South Pacific (disambiguation), and Pacific (disambiguation).

Pacific Ocean

Coordinates 0°N 160°W

Surface area 165,250,000 km2 (63,800,000 sq mi)

Average depth 4,280 m (14,040 ft)

Max. depth 10,911 m (35,797 ft)

Water volume 710,000,000 km3 (170,000,000 cu mi)

Islands Pacific Islands

Settlements List
 Earth's ocean, showing common divisions Earth's thermohaline circulation seawater flow

Map with five-oceans (approximate boundaries) Show all

Earth's ocean

Main five oceans division:

 Antarctic/Southern
 Arctic
 Atlantic
 Indian
 Pacific

Further subdivision:

Marginal seas

 v
 t
 e

The Pacific Ocean is the largest and deepest of Earth's five oceanic divisions. It
extends from the Arctic Ocean in the north to the Southern Ocean (or, depending on
definition, to Antarctica) in the south, and is bounded by the continents of Asia and
Australia in the west and the Americas in the east.

At 165,250,000 square kilometers (63,800,000 square miles) in area (as defined with a
southern Antarctic border), this largest division of the World Ocean and
the hydrosphere covers about 46% of Earth's water surface and about 32% of the
planet's total surface area, larger than its entire land area
(148,000,000 km2 (57,000,000 sq mi)).[1] The centers of both the Water Hemisphere and
the Western Hemisphere, as well as the oceanic pole of inaccessibility, are in the
Pacific Ocean. Ocean circulation (caused by the Coriolis effect) subdivides it[2] into two
largely independent volumes of water that meet at the equator, the North Pacific
Ocean and the South Pacific Ocean (or more loosely the South Seas). The Pacific
Ocean can also be informally divided by the International Date Line into the East
Pacific and the West Pacific, which allows it to be further divided into four quadrants,
namely the Northeast Pacific off the coasts of North America, the Southeast
Pacific off South America, Northwest Pacific off Far Eastern/Pacific Asia, and
the Southwest Pacific around Oceania.

The Pacific Ocean's mean depth is 4,000 meters (13,000 feet).[3] Challenger Deep in
the Mariana Trench, located in the northwestern Pacific, is the deepest known point in
the world, reaching a depth of 10,928 meters (35,853 feet).[4] The Pacific also contains
the deepest point in the Southern Hemisphere, the Horizon Deep in the Tonga Trench,
at 10,823 meters (35,509 feet).[5] The third deepest point on Earth, the Sirena Deep, is
also located in the Mariana Trench.

The western Pacific has many major marginal seas, including the Philippine Sea, South
China Sea, East China Sea, Sea of Japan, Sea of Okhotsk, Bering Sea, Gulf of
Alaska, Mar de Grau, Tasman Sea, and the Coral Sea.

Etymology
[edit]
In the early 16th century, Spanish explorer Vasco Núñez de Balboa crossed
the Isthmus of Panama in 1513 and sighted the great "Southern Sea" which he
named Mar del Sur (in Spanish). Afterwards, the ocean's current name was coined by
Portuguese explorer Ferdinand Magellan during the Spanish circumnavigation of the
world in 1521, as he encountered favorable winds on reaching the ocean. He called
it Mar Pacífico, which in Portuguese means 'peaceful sea'.[6][7]

Largest seas in the Pacific Ocean

[edit]
 The Pacific Ocean, photograph taken from space by
the GOES-18 spacecraft in September 2023
Top large seas:[8]

 Australasian Mediterranean Sea – 9.080 million km2 (includes other seas)

 Philippine Sea – 5.695 million km2 (largest single sea)
 Coral Sea – 4.791 million km2
 Chilean Sea – 3.6 million km2
 South China Sea – 3.5 million km2
 Tasman Sea – 2.3 million km2
 Bering Sea – 2 million km2
 Sea of Okhotsk – 1.583 million km2
 Gulf of Alaska – 1.533 million km2
 East China Sea – 1.249 million km2
 Mar de Grau – 1.14 million km2
 Sea of Japan – 978,000 km2
 Solomon Sea – 720,000 km2
 Banda Sea – 695,000 km2
 Arafura Sea – 650,000 km2
 Timor Sea – 610,000 km2
 Yellow Sea – 380,000 km2
 Java Sea – 320,000 km2
 Gulf of Thailand – 320,000 km2
 Gulf of Carpentaria – 300,000 km2
 Celebes Sea – 280,000 km2
 Sulu Sea – 260,000 km2
 Bismarck Sea – 250,400 km2
 Gulf of Anadyr – 200,000 km2
 Molucca Sea – 200,000 km2
 Gulf of California – 160,000 km2
 Gulf of Tonkin – 126,250 km2
 Halmahera Sea – 95,000 km2
 Bohai Sea – 78,000 km2
 Gulf of Papua – 70,400 km2
 Koro Sea – 58,000 km2
 Bali Sea – 45,000 km2
 Savu Sea – 35,000 km2
 Seto Inland Sea – 23,203 km2
 Salish Sea – 18,000 km2
 Seram Sea – 12,000 km2
History
[edit]
Prehistory
[edit]
Across the continents of Asia, Australia and the Americas, more than 25,000 islands,
large and small, rise above the surface of the Pacific Ocean. Multiple islands were the
shells of former active volcanoes that have lain dormant for thousands of years. Close
to the equator, without vast areas of blue ocean, are a dot of atolls that have over
intervals of time been formed by seamounts as a result of tiny coral islands strung in a
ring within surroundings of a central lagoon.

Early migrations
[edit]
Main articles: Peopling of Southeast Asia and Austronesian peoples

Model of a Fijian drua, an example of an Austronesian

vessel with a double-canoe (catamaran) hull and a crab claw sail
Important human migrations occurred in the Pacific in prehistoric times. Modern humans
first reached the western Pacific in the Paleolithic, at around 60,000 to 70,000 years
ago. Originating from a southern coastal human migration out of Africa, they
reached East Asia, Mainland Southeast Asia, the Philippines, New Guinea, and then
Australia by making the sea crossing of at least 80 kilometres (50 mi)
between Sundaland and Sahul. It is not known with any certainty what level of maritime
technology was used by these groups – the presumption is that they used large bamboo
rafts which may have been equipped with some sort of sail. The reduction in favourable
winds for a crossing to Sahul after 58,000 B.P. fits with the dating of the settlement of
Australia, with no later migrations in the prehistoric period. The seafaring abilities of pre-
Austronesian residents of Island South-east Asia are confirmed by the settlement
of Buka by 32,000 B.P. and Manus by 25,000 B.P. Journeys of 180 kilometres (110 mi)
and 230 kilometres (140 mi) are involved, respectively.[9]

The descendants of these migrations today are the Negritos, Melanesians,

and Indigenous Australians. Their populations in maritime Southeast Asia, coastal New
Guinea, and Island Melanesia later intermarried with the incoming Austronesian settlers
from Taiwan and the northern Philippines, but also earlier groups associated
with Austroasiatic-speakers, resulting in the modern peoples of Island Southeast Asia
and Oceania.[10][11]

Map showing the migration

of the Austronesian peoples
A later seaborne migration is the Neolithic Austronesian expansion of the Austronesian
peoples. Austronesians originated from the island of Taiwan c. 3000–1500 BCE. They
are associated with distinctive maritime sailing technologies (notably outrigger
boats, catamarans, lashed-lug boats, and the crab claw sail) – it is likely that the
progressive development of these technologies were related to the later steps of
settlement into Near and Remote Oceania. Starting at around 2200 BCE, Austronesians
sailed southwards to settle the Philippines. From, probably, the Bismarck
Archipelago they crossed the western Pacific to reach the Marianas Islands by 1500
BCE,[12] as well as Palau and Yap by 1000 BCE. They were the first humans to
reach Remote Oceania, and the first to cross vast distances of open water. They also
continued spreading southwards and settling the rest of Maritime Southeast Asia,
reaching Indonesia and Malaysia by 1500 BCE, and further west to Madagascar and
the Comoros in the Indian Ocean by around 500 CE.[13][14][15] More recently, it is suggested
that Austronesians expanded already earlier, arriving in the Philippines already in 7000
BCE. Additional earlier migrations into Insular Southeast Asia, associated with
Austroasiatic-speakers from Mainland Southeast Asia, are estimated to have taken
place already in 15000 BCE.[16]

At around 1300 to 1200 BCE, a branch of the Austronesian migrations known as

the Lapita culture reached the Bismarck Archipelago, the Solomon
Islands, Vanuatu, Fiji, and New Caledonia. From there, they
settled Tonga and Samoa by 900 to 800 BCE. Some also back-migrated northwards in
200 BCE to settle the islands of eastern Micronesia (including the Carolines,
the Marshall Islands, and Kiribati), mixing with earlier Austronesian migrations in the
region. This remained the furthest extent of the Austronesian expansion
into Polynesia until around 700 CE when there was another surge of island exploration.
They reached the Cook Islands, Tahiti, and the Marquesas by 700 CE; Hawaiʻi by 900
CE; Rapa Nui by 1000 CE; and finally New Zealand by 1200 CE.[14][17][18] Austronesians
may have also reached as far as the Americas, although evidence for this remains
inconclusive.[19][20]

European exploration
[edit]
Main article: Exploration of the Pacific

Universalis Cosmographia, also known as

the Waldseemüller map, dated 1507, was the first map to show the Americas separating two
distinct oceans. South America was generally considered the New World and shows the name
"America" for the first time, after Amerigo Vespucci
The first contact of European navigators with the western edge of the Pacific Ocean
was made by the Portuguese expeditions of António de Abreu and Francisco Serrão,
via the Lesser Sunda Islands, to the Maluku Islands, in 1512,[21][22] and with Jorge
Álvares's expedition to southern China in 1513,[23] both ordered by Afonso de
Albuquerque from Malacca.

The eastern side of the ocean was encountered by Spanish explorer Vasco Núñez de
Balboa in 1513 after his expedition crossed the Isthmus of Panama and reached a new
ocean.[24] He named it Mar del Sur ("Sea of the South" or "South Sea") because the
ocean was to the south of the coast of the isthmus where he first observed the Pacific.

In 1520, navigator Ferdinand Magellan and his crew were the first to cross the Pacific in
recorded history. They were part of a Spanish expedition to the Spice Islands that would
eventually result in the first world circumnavigation. Magellan called the
ocean Pacífico (or "Pacific" meaning, "peaceful") because, after sailing through the
stormy seas off Cape Horn, the expedition found calm waters. The ocean was often
called the Sea of Magellan in his honor until the eighteenth century.[25] Magellan
stopped at one uninhabited Pacific island before stopping at Guam in March 1521.
[26]
Although Magellan himself died in the Philippines in 1521, Spanish navigator Juan
Sebastián Elcano led the remains of the expedition back to Spain across the Indian
Ocean and round the Cape of Good Hope, completing the first world circumnavigation
in 1522.[27] Sailing around and east of the Moluccas, between 1525 and 1527,
Portuguese expeditions encountered the Caroline Islands,[28] the Aru Islands,
[29]
and Papua New Guinea.[30] In 1542–43 the Portuguese also reached Japan.[31]

In 1564, five Spanish ships carrying 379 soldiers crossed the ocean from Mexico led
by Miguel López de Legazpi, and colonized the Philippines and Mariana Islands.[32] For
the remainder of the 16th century, Spain maintained military and mercantile control, with
ships sailing from Mexico and Peru across the Pacific Ocean to the Philippines
via Guam, and establishing the Spanish East Indies. The Manila galleons operated for
two and a half centuries, linking Manila and Acapulco, in one of the longest trade routes
in history. Spanish expeditions also arrived at Tuvalu, the Marquesas, the Cook Islands,
the Solomon Islands, Vanuatu, the Marshalls and the Admiralty Islands in the South
Pacific.[33]

Later, in the quest for Terra Australis ("the [great] Southern Land"), Spanish
explorations in the 17th century, such as the expedition led by the Portuguese
navigator Pedro Fernandes de Queirós, arrived at
the Pitcairn and Vanuatu archipelagos, and sailed the Torres Strait between Australia
and New Guinea, named after navigator Luís Vaz de Torres. Dutch explorers, sailing
around southern Africa, also engaged in exploration and trade; Willem Janszoon, made
the first completely documented European landing in Australia (1606), in Cape York
Peninsula,[34] and Abel Janszoon Tasman circumnavigated and landed on parts of the
Australian continental coast and arrived at Tasmania and New Zealand in 1642.[35]

In the 16th and 17th centuries, Spain considered the Pacific Ocean a mare clausum – a
sea closed to other naval powers. As the only known entrance from the Atlantic,
the Strait of Magellan was at times patrolled by fleets sent to prevent the entrance of
non-Spanish ships. On the western side of the Pacific Ocean the Dutch threatened
the Spanish Philippines.[36]

The 18th century marked the beginning of major exploration by the Russians
in Alaska and the Aleutian Islands, such as the First Kamchatka expedition and
the Great Northern Expedition, led by the Danish-born Russian navy officer Vitus
Bering. Spain also sent expeditions to the Pacific Northwest, reaching Vancouver
Island in southern Canada, and Alaska. The French explored and colonized Polynesia,
and the British made three voyages with James Cook to the South Pacific and
Australia, Hawaii, and the North American Pacific Northwest. In 1768, Pierre-Antoine
Véron, a young astronomer accompanying Louis Antoine de Bougainville on his voyage
of exploration, established the width of the Pacific with precision for the first time in
history.[37] One of the earliest voyages of scientific exploration was organized by Spain in
the Malaspina Expedition of 1789–1794. It sailed vast areas of the Pacific, from Cape
Horn to Alaska, Guam and the Philippines, New Zealand, Australia, and the South
Pacific.[33]
 

Made in 1529, the Diogo Ribeiro map was the first to show the Pacific at about its proper
size

 Map of the Pacific Ocean during European Exploration, circa 1754.

[38]
Maris Pacifici by Ortelius (1589). One of the first printed maps to show the Pacific Ocean

Map of the Pacific Ocean during European Exploration, circa 1702–1707

New Imperialism
[edit]
See also: New Imperialism and Pacific Century
The bathyscaphe Trieste before her record dive to the bottom of the Mariana Trench, 23 January

1960 Abel Aubert du Petit-Thouars taking over Tahiti on 9

September 1842
Growing imperialism during the 19th century resulted in the occupation of much of
Oceania by European powers, and later Japan and the United States. Significant
contributions to oceanographic knowledge were made by the voyages of HMS Beagle in
the 1830s, with Charles Darwin aboard;[39] HMS Challenger during the 1870s;
[40]
the USS Tuscarora (1873–76);[41] and the German Gazelle (1874–76).[42]

In Oceania, France obtained a leading position as imperial power after

making Tahiti and New Caledonia protectorates in 1842 and 1853, respectively.[43] After
navy visits to Easter Island in 1875 and 1887, Chilean navy officer Policarpo
Toro negotiated the incorporation of the island into Chile with native Rapanui in 1888.
By occupying Easter Island, Chile joined the imperial nations.[44]: 53 By 1900 nearly all
Pacific islands were in control of Britain, France, United States, Germany, Japan, and
Chile.[43]

Although the United States gained control of Guam and the Philippines from Spain in
1898,[45] Japan controlled most of the western Pacific by 1914 and occupied many other
islands during the Pacific War; however, by the end of that war, Japan was defeated
and the U.S. Pacific Fleet was the virtual master of the ocean. The Japanese-
ruled Northern Mariana Islands came under the control of the United States.[46] Since the
end of World War II, many former colonies in the Pacific have become
independent states.

Geography
[edit]

Sunset over the Pacific Ocean as seen from

the International Space Station. Tops of thunderclouds are also visible.
 The island geography of the Pacific Ocean Basin

The three major cultural areas of the Pacific

Ocean islands: Micronesia, Melanesia and Polynesia
The Pacific separates Asia and Australia from the Americas. It may be further
subdivided by the equator into northern (North Pacific) and southern (South Pacific)
portions. It extends from the Antarctic region in the South to the Arctic in the north.[1] The
Pacific Ocean encompasses approximately one-third of the Earth's surface, having an
area of 165,200,000 km2 (63,800,000 sq mi) – larger than Earth's entire landmass
combined, 150,000,000 km2 (58,000,000 sq mi).[47]

Extending approximately 15,500 km (9,600 mi) from the Bering Sea in the Arctic to the
northern extent of the circumpolar Southern Ocean at 60°S (older definitions extend it
to Antarctica's Ross Sea), the Pacific reaches its greatest east–west width at about 5°N
latitude, where it stretches approximately 19,800 km (12,300 mi) from Indonesia to the
coast of Colombia – halfway around the world, and more than five times the diameter of
the Moon.[48] Its geographic center is in eastern Kiribati south of Kiritimati, just west
from Starbuck Island at 4°58′S 158°45′W.[49] The lowest known point on Earth –
the Mariana Trench – lies 10,911 m (35,797 ft; 5,966 fathoms) below sea level. Its
average depth is 4,280 m (14,040 ft; 2,340 fathoms), putting the total water volume at
roughly 710,000,000 km3 (170,000,000 cu mi).[1]

Due to the effects of plate tectonics, the Pacific Ocean is currently shrinking by roughly
2.5 cm (1 in) per year on three sides, roughly averaging 0.52 km2 (0.20 sq mi) a year.
By contrast, the Atlantic Ocean is increasing in size.[50][51]

Along the Pacific Ocean's irregular western margins lie many seas, the largest of which
are the Celebes Sea, Coral Sea, East China Sea (East Sea), Philippine Sea, Sea of
Japan, South China Sea (South Sea), Sulu Sea, Tasman Sea, and Yellow Sea (West
Sea of Korea). The Indonesian Seaway (including the Strait of Malacca and Torres
Strait) joins the Pacific and the Indian Ocean to the west, and Drake Passage and
the Strait of Magellan link the Pacific with the Atlantic Ocean on the east. To the north,
the Bering Strait connects the Pacific with the Arctic Ocean.[52]

As the Pacific straddles the 180th meridian, the West Pacific (or western Pacific, near
Asia) is in the Eastern Hemisphere, while the East Pacific (or eastern Pacific, near the
Americas) is in the Western Hemisphere.[53]

The Southern Pacific Ocean harbors the Southeast Indian Ridge crossing from south of
Australia turning into the Pacific-Antarctic Ridge (north of the South Pole) and merges
with another ridge (south of South America) to form the East Pacific Rise which also
connects with another ridge (south of North America) which overlooks the Juan de Fuca
Ridge.

For most of Magellan's voyage from the Strait of Magellan to the Philippines, the
explorer indeed found the ocean peaceful; however, the Pacific is not always peaceful.
Many tropical storms batter the islands of the Pacific.[54] The lands around the Pacific
Rim are full of volcanoes and often affected by earthquakes.[55] Tsunamis, caused by
underwater earthquakes, have devastated many islands and in some cases destroyed
entire towns.[56]

The Martin Waldseemüller map of 1507 was the first to show the Americas separating
two distinct oceans.[57] Later, the Diogo Ribeiro map of 1529 was the first to show the
Pacific at about its proper size.[58]

Bordering countries
[edit]

An exclusive economic zone (EEZ) map of

the Pacific which excludes non-tropical islands.[why?]
(Inhabited dependent territories are denoted by the asterisk (*), with names of the
corresponding sovereign states in round brackets. Associated states in the Realm of
New Zealand are denoted by the hash sign (#).)

 American Samoa* (US)

 Australia
 Brunei
 Cambodia
 Canada
 Chile
 People's Republic of China
 Colombia
 Cook Islands#
 Costa Rica
 Ecuador
 El Salvador
 Federated States of Micronesia
 Fiji
 French Polynesia* (France)
 Guam* (US)
 Guatemala
 Honduras
 Hong Kong* (People's Republic of China)
 Indonesia
 Japan
 Kiribati
 Macau* (People's Republic of China)
 Malaysia
 Marshall Islands
 Mexico
 Nauru
 New Caledonia* (France)
 New Zealand
 Nicaragua
 Niue#
 Norfolk Island* (Australia)
 Northern Mariana Islands* (US)
 North Korea
 Palau
 Panama
 Papua New Guinea
 Peru
 Philippines
 Pitcairn Islands* (UK)
 Russia
 Samoa
 Singapore
 Solomon Islands
 South Korea
 Taiwan
 Thailand
 Timor-Leste
 Tonga
 Tokelau* (New Zealand)
 Tuvalu
 United States
 Vanuatu
 Vietnam
 Wallis and Futuna* (France)
Uninhabited territories
[edit]
Territories with no permanent civilian population.

 Baker Island (US)

 Clipperton Island (France)
 Coral Sea Islands (Australia)
 Howland Island (US)
 Jarvis Island (US)
 Johnston Island (US)
 Kingman Reef (US)
 Macquarie Island (Australia)
 Midway Atoll (US)
 Palmyra Atoll (US)
 Wake Island (US)
Landmasses and islands
[edit]
Main article: Pacific Islands

Tarawa Atoll in Kiribati

The Pacific Ocean has most of the islands in the world. There are about 25,000 islands
in the Pacific Ocean.[59][60][61] The islands entirely within the Pacific Ocean can be divided
into three main groups known as Micronesia, Melanesia and Polynesia. Micronesia,
which lies north of the equator and west of the International Date Line, includes
the Mariana Islands in the northwest, the Caroline Islands in the center, the Marshall
Islands to the east and the islands of Kiribati in the southeast.[62][63]

Melanesia, to the southwest, includes New Guinea, the world's second largest island
after Greenland and by far the largest of the Pacific islands. The other main Melanesian
groups from north to south are the Bismarck Archipelago, the Solomon Islands, Santa
Cruz, Vanuatu, Fiji and New Caledonia.[64]

The largest area, Polynesia, stretching from Hawaii in the north to New Zealand in the
south, also encompasses Tuvalu, Tokelