data highlight that, despite the fact that some home- cost ratios: using leaves, seed kernels, seed cake, or oil for
made botanical insecticides may have lower toxicity to non- control of (1) the green leafhopper Nephotettix virescens in
target species compared with broad-spectrum insecticides, rice (Rajappan et al. 2000), (2) the aphid Sitobion aveanae
harmful effects have been observed, underlining the need for in wheat (Aziz et al. 2013), (3) the aphid Lipaphis erysimi in
further research. The application of botanicals should thus mustard (Gupta 2005), (4) the whitefly Bemisia tabaci and the
be guided by necessity and done with care, taking their pod borer Maruca testulalis in black gram (Gupta and Pathak
potential negative impact to nontarget species into consid- 2009), (5) the pod bug Clavigralla gibbosa in pigeon pea
eration. Likewise, just as pesticides should not be used as (Narasimhamurthy and Ram 2013), and (6) the Sesamia
the only pest management intervention, botanicals should calamistis stem borers in sorghum (Okrikata et al. 2016).
not be used in isolation either. Botanicals can fit into an The economic viability of homemade botanical insecticides
IPM system. For example, botanicals can be used in com- based on other plant species is less well documented.
bination with crop diversification, habitat management, Nonetheless, in all the reviewed studies, profitable benefit/
and other nonpesticide tools. cost ratios have been obtained with homemade botanical in-
secticides. This includes Siam weed or tobacco for control of
6.3 Risks to biodiversity the diamondback moth Plutella xylostella and aphids
Brevicoryne brassicae in cabbage (Amoabeng et al. 2014).
Some of the plants used for the preparation of homemade Similar results have been obtained by Mkenda et al. (2015a)
botanical insecticides are invasive species, such as tree mari- with aqueous extracts based on tephrosia, tree marigold, and
gold and Siam weed (CABI 2017). The collection in cultivat- bitter leaf in bean against the aphid Aphis fabae, the bean
ed areas or in the wild may perhaps contribute to reduce the flower beetles Epicauta albovittata and E. limbatipennis,
populations of these invasive species. Yet, their cultivation for and the bean foliage beetles Ootheca nutabilis and
the purpose of producing botanical insecticides may contrib- O. bennigseni. A profitable benefit/cost ratio has also been
ute to their expansion and further increase the negative impact obtained using ground chili pepper for control of Sesamia
of these invasive species on biodiversity and on the calamistis stem borers in sorghum (Okrikata et al. 2016).
37 Page 16 of 22 Agron. Sustain. Dev. (2019) 39: 37

These results underline the economic viability of this man- homemade insecticides are consumed as food or traditional
agement practice, but should not detract from the fact that medicine, which suggests that their use should pose limited
commercial pesticides, although costly, may provide a better risk. Yet, the possible consequences of extensive and
control of pests and a better net gain for the farmer at the end prolonged exposure to homemade botanical insecticides are
of the season. Nevertheless, independently of the time re- unknown. Use of botanicals known to be toxic, e.g., tobacco,
quired for their production, some botanical preparations may should be avoided. As a precaution, personal protective equip-
represent an interesting alternative for resource-poor subsis- ment should be worn during the preparation and application of
tence and transitional farmers who often simply cannot access homemade botanical insecticides, irrespective of which botan-
or afford to buy synthetic pesticides. ical is used.
The use of homemade botanical insecticides is so wide-
spread in low-income countries that it should not be ignored.
8 Conclusions Homemade botanical insecticides may be less effective than
synthetic pesticides but, in particular when used within an
The pest control methods using traditional knowledge are IPM approach, constitute an option for farmers who have no
based on centuries-long empirical observations, but may also access to commercial pesticides or who cannot afford them.
be tainted with belief. Our review shows that active ingredients Thus, they contribute to reducing losses during food produc-
with insecticidal properties have been isolated in all the botan- tion in the most underprivileged regions of the world. It is just
icals covered by this study. The data indicate that homemade important that those promoting the use of these homemade
insecticides based on the 12 selected botanicals have the po- botanical insecticides are aware of and also communicate the
tential to lower arthropod pest populations or to reduce the uncertainties around the use of these products (i.e., variable
losses they cause. Although synthetic pesticides may often be efficacy and potential effects on health and the environment).
more effective, all existing benefit/cost studies support the eco- This review provides an in-depth analysis of the potential and
nomic viability of homemade botanical insecticides. This limitations of homemade botanical insecticides and defines
means that homemade botanical insecticides could be, in some areas for further research.
cases, an acceptable alternative to commercial pesticides, par-
ticularly where availability of and access to synthetic pesticides Acknowledgments We would like to thank Janny Vos (CABI) and two
anonymous reviewers for their feedback on an earlier version of this
are limited. Nonetheless, it must be acknowledged that the
manuscript.
results of using homemade botanicals are highly unpredictable,
as their effectiveness and safety have not been fully tested. Funding Plantwise is funded and supported by the UK Department for
For every botanical included in this study, the efficacy var- International Development (DfID), the Swiss Agency for Development
ied among trials, and, in some cases, the use of homemade Cooperation (SDC), the European Commission (DG DEVCO), the
Netherlands Ministry of Foreign Affairs (DGIS), the Irish Aid, the
botanical insecticides neither resulted in a reduction of pest
International Fund for Agricultural Development (IFAD), and the
populations nor prevented crop losses. This can be attributed Australian Centre for International Agricultural Research (ACIAR). See
to variation in active ingredient content or concentration in https://www.cabi.org/about-cabi/who-we-work-with/key-donors/ for
plant material, variation in the preparation method, or also details.
variation in the conditions and the way in which they were
tested. National researchers in some countries are already Compliance with ethical standards
working on improving homemade botanical insecticide effi-
cacy through plant material selection and optimized process- Conflict of interest The authors declare that they have no conflict of
interest.
ing. These efforts should be encouraged and supported so that
the locally appropriate, optimized, and standardized home- Open Access This article is distributed under the terms of the Creative
made botanical insecticide preparation methods can be dis- Commons Attribution 4.0 International License (http://
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/), which permits unrestricted use,
seminated to subsistence and transitional farmers. In addition, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided you give appro-
research on the possible health risks related to the use of bo- priate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the
tanicals ought to be better financed, and national pesticide Creative Commons license, and indicate if changes were made.
legislation could be adapted to more formally address the ben-
efits and risks associated with homemade botanicals.
Neem products have a low human toxicity and an accept-
able environmental toxicity, and their use can thus be consid-
ered as relatively safe. However, human and environmental
References
risks of other botanicals often have not been sufficiently Abate T (2011) Maize stalk borers of Ethiopia: quantitative data on ecol-
assessed using standardized procedures, and this deserves fur- ogy and management. In: Proceedings of the 3rd National Maize
ther investigation. Some botanicals used for the preparation of Workshop of Ethiopia. CIMMYT, Mexico, pp. 174–184
Agron. Sustain. Dev. (2019) 39: 37 Page 17 of 22 37

Abate T, van Huis A, Ampofo JK (2000) Pest management strategies in cabbage Brassica oleracea (L.). Sustain Agric Res 5(2):83.
traditional agriculture: an African perspective. Annu Rev Entomol https://doi.org/10.5539/sar.v5n2p83
45:631–659. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.ento.45.1.631 Banchio E, Valladares G, Defago M, Palacios S, Carpinella C (2003)
Abbott WS (1925) A method of computing the effectiveness of an insec- Effects of Melia azedarach, (Meliaceae) fruit extracts on the
ticide. J Econ Entomol 18:265 leafminer Liriomyza huidobrensis, (Diptera, Agromyzidae): assess-
Abdalla MI, Abdelbagi AO, Hammad AMA, Laing MD (2017) Use of ment in laboratory and field experiments. Ann Appl Biol 143(2):
volatile oils of garlic to control the cowpea weevil Callosobruchus 187. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1744-7348.2003.tb00285.x
maculatus (Bruchidae : Coleoptera). S Afr J Plant Soil 34(3):185 Belmain S, Stevenson PC (2001) Ethnobotanicals in Ghana: reviving and
Abou-Fakhr Hammad EM, Nemer NM, Kawar NS (2000) Efficacy of modernising age-old farmer practice. Pestic Outlook 12(6):233.
chinaberry tree (Meliaceae) aqueous extracts and certain insecticides https://doi.org/10.1039/b110542f
against the pea leafminer (Diptera: Agromyzidae). J Agric Sci Belmain S, Golob P, Andan HF, Cobbinah JR (1999) Ethnobotanicals–—
134(4):413. https://doi.org/10.1017/S002185969900773X future prospects as post-harvest insecticides. Agro Food Ind Hi-tech
Adedire CO, Akinneye JO (2004) Biological activity of tree marigold, 10(5):34
Tithonia diversifolia, on cowpea seed bruchid, Callosobruchus Belmain SR, Amoah BA, Nyirenda SP, Kamanula JF, Stevenson PC
maculatus (Coleoptera : Bruchidae). Ann Appl Biol 144(2):185. (2012) Highly variable insect control efficacy of Tephrosia vogelii
https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1744-7348.2004.tb00332.x chemotypes. J Agric Food Chem 60(40):10055. https://doi.org/10.
Agra-Neto AC, Napoleão TH, Pontual EV, Santos DN, de Luz AL, de 1021/jf3032217
Oliveira CM, de Melo-Santos MA, Coelho LC, Navarro DM, Paiva Bergmann EJ, Raupp MJ (2014) Efficacies of common ready to use
PM (2014) Effect of Moringa oleifera lectins on survival and en- insecticides against Halyomorpha halys (Hemiptera :
zyme activities of Aedes aegypti larvae susceptible and resistant to Pentatomidae). Florida Entomol 97(2):791. https://doi.org/10.
organophosphate. Parasitol Res 113(1):175. https://doi.org/10.1007/ 1653/024.097.0262
s00436-013-3640-8 Bernardes RC, Tomé HVV, Barbosa WF, Guedes RNC, Lima MAP
Ahmad T, Haile A, Ermias A, Etbarek R, Habteab S, Teklai S (2015) Eco- (2017) Azadirachtin-induced antifeeding in Neotropical stingless
friendly approaches for management of bruchid beetle bees. Apidologie 48(3):275. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13592-016-
Callosobruchus chinensis (Coleoptera: Bruchidae) infesting faba 0473-3
bean and cowpea under laboratory conditions. J Stored Prod Boeke SJ, Boersma MG, Alink GM, van Loon JJA, van Huis A, Dicke
Postharvest Res 6(3):25. https://doi.org/10.5897/JSPPR2014.0179 M, Rietjens IMCM (2004a) Safety evaluation of neem (Azadirachta
Alao FO, Adebayo TA (2015) Comparative efficacy of Tephrosia vogelii indica) derived pesticides. J Ethnopharmacol 94(1):25. https://doi.
and Moringa oleifera against insect pests of watermelon (Citrullus org/10.1016/j.jep.2004.05.011
lanatus Thumb). Int Lett Nat Sci 35:71. https://doi.org/10.18052/ Boeke SJ, Baumgart IR, van Loon JJA, van Huis A, Dicke M, Kossou
www.scipress.com/ILNS.35.71 DK (2004b) Toxicity and repellence of African plants traditionally
Amoabeng BW, Gurr GM, Gitau CW, Nicol H, Munyakazi L, Stevenson used for the protection of stored cowpea against Callosobruchus
PC (2013) Tri-trophic insecticidal effects of African plants against maculatus. J Stored Prod Res 40(4):423. https://doi.org/10.1016/
cabbage pests. PLoS One 8(10):e78651. https://doi.org/10.1371/ S0022-474X(03)00046-8
journal.pone.0078651 Bouda H, Tapondjou LA, Fontem DA, Gumedzoe MYD (2001) Effect of
Amoabeng BW, Gurr GM, Gitau CW, Stevenson PC (2014) Cost : benefit essential oils from leaves of Ageratum conyzoides, Lantana camara
analysis of botanical insecticide use in cabbage: implications for and Chromolaena odorata on the mortality of Sitophilus zeamais
smallholder farmers in developing countries. Crop Prot 57:71. (Coleoptera, Curculionidae). J Stored Prod Res 37(2):103. https://
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cropro.2013.11.019 doi.org/10.1016/S0022-474X(00)00011-4
Antonious GF, Meyer JE, Snyder JC (2006) Toxicity and repellency of Bourguet D, Guillemaud T (2016) The hidden and external costs of pes-
hot pepper extracts to spider mite, Tetranychus urticae Koch. J ticide use. In: Sustainable agriculture reviews: volume 19, 1st edn.
Environ Sci Health B 41(8):1383. https://doi.org/10.1080/ Springer International Publishing, Cham, pp 35–120
0360123060096419 Boursier CM, Bosco D, Coulibaly A, Negre M (2011) Are traditional
Antonious GF, Meyer JE, Rogers JA, Hu Y-H (2007) Growing hot pepper neem extract preparations as efficient as a commercial formulation
for cabbage looper, Trichopulsia ni (Hubner) and spider mite, of azadirachtin A? Crop Prot 30(3):318. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
Tetranychus urticae (Koch) control. J Environ Sci Health B 42(5): cropro.2010.11.022
559. https://doi.org/10.1080/03601230701389512 CABI (2017) Invasive species compendium. Centre for Agriculture and
Attia S, Lebdi Grissa K, Ghrabi-Gammar Z, Mailleux AC, Lognay G, Le Biosciences International. http://www.cabi.org/isc/. Accessed 13
Goff G, Hance T (2011) Contrôle de Tetranychus urticae par les February 2017
extraits de plantes en vergers d’agrumes. Faunistic Entomol 63(4): Canter PH, Thomas H, Ernst E (2005) Bringing medicinal plants into
229 cultivation: opportunities and challenges for biotechnology. Trends
Avlessi F, Alitonou GA, Djenontin ST, Tchobo F, Yèhouénou B, Menut Biotechnol 23(4):180. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tibtech.2005.02.002
C, Sohounhloué D (2012) Chemical composition and biological Carpinella MC, Defago MT, Valladares G, Palacios SM (2003)
activities of the essential oil extracted from the fresh leaves of Antifeedant and insecticide properties of a limonoid from Melia
Chromolaena odorata (L. Robinson) growing in Benin. Int Res J azedarach (Meliaceae) with potential use for pest management. J
Biol Sci 1(3):7 Agric Food Chem 51(2):369. https://doi.org/10.1021/jf025811w
Aziz MA, Ahmad M, Nasir MF (2013) Efficacy of different neem Charleston DS, Kfir R, Dicke M, Vet LEM (2006) Impact of botanical
(Azadirachta indica) products in comparison with Imidacloprid extracts derived from Melia azedarach and Azadirachta indica on
against English grain aphid (Sitobion avenae) on wheat. Int J populations of Plutella xylostella and its natural enemies: a field test
Agric Biol 15(2):279 of laboratory findings. Biol Control 39(1):105. https://doi.org/10.
Bahar H, Islam A, Mannan A, Uddin J (2007) Effects of some botanical 1016/j.biocontrol.2006.05.012
extracts on bean aphids attacking yard-long beans. J Entomol 4(2): Chun Huang R, Zhou J-B, Suenaga H, Takezaki K, Tadera K, Nakatani M
136 (1995) Insect antifeeding property of limonoids from Okinawan and
Baidoo PK, Mochiah MB (2016) Comparing the effectiveness of Chinese Melia azedarach L., and from Chinese Melia toosendan
garlic (Allium sativum L.) and hot pepper (Capsicum (Meliaceae). Biosci Biotechnol Biochem 59(9):1755. https://doi.
frutescens L.) in the management of the major pests of org/10.1271/bbb.59.1755
37 Page 18 of 22 Agron. Sustain. Dev. (2019) 39: 37

Cloyd RA (2012) Indirect effects of pesticides on natural enemies. In: FAO (2013) Statistical yearbook of the Food and Agricultural
Pesticides—advances in chemical and botanical pesticides. InTech, Organization of the United Nations. Food and Agriculture
London, pp 127–150 Organization of the United Nations. http://www.fao.org/docrep/
Cluzeau S (2002) Risk assessment of plant protection products on honey 018/i3107e/i3107e01.pdf. Accessed 26 January 2017
bees: regulatory aspects. In: Honey bees: estimating the environ- FAO (2015) The economic lives of smallholder farmers. Food and
mental impact of chemicals. Taylor & Francis, London, pp 40–55 Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. http://www.fao.
Dąbrowski ZT, Seredyńska U (2007) Characterisation of the two-spotted org/3/a-i5251e.pdf. Accessed 31 March 2017
spider mite (Tetranychus urticae, Koch ) response to aqueous ex- FAO, WHO (2013) International code of conduct on pesticide manage-
tracts from selected plant species. J Plant Prot Res 47(2):113 ment: Guidelines on data requirements for the registration of pesti-
Dayan FE, Cantrell CL, Duke SO (2009) Natural products in crop pro- cides. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations;
tection. Bioorg Med Chem 17(12):4022. https://doi.org/10.1016/j. World Health Organization. www.fao.org/3/a-bc870e.pdf.
bmc.2009.01.046 Accessed 9 January 2018
Degri MM, Sharah HS (2014) Field evaluation of two aqueous plant FAO, WHO (2016) Manual on development and use of FAO and WHO
extracts on water melon Citrullus lanatus (Thumb) insect pets in specifications for pesticides, first edition-third revision. FAO plant
northern Guinea Savannah of Nigeria. Int Lett Nat Sci 9:59 production and protection paper, vol 228. World Health
Degri MM, Maina YT, Richard BI (2012) Effect of plant extracts on post Organization; Food and Agriculture Organization of the United
flowering insect pests and grain yield of cowpea (Vigna unguiculata Nations, Rome
L.Walp.) in Maiduguri, semi arid zone of Nigeria. J Biol Agric Farrar JJ, Baur ME, Elliott SF (2016) Measuring IPM impacts in
Healthc 2(3):46 California and Arizona. J Integr Pest Manag 7(1):13. https://doi.
Degri M, Mailafiya D, Wabekwa J (2013) Efficacy of aqueous leaf ex- org/10.1093/jipm/pmw012
tracts and synthetic insecticide on pod-sucking bugs infestation of FDA (2019) Generally recognized as safe (GRAS). Food and Drug
cowpea (Vigna unguiculata (L.) Walp) in the Guinea Savanna Administration of the United States of America. https://www.fda.
Region of Nigeria. Adv Entomol 01(02):10. https://doi.org/10. gov/food/ingredientspackaginglabeling/gras/. Accessed 9 March 2019
4236/ae.2013.12003 Feng R, Isman MB (1995) Selection for resistance to azadirachtin in the
green peach aphid, Myzus persicae. Experientia 51(8):831. https://
Denloye AA (2010) Bioactivity of powder and extracts from garlic,
doi.org/10.1007/BF01922438
Allium sativum L. (Alliaceae) and spring onion, Allium fistulosum
Fening KO, Amoabeng BW, Adama I, Mochiah MB, Braimah H,
L. (Alliaceae) against Callosobruchus maculatus F. (Coleoptera :
Owusu-Akyaw M, Narveh E, Ekyem SO (2013) Sustainable man-
Bruchidae) on cowpea, Vigna unguiculata (L.) Walp
agement of two key pests of cabbage, Brassica oleracea var.
(Leguminosae) seeds. Psyche: J Entomol 2010(2):1. https://doi.
capitata L. (Brassicaceae), using homemade extracts from garlic
org/10.1155/2010/958348
and hot pepper. Org Agric 3(3-4):163. https://doi.org/10.1007/
Devi OI, Dutta BK, Choudhury P (2013) Control of red spider mite
s13165-014-0058-2
(Oligonychus coffeae, Nietner) in tea [Camellia sinensis L. (O)
Fening KO, Adama I, Tegbe RE (2014) On-farm evaluation of home-
Kuntze] plantation of Barak Valley (Southern Assam) using allelo-
made pepper extract in the management of pests of cabbage,
pathic plant extracts. Int J Tea Sci 9(4):25
Brassica oleraceae L., and french beans, Phaseolus vulgaris L., in
Devillers J (2002) Acute toxicity of pesticides to honey bees. In: Honey two agro-ecological zones in Ghana. Afr Entomol 22(3):552. https://
bees: estimating the environmental impact of chemicals. Taylor & doi.org/10.4001/003.022.0306
Francis, London, pp 56–66 Figueiredo AC, Barroso JG, Pedro LG, Scheffer JJC (2008) Factors af-
Dougoud J, Cock MJW, Edgington S, Kuhlmann U (2018) A baseline fecting secondary metabolite production in plants: volatile compo-
study using Plantwise information to assess the contribution of ex- nents and essential oils. Flavour Fragr J 23(4):213. https://doi.org/
tension services to the uptake of augmentative biological control in 10.1002/ffj.1875
selected low- to lower-middle-income countries. BioControl 63(1): Gahukar RT (2014) Factors affecting content and bioefficacy of neem
117. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10526-017-9823-y (Azadirachta indica A. Juss.) phytochemicals used in agricultural
Elteraifi IE, Hassanali A (2011) Oil and azadirachtin contents of neem pest control: a review. Crop Prot 62:93. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
(Azadirachta indica A. Juss) seed kernels collected from trees grow- cropro.2014.04.014
ing in different habitats in Sudan. Int J Biol Chem Sci 5(3):1063. Ganjian I, Kubo I, Fludzinski P (1983) Insect antifeedant elemanolide
https://doi.org/10.4314/ijbcs.v5i3.72211 lactones from Vernonia amygdalina. Phytochem 22(11):2525.
El-Wakeil N, Gaafar N, Sallam A, Volkmar C (2013) Side effects of https://doi.org/10.1016/0031-9422(83)80154-X
insecticides on natural enemies and possibility of their integration Gerken A, Suglo JV, Braun M, Egyir I, Fleisher G (2001) Pesticides use
in plant protection strategies. In: Insecticides—development of safer and policies in Ghana: an economic and institutional analysis of
and more effective technologies. InTech, London, pp 3–56 current practice and factors influencing pesticide use. Institute of
Espinoza ME, Silva G, Tapia M, Rodríguez JC, Lagunes A, Santillán- Horticultural Economics, Hannover
Ortega C, Robles-Bermúdez A, Aguilar-Medel S (2012) Insecticidal Green PWC, Belmain SR, Ndakidemi PA, Farrell IW, Stevenson PC
activity of Melia azedarach L. against Sitophilus zeamais (2017) Insecticidal activity of Tithonia diversifolia and Vernonia
Motschulsky (Coleoptera: Curculionidae). Agro-Ciencia 28(2):81 amygdalina. Ind Crop Prod 110:15. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
Ezena GN, Akotsen-Mensah C, Fening KO (2016) Exploiting the insec- indcrop.2017.08.021
ticidal potential of the invasive Siam weed, Chromolaena odorata Grzywacz D, Stevenson PC, Mushobozi WL, Belmain S, Wilson K
L. (Asteraceae) in the management of the major pests of cabbage (2014) The use of indigenous ecological resources for pest control
and their natural enemies in Southern Ghana. Adv Crop Sci Tech in Africa. Food Sec 6(1):71. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12571-013-
4(4):230. https://doi.org/10.4172/2329-8863.1000230 0313-5
FAO (2006) Interntional code of conduct on pesticide management: Gupta MP (2005) Efficacy of neem in combination with cow urine
guidelines on efficacy evaluation for the registration of plant protec- against mustard aphid and its effect on coccinellid predators. Nat
tion products. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Prod Radiance 4(2):102
Nations. http://www.fao.org/fileadmin/templates/agphome/ Gupta MP, Pathak RK (2009) Bioefficacy of neem products and insecti-
documents/Pests_Pesticides/Code/Efficacy.pdf. Accessed 9 cides against the incidence of whitefly, yellow mosaic virus and pod
January 2018 borer in black gram. Nat Prod Radiance 8(2):133
Agron. Sustain. Dev. (2019) 39: 37 Page 19 of 22 37

Hafez M, Dimetry NZ, Abbass MH (2014) Efficacy of some plant prod- Proceedings of the cluster workshop, Lake Victoria Research
ucts as protectants against Callosobruchus maculatus (F.) on Institute, Uganda, pp 45–57
mungbean seeds, Vigna radiata L. (Wilczek). Egypt J Biol Pest Kamel AM (2010) Can we use moringa oil as a botanical insecticide
Control 24(2):353 against Spodoptera frugiperda. Acad J Entomol 3(2):59
Hassanein NM, Ali MM, Youssef KA, Mahmoud DA (2010) Control of Kaniampady MM, Muhammed Arif M, Jirovetz L, Mohamed Shafi P
tomato early blight and wilt using aqueous extract of neem leaves. (2007) Essential oil composition of Gliricidia sepium
Phytopathol Mediterr 49(2):143 (Leguminosae) leaves and flowers. Indian J Chem 4B:1356
Huang Y, Hee SK, Ho SH (1998) Antifeedant and growth inhibitory Kaputa F, Tembo L, Kurangwa W (2015) Efficacy of garlic (Allium
effects of α-pinene on the stored-product insects, Tribolium sativum) and red chilli pepper (Capsicum annum) extracts in the
castaneum (Herbst) and Sitophilus zeamais Motsch. Int Pest control of red spider mite (Tetranychus urticae) in tomatoes
Control 40(1):18 (Lycopersicon esculentum). Asian J Appl Sci 3(1):124
Huang Y, Chen SX, Ho SH (2000) Bioactivities of methyl allyl disulfide Kar A, Ganguli J, Ganguli RN (2008) Testing of certain botanical leaf
and diallyl trisulfide from essential oil of garlic to two species of powders against oviposition of pulse beetle, Callosobruchus
stored-product pests, Sitophilus zeamais (Coleoptera: maculatus Fabr on chickpea. J Appl Zool Res 19(2):197
Curculionidae) and Tribolium castaneum (Coleoptera: Kéita SM, Vincent C, Schmit J-P, Arnason JT, Bélanger A (2001)
Tenebrionidae). J Econ Entomol 93(2):537. https://doi.org/10. Efficacy of essential oil of Ocimum basilicum L. and
1603/0022-0493-93.2.537 O. gratissimum L. applied as an insecticidal fumigant and powder
Ibrahim A, Demisse G (2013) Evaluation of some botanicals against to control Callosobruchus maculatus (Fab.) [Coleoptera :
termites’ damage on hot pepper at Bako, Western Ethiopia. Int J Bruchidae]. J Stored Prod Res 37(4):339. https://doi.org/10.1016/
Agric Policy Res 1(2):48 S0022-474X(00)00034-5
Ileke KD, Oni MO (2011) Toxicity of some plant powders to maize Kemabonta KA, Falodu BB (2013) Bioefficacy of three plant products as
weevil, Sitophilus zeamais (Motschulsky) [Coleoptera: post-harvest grain protectants against Sitophilus oryzae Linnaeus
Curculiondae] on stored wheat grains (Triticum aestivum). Afr J (Coleoptera: Curculionidae) on stored wheat (Triticum aestivum).
Agric Res 6(13):3043. https://doi.org/10.5897/AJAR11.622 Int J Sci Nat 4(2):259
Ilesanmi JO, Gungula DT (2010) Preservation of cowpea (Vigna Kesavachandran CN, Fareed M, Pathak MK, Bihari V, Mathur N,
unguiculata (L.) Walp) grains against cowpea bruchids Srivastava AK (2009) Adverse health effects of pesticides in agrar-
(Callosobruchus maculatus ) using neem and moringa seed oils. ian populations of developing countries. In: Reviews of environ-
Int J Agron 2010(2):1. https://doi.org/10.1155/2010/235280 mental contamination and toxicology, vol 200. Springer, New
IOBC (2018) IOBC-WPRS pesticide side effect database. International York, pp 33–52
Organisation for Biological and Integrared Control. http://www. Kibrom G, Kebede K, Weldehaweria G, Dejen G, Mekonen S,
iobc-wprs.org/restricted_member/toolbox.cfm. Accessed 29 Gebreegziabher E, Nagappan R (2012) Field evaluation of aqueous
November 2018 extract of Melia azedarach Linn. seeds against cabbage aphid,
Isman MB (2006) Botanical insecticides, deterrents, and repellents in Brevicoryne brassicae Linn. (Homoptera: Aphididae), and its pred-
modern agriculture and an increasingly regulated world. Annu Rev ator Coccinella septempunctata Linn (Coleoptera: Coccinellidae).
Entomol 51:45. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.ento.51.110104. Arch Phytopathol Plant Protect 45(11):1273. https://doi.org/10.
151146 1080/03235408.2012.673260
Isman MB (2008) Botanical insecticides: for richer, for poorer. Pest Kim S-I, Yoon J-S, Jung JW, Hong K-B, Ahn Y-J, Kwon HW (2010)
Manag Sci 64(1):8. https://doi.org/10.1002/ps.1470 Toxicity and repellency of origanum essential oil and its components
Isman MB (2017) Bridging the gap: moving botanical insecticides from against Tribolium castaneum (Coleoptera : Tenebrionidae) adults. J
the laboratory to the farm. Ind Crop Prod 110:10. https://doi.org/10. Asia Pac Entomol 13(4):369. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aspen.2010.
1016/j.indcrop.2017.07.012 06.011
Isman MB, Grieneisen ML (2014) Botanical insecticide research: many Kiruba S, Jeeva S, Kanagappan M, Stalin IS, Das SSM (2008) Ethnic
publications, limited useful data. Trends Plant Sci 19(3):140. https:// storage strategies adopted by farmers of Tirunelveli district of Tamil
doi.org/10.1016/j.tplants.2013.11.005 Nadu, Southern Peninsular India. J Agric Technol 4(1):1
Isman MB, Koul O, Luczynski A, Kaminski J (1990) Insecticidal and Klein W, Grabler W, Tischner H (2015) Sachkundig im Pflanzenschutz
antifeedant bioactivities of neem oils and their relationship to Arbeitshilfe zum Erlangen des Sachkundenachweises im
azadirachtin content. J Agric Food Chem 38(6):1406. https://doi. Pflanzenschutz, 15th edn. Ulmer, Stuttgart (Hohenheim)
org/10.1021/jf00096a024 Kossou DK (1989) Evaluation des differents produits du neem
Jiménez-Martínez E, Mena-Garcia A, Rayo-Cruz I (2016) Productos Azadirachta indica A. Juss pour le controle de Sitophilus zeamais
botánicos para el manejo del ácaro blanco (Polyphagotarsonemus Motsch sur le mais en post-récolte. Int J Trop Insect Sci 10(03):365.
latus, Banks.) (Acarina; Tarsonemidae), en chiltoma (Capsicum https://doi.org/10.1017/S1742758400003623
annuum L.), en Masaya, Nicaragua. La Calera 15(24):13. https:// Kossouoh C, Moudachirou M, Adjakidje V, Chalchat J-C, Figuérédo G,
doi.org/10.5377/calera.v15i24.2933 Chalard P (2011) Volatile constituents of Chromolaena odorata (L.)
Kamanula JF, Belmain SR, Hall DR, Farman DI, Goyder DJ, Mvumi R.M. King & H. Rob. Leaves from Benin. J Essent Oil Bear Plants
BM, Masumbu FF, Stevenson PC (2017) Chemical variation and 14(2):224. https://doi.org/10.1080/0972060X.2011.10643925
insecticidal activity of Lippia javanica (Burm. f.) Spreng essential Kumar MM, Kumar S, Prasad CS, Kumar P (2015) Management of gram
oil against Sitophilus zeamais Motschulsky. Ind Crop Prod 110:75. pod borer, Helicoverpa armigera (Hubner) in chickpea with botan-
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.indcrop.2017.06.036 ical and chemical insecticide. J Exp Zool India 18(2):741
Kamatenesi-Mugisha M, Deng AL, Ogendo JO, Omolo EO, Mihale JM, Lale NES, Abdulrahman HT (1999) Evaluation of neem (Azadirachta
Otim M, Buyungo JP, Bett PK (2008) Indigenous knowledge of indica A. Juss) seed oil obtained by different methods and neem
field insect pests and their management around Lake Victoria basin powder for the management of Callosobruchus maculatus (F.)
in Uganda. Afr J Environ Sci Technol 2(8):342 (Coleoptera : Bruchidae) in stored cowpea. J Stored Prod Res
Kamatenesi-Mugisha M, Buyungo JP, Egwang P, Vudriko P, Gakunga 35(2):135. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0022-474X(98)00039-3
JN, Deng A, Ogendo J, Mihale JM (2010) Evaluation of the bio- Lawal O, Opoku A, Ogunwande I (2015) Phytoconstituents and insecti-
safety of selected botanical pesticide plants used by subsistence cidal activity of different solvent leaf extracts of Chromolaena
farmers around the Lake Victoria basin. In: Ethnobotany and health: odorata L., against Sitophilus zeamais (Coleoptera :
37 Page 20 of 22 Agron. Sustain. Dev. (2019) 39: 37

Curculionidae). Eur J Med Plants 5(3):237. https://doi.org/10.9734/ an alternative to control pests on maize (Zea mays L.)? Crop Prot
EJMP/2015/6739 27(3–5):763. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cropro.2007.11.002
Law-Ogbomo KE, Enobakhare DA (2007) The use of leaf powders of Montes-Molina JA, Luna-Guido M, Ceballos-Ramirez JM, Fernández-
Ocimum gratissimum and Vernonia amygdalina for the manage- Luqueño F, Espinoza-Paz N, Rincón-Rosales R, Dendooven L,
ment of Sitophilus oryzae (Lin.) in stored rice. J Entomol 4(3):253. Gutierrez-Miceli FA (2008b) Effect of pest-controlling neem and
https://doi.org/10.3923/je.2007.253.257 mata-raton on bean growth, soil N and soil CO2 emissions. Agron
Lee CY, Lo KC, Yao MC (2006) Effects of household soap solutions on Sustain Dev 28(2):187. https://doi.org/10.1051/agro:2008002
the mortality of the two-spotted spider mite, Tetranychus urticae Moreira MD, Picanço MC, Barbosa LCA, Guedes RNC, Barros EC,
Koch (Acari: Tetranychidae). Formosan Entomol 26:379 Campos MR (2007) Compounds from Ageratum conyzoides: isola-
Lingappa S, Basavanagoud K, Kulkarni KA, Patil RS, Kambrekar DN tion, structural elucidation and insecticidal activity. Pest Manag Sci
(2004) Threat to vegetable production by diamondback moth and its 63(6):615. https://doi.org/10.1002/ps.1376
management strategies. In: Fruit and vegetable diseases. Kluwer Morgan ED (2004) The place of neem among modern natural pesticides.
Academic, Dordrecht, pp 357–396 In: Neem: today and in the new millennium. Kluwer Academic
Liu TX, Stansly PA (2000) Insecticidal activity of surfactants and oils Publishers, Dordrecht, pp 21–32
against silverleaf whitefly (Bemisia argentifolii) nymphs Morgan ED (2009) Azadirachtin, a scientific gold mine. Bioorg Med
(Homoptera : Aleyrodidae) on collards and tomato. Pest Manag Chem 17(12):4096. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bmc.2008.11.081
Sci 56(10):861. https://doi.org/10.1002/1526-4998(200010)56: Moronkola DO, Ogunwande IA, Walker TM, Setzer WN, Oyewole IO
10<861:AID-PS217>3.0.CO;2-Y (2006) Identification of the main volatile compounds in the leaf and
Longe OO (2016) Evaluating the efficacy of some plant powders on the flower of Tithonia diversifolia (Hemsl) Gray. J Nat Med 61(1):63.
bean weevil [Callosobruchus maculatus (fabricius) (Coleoptera: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11418-006-0019-5
Bruchidae)] affecting stored cowpea seeds (Vigna unguiculata). Musa A, Adewale S (2015) Peel and leaf powders of three fruits and a
Asian J Sci Technol 7(2):2486 vegetable as promising botanicals against Callosobruchus
Lynn OML (2010) Effects of Azadirachtin and neem-based formulations maculatus F. J Agric Sci 60(4):455. https://doi.org/10.2298/
for the control of sweetpotato whitefly and root-knot nematode. J JAS1504455M
Korean Soc Appl Biol Chem 53(5):598. https://doi.org/10.3839/ Naranjo SE, Ellsworth PC (2009) Fifty years of the integrated control
jksabc.2010.092 concept: moving the model and implementation forward in
Maciorowski AF (1994) Azatin EC: Review of follow-up data for condi- Arizona. Pest Manag Sci 65(12):1267. https://doi.org/10.1002/ps.
tional registration. Acute contact toxicity to honeybee. United States 1861
Environmental Protection Agency. https://archive.epa.gov/ Narasimhamurthy GM, Ram K (2013) Field evaluation of some insecti-
pesticides/chemicalsearch/chemical/foia/web/html/121701.html. cides and bio-pesticide against tur pod bug, Clavigralla gibbosa
Accessed 20 Mar 2019 (Spinola) in long duration pigeonpea. Afr J Agric Res 8(38):4876.
Makaza K, Mabhegedhe M (2016) Smallholder farmers’ indigenous https://doi.org/10.5897/AJAR2013.7238
knowledge of maize storage pests and pesticidal plant use: the case Nathan SS, Kalaivani K, Murugan K (2005) Effects of neem limonoids
of wards 9 and 10 in Bikita District, Masvingo Province, Zimbabwe. on the malaria vector Anopheles stephensi Liston (Diptera:
Afr J Agric Res 11(47):4831 Culicidae). Acta Trop 96(1):47. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
Mazzonetto F, Corbani RZ, Dalri AB (2013) Biofumigation of plant actatropica.2005.07.002
species on Sitophilus zeamais in stored maize. Appl Res Agrotec Naumann K, Currie RW, Isman MB (1994) Evaluation of the repellent
6(1):53. https://doi.org/10.5935/PAeT.V6.N1.06 effects of a neem insecticide on foraging honey bees and other pol-
McKenna MM, Hammad EMA-F, Farran MT (2013) Effect of Melia linators. Can Entomol 126(02):225. https://doi.org/10.4039/
azedarach (Sapindales : Meliaceae) fruit extracts on citrus leafminer Ent126225-2
Phyllocnistis citrella (Lepidoptera: Gracillariidae). Springerplus Neuwinger HD (2004) Plants used for poison fishing in tropical Africa.
2(1):144. https://doi.org/10.1186/2193-1801-2-144 Toxicon 44(4):417. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.toxicon.2004.05.014
Mkenda P, Mwanauta R, Stevenson PC, Ndakidemi P, Mtei K, Belmain Ngowi AVF, Mbise TJ, Ijani ASM, London L, Ajayi OC (2007)
SR (2015a) Extracts from field margin weeds provide economically Pesticides use by smallholder farmers in vegetable production in
viable and environmentally benign pest control compared to syn- Northern Tanzania. Crop Prot 26(11):1617. https://doi.org/10.
thetic pesticides. PLoS One 10(11):e0143530. https://doi.org/10. 1016/j.cropro.2007.01.008
1371/journal.pone.0143530 Nta AI, Ibiang YB, Uyoh EA, Edu NE, Ekanem BE, John QE (2013)
Mkenda PA, Stevenson PC, Ndakidemi P, Farman DI, Belmain SR Insect pest damage to leaves of cowpea (Vigna unguiculata L.
(2015b) Contact and fumigant toxicity of five pesticidal plants Walp): comparative effects of aqueous extracts of Piper guineensis,
against Callosobruchus maculatus (Coleoptera : Chrysomelidae) Allium sativum and Myristica fragrans. J Environ Sci Toxicol Food
in stored cowpea (Vigna unguiculata). Int J Trop Insect Sci Technol 3(2):17
35(04):172. https://doi.org/10.1017/S174275841500017X Nyirenda SP, Sileshi GW, Belmain SR, Kamanula JF, Mvumi BM, Sola P,
Mkindi A, Mpumi N, Tembo Y, Stevenson PC, Ndakidemi PA, Mtei K, Nyirenda GKC, Stevenson PC (2011) Farmers’ ethno-ecological
Machunda R, Belmain SR (2017) Invasive weeds with pesticidal knowledge of vegetable pests and pesticidal plant use in Northern
properties as potential new crops. Ind Crop Prod 110:113. https:// Malawi and Eastern Zambia. Afr J Agric Res 6(2):41–49
doi.org/10.1016/j.indcrop.2017.06.002 Obembe OM, Kayode J (2013) Insecticidal activity of the aqueous ex-
Mlambo S, Mvumi BM, Stathers T, Mubayiwa M, Nyabako T (2017) tracts of four under-utilized tropical plants as protectant of cowpea
Field efficacy of hermetic and other maize grain storage options seeds from Callosobruchus maculatus infestation. Pak J Biol Sci
under smallholder farmer management. Crop Prot 98:198 16(4):175. https://doi.org/10.3923/pjbs.2013.175.179
Mochiah MB, Banful B, Fening KO, Amoabeng B, Offei Bonsu K, Oerke EC (2006) Crop losses to pests. J Agric Sci 144(01):31. https://doi.
Ekyem S, Braimah H, Owusu-Akyaw M (2011) Botanicals for the org/10.1017/S0021859605005708
management of insect pests in organic vegetable production. J Ogbonnia S, Mbaka G, Anyika E, Osegbo O, Igbokwe N (2010)
Entomol Nematol 6(3):85 Evaluation of acute toxicity in mice and subchronic toxicity of
Montes-Molina JA, Luna-Guido ML, Espinoza-Paz N, Govaerts B, hydro-ethanolic extract of Chromolaena odorata (L.) King and
Gutierrez-Miceli FA, Dendooven L (2008a) Are extracts of neem Robinson (Fam. Asteraceae) in rats. Agric Biol J N Am 1(5):859.
(Azadirachta indica A. Juss. (L.)) and Gliricidia sepium (Jacquin) https://doi.org/10.5251/abjna.2010.1.5.859.865
Agron. Sustain. Dev. (2019) 39: 37 Page 21 of 22 37

Ogendo JO, Belmain SR, Deng AL, Walker DJ (2003) Comparison of Owolade OF, Alabi BS, Osikanlu YOK, Odeyemi OO (2004) On-farm
toxic and repellent effects of Lantana camara L. with Tephrosia evaluation of some plant extracts as biofungicide and bioinsecticide
vogelii Hook and a synthetic pesticide against Sitophilus zeamais on cowpea in Southwest Nigeria. J Food Agric Environ 2(2):237
Motschulsky (Coleoptera: Curculionidae) in stored maize grain. Int Pamela Nuñez O, Gonzalo Silva A, Maritza Tapia V, Ruperto Hepp G,
J Trop Insect Sci 23(02):127. https://doi.org/10.1017/ Rodríguez-Maciel JC, Lagunes-Tejeda A (2010) Toxicity of leaf
S1742758400020348 powders of Mexican tea (Chenopodium ambrosioides L.) and boldo
Ogendo JO, Deng AL, Belmain SR, Walker DJ, Musandu AAO (2004) (Peumus boldus Mol.) singly and mixed with calcium carbonate
Effect of insecticidal plant materials, Lantana camara L. and against maize weevil (Sitophilus zeamais Motschulsky). Agro-
Tephrosia vogelii Hook, on the quality parameters of stored maize Ciencia 26(2):71
grains. J Food Technol Afr 9(1):29 Parvathi K, Jamil K (1999) Toxic, growth-inhibitory and antifeedant ac-
Ogendo JO, Kostyukovsky M, Ravid U, Matasyoh JC, Deng AL, Omolo tivity of Gliricidia sepium Jacq. leaf extract against Dysdercus
EO, Kariuki ST, Shaaya E (2008) Bioactivity of Ocimum koenigii Fabricius, Achaea janata Linnaeus and Spodoptera litura
gratissimum L. oil and two of its constituents against five insect Fabricius. Int J Trop Insect Sci 19(2–3):217. https://doi.org/10.1017/
pests attacking stored food products. J Stored Prod Res 44:328 S1742758400019500
Ojo JA, Olunloyo AA, Akanni EO (2013) Efficacy of Moringa oleifera Passoni FD, Oliveira RB, Chagas-Paula DA, Gobbo-Neto L, Da Costa
leaf powder against Callosobruchus maculatus (F.) (Coleoptera: FB (2013) Repeated-dose toxicological studies of Tithonia
Chrysomelidae) on stored cowpea (Vigna unguiculata L. Walp). diversifolia (Hemsl.) A. Gray and identification of the toxic com-
Research 5(12):240 pounds. J Ethnopharmacol 147(2):389. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
Ojo JA, Osunlola OS, Longe OO (2016) Comparative efficacy of three jep.2013.03.024
botanicals against Callosobruchus maculatus Fabricius (Coleoptera Patil RS, Nandihalli BS (2009) Efficacy of promising botanicals against
: Chrysomelidae: Bruchinae) in stored cowpea seeds. Egypt J Biol red spider mite on brinjal. Karnataka J Agric Sci 22(3):690
Pest Control 26(3):637 Paul UV, Lossini JS, Edwards PJ, Hilbeck A (2009) Effectiveness of
Okrikata E, Mai Bukar S, Ali B (2016) Economic viability of chilli pep- products from four locally grown plants for the management of
per and neem seed kernel powdered formulations vis-à-vis Sevin Acanthoscelides obtectus (Say) and Zabrotes subfasciatus
dust (85%) in the management of Lepidopterous stemborers on sor- (Boheman) (both Coleoptera : Bruchidae) in stored beans under
ghum in North Eastern Nigeria. J Biol Agric Healthc 21(6):99 laboratory and farm conditions in Northern Tanzania. J Stored
Olaitan AF, Abiodun AT (2011) Comparative toxicity of botanical and Prod Res 45(2):97. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jspr.2008.09.006
synthetic insecticides against major field insect pests of cowpea Pereira J, Wohlgemuth R (1982) Neem (Azadirachta indica A. Juss) of
[Vigna unquiculata L. Walp]. J Nat Prod Plant Res 1(3):86 West African origin as a protectant of stored maize. J Appl Entomol
de Oliveira CFRL, Paiva LA, Coelho PMG, Barroso LCB, Marangoni S, 94(1-5):208. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1439-0418.1982.tb02567.x
Macedo MLR (2011) Evaluation of seed coagulant Moringa Pimentel D, Acquay H, Biltonen M, Rice P, Silva M, Nelson J, Lipner V,
oleifera lectin (cMoL) as a bioinsecticidal tool with potential for Giordano S, Horowitz A, D’Amore M (1992) Environmental and
the control of insects. Process Biochem 46(2):498. https://doi.org/ economic costs of pesticide use. BioScience 42(10):750. https://doi.
10.1016/j.procbio.2010.09.025 org/10.2307/1311994
Onu I, Aliyu M (1995) Evaluation of powdered fruits of four peppers Prakash G, Emmannuel CJSK, Srivastava AK (2005) Variability of
(Capsicum spp.) for the control of Callosobruchus maculatus (F) on azadirachtin in Azadirachta indica (neem) and batch kinetics studies
stored cowpea seed. Int J Pest Manag 41(3):143. https://doi.org/10. of cell suspension culture. Biotechnol Bioprocess Eng 10(3):198.
1080/09670879509371939 https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02932013
Onunkun O (2012) Evaluation of aqueous extracts of five plants in the Prowse GM, Galloway TS, Foggo A (2006) Insecticidal activity of garlic
control of flea beetles on okra (Abelmoschus esculentus L. Moench). juice in two dipteran pests. Agric Forest Ent 8(1):1. https://doi.org/
J Biopestic 5:62 10.1111/j.1461-9555.2006.00273.x
Oparaeke AM (2006) Field screening of nine plant extracts for the control Pubchem (2018) Rotenone: safety and hazards. National Center for
of post-flowering insect pests of cowpea, Vigna unguiculata (L.) Biotechnology Information. https://pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/
Walp. Arch Phytopathol Plant Protect 39(3):225. https://doi.org/10. compound/rotenone#section=Safety-and-Hazards. Accessed 11
1080/03235400500094399 January 2018
Oparaeke AM, Dike MC, Amatobi CI (2007) Effect of application of Rajappan K, Ushamalini C, Subramanian N, Narasimhan V, Abdul
different concentrations and appropriate schedules of aqueous garlic Kareem A (2000) Effect of botanicals on the population dynamics
(Allium sativum L.) bulb extracts against Maruca vitrata and of Nephotettix virescens, rice tungro disease incidence and yield of
Clavigralla tomentosicollis on cowpea, Vigna unguiculata L. rice. Phytoparasitica 28(2):109. https://doi.org/10.1007/
Walp. Arch Phytopathol Plant Protect 40(4):246. https://doi.org/10. BF02981739
1080/03235400500383941 Rendón-Huerta JA, Juarez-Flores BI, Aguirre-Rivera JR, Fuentes GA
Osipitan AA, Lasisi AM, Mumuni HM, Ewedairo BI (2014) Evaluation (2013) Insecticide effect of wild plant powders on bean weevil
of some plant products for the management of Prostephanus (Zabrotes subfasciatus Boheman; Coleoptera : Bruchidae) in vitro.
truncatus (Horn) (Coleoptera : Bostrichidae) in stored maize (Zea Afr J Agric Res 8(11):971. https://doi.org/10.5897/AJAR12.1757
mays ) and their effect on nutritional composition of the kernels. Roobakkumar A, Subramaniam MSR, Babu A, Muraleedharan N (2010)
Arch Phytopathol Plant Protect 47(9):1072. https://doi.org/10. Bioefficacy of certain plant extracts against the red spider mite,
1080/03235408.2013.829983 Oligonychus coffeae (Nietner) (Acarina : Tetranychidae) infesting
Ouedraogo I, Sawadogo A, Nebie RC, Dakouo D (2016) Evaluation of tea in Tamil Nadu, India. Int J Acarol 36(3):255. https://doi.org/10.
the toxicity of essential oils of Cymbopogon nardus (L) and Ocimum 1080/01647951003652592
gratissimum (L) against maize insects Sitophilius zeamais Motsch Roy S, Handique G, Muraleedharan N, Dashora K, Roy SM,
and Rhyzopertha dominica F, the major insect pests in maize storage Mukhopadhyay A, Babu A (2016) Use of plant extracts for tea pest
in Burkina Faso. Int J Biol Chem Sci 10(2):695 management in India. Appl Microbiol Biotechnol 100(11):4831.
Owolabi MS, Ogundajo A, Yusuf KO, Lajide L, Villanueva HE, Tuten https://doi.org/10.1007/s00253-016-7522-8
JA, Setzer WN (2010) Chemical composition and bioactivity of the Sahid IB, Sugau JB (1993) Allelopathic effect of lantana (Lantana
essential oil of Chromolaena odorata from Nigeria. Records Nat camara) and Siam weed (Chromolaena odorata) on selected crops.
Prod 4(1):72 Weed Sci 41(2):303
37 Page 22 of 22 Agron. Sustain. Dev. (2019) 39: 37

Said F, Inayatullah M, Ahmad S, Khan IA, Saeed-ul-Haq ZM (2015) Tembo Y, Mkindi AG, Mkenda PA, Mpumi N, Mwanauta R, Stevenson
Comparing the effect of different plant extracts with a chemical PC, Ndakidemi PA, Belmain SR (2018) Pesticidal plant extracts
insecticide for management of the aphid, Aphis gossypii in sunflow- improve yield and reduce insect pests on legume crops without
er. Pak J Weed Sci Res 21(3):359 harming beneficial arthropods. Front Plant Sci 9:1425. https://doi.
Sarasan V, Kite GC, Sileshi GW, Stevenson PC (2011) Applications of org/10.3389/fpls.2018.01425
phytochemical and in vitro techniques for reducing over-harvesting Vasileiadis VP, Dachbrodt-Saaydeh S, Kudsk P, Colnenne-David C,
of medicinal and pesticidal plants and generating income for the Leprince F, Holb IJ, Kierzek R, Furlan L, Loddo D, Melander B,
rural poor. Plant Cell Rep 30:1163. https://doi.org/10.1007/ Jørgensen LN, Newton AC, Toque C, van Dijk W, Lefebvre M,
s00299-011-1047-5 Benezit M, Sattin M (2017) Sustainability of European winter
Saxena RC (1998) Botanical pest control. In: Critical reviews in insect wheat- and maize-based cropping systems: economic, environmen-
pest management. Commonwealth Publishers, New Dehli, pp 155– tal and social ex-post assessment of conventional and IPM-based
179 systems. Crop Prot 97:60. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cropro.2016.11.
Sharma N, Qadry JS, Subramanium B, Verghese T, Rahman SJ, Sharma 002
SK, Jalees S (1998) Larvicidal activity of Gliricidia sepium against Vera N, Popich S, Luna L, Cravero R, González Sierra M, Bardón A
mosquito larvae of Anopheles stephansi, Aedes aegypti and Culex (2006) Toxicity and synergism in the feeding deterrence of some
quinquefasciatus. Pharm Biol 36(1):3. https://doi.org/10.1076/phbi. coumarins on Spodoptera frugiperda Smith (Lepidoptera :
36.1.3.4616 Noctuidae). Chem Biodivers 3(1):21. https://doi.org/10.1002/cbdv.
Shiberu T, Negeri M, Thangavel S (2012) Evaluation of some botanicals 200690002
and entomopathogenic fungi for the control of onion thrips (Thrips Weinberger K, Srinivasan R (2009) Farmers’ management of cabbage
tabaci L.) in West Showa, Ethiopia. J Plant Pathol Microb 04:01. and cauliflower pests in India and their approaches to crop protec-
https://doi.org/10.4172/2157-7471.1000161 tion. J of Asia-Pac Entomol 12(4):253. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
Sidhu OP, Kumar V, Behl HM (2003) Variability in neem (Azadirachta aspen.2009.08.003
indica) with respect to azadirachtin content. J Agric Food Chem WHO (2009) The WHO recommended classification of pesticides by
51(4):910. https://doi.org/10.1021/jf025994m hazard. World Health Organization, Rome
Singh D, Singh AK (1991) Repellent and insecticidal properties of essen- Witt JM (2012) PSEP fact sheets: adjuvants. Cornell University
tial oils against housefly, Musca domestica L. Int J Trop Insect Sci Cooperative Extension. http://psep.cce.cornell.edu/facts-slides-self/
12(04):487. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1742758400011401 facts/gen-peapp-adjuvants.aspx. Accessed 25 January 2017
Xavier VM, Picanço MC, Bacci L, Silva GA, Benevenute JS et al (2010)
Singh KI, Singh TR, Thokchom J, Devi SS (2013) Biology and botanical
Impact of botanical insecticides on indigenous stingless bees
based management of Pieris brassicae Linn. on cabbage crop-
(Hymenoptera : Apidae). Sociobiol 56(3):713
ecosystem of Manipur Valley. J Appl Zool Res 24(2):113
Xavier VM, Message D, Picanço MC, Chediak M, Júnior PAS, Ramos
Sivira A, Sanabria ME, Valera C, Vásquez C (2011) Toxicity of ethanolic
RS, Martins JC (2015) Acute toxicity and sublethal effects of bo-
extracts from Lippia origanoides and Gliricidia sepium to
tanical insecticides to honey bees. J Insect Sci 15(1):137. https://doi.
Tetranychus cinnabarinus (Boisduval) (Acari: Tetranychidae).
org/10.1093/jisesa/iev110
Neotrop Entomol 40(3):375. https://doi.org/10.1590/S1519-
Yakkundi SR, Thejavathi R, Ravindranath B (1995) Variation of
566X2011000300011
azadirachtin content during growth and storage of neem
Smith TM, Stratton GW (1986) Effects of synthetic pyrethroid insecti-
(Azadirachta indica) seeds. J Agric Food Chem 43(9):2517.
cides on nontarget organisms. In: Residue reviews. Springer, New
https://doi.org/10.1021/jf00057a036
York, pp 93–120
Yang FL, Zhu F, Lei CL (2012) Insecticidal activities of garlic substances
Soares WL, Porto MFDS (2012) Pesticide use and economic impacts on against adults of grain moth, Sitotroga cerealella (Lepidoptera :
health. Rev Saude Publica 46(2):209 Gelechiidae). Insect Sci 19(2):205. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1744-
Stevenson PC, Kite GC, Lewis GP, Forest F, Nyirenda SP, Belmain SR, 7917.2011.01446.x
Sileshi GW, Veitch NC (2012) Distinct chemotypes of Tephrosia Yusuf AU, Dike MC, Adebitan SA, Ahmed BI (2011) Comparative effi-
vogelii and implications for their use in pest control and soil enrich- cacy of seven plant products on the cowpea bruchid,
ment. Phytochem 78:135. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.phytochem. Callosobruchus maculatus F. development and damage. J
2012.02.025 Biopestic 4(1):19
Stevenson PC, Isman MB, Belmain SR (2017) Pesticidal plants in Africa: Zhao NN, Zhang H, Zhang XC, Luan XB, Zhou C, Liu QZ, Shi WP, Liu
a global vision of new biological control products from local uses. ZL (2013) Evaluation of acute toxicity of essential oil of garlic
Ind Crop Prod 110:2. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.indcrop.2017.08.034 (Allium sativum) and its selected major constituent compounds
Tanner CM, Kamel F, Ross GW, Hoppin JA, Goldman SM, Korell M, against overwintering Cacopsylla chinensis (Hemiptera :
Marras C, Bhudhikanok GS, Kasten M, Chade AR, Comyns K, Psyllidae). J Econ Entomol 106(3):1349. https://doi.org/10.1603/
Richards MB, Meng C, Priestley B, Fernandez HH, Cambi F, EC12191
Umbach DM, Blair A, Sandler DP, Langston JW (2011)
Rotenone, paraquat, and Parkinson’s disease. Environ Health
Perspect 119(6):866. https://doi.org/10.1289/ehp.1002839
Tapondjou LA, Adler C, Bouda H, Ajong Fontem D (2003) Bioefficacité
des poudres et des huiles essentielles des feuilles de Chenopodium
ambrosioides et Eucalyptus saligna à l’égard de la bruche du niébé, Publisher’s note Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to
Callosobruchus maculatus Fab. (Coleoptera: Bruchidae). Cah Agric jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
12:401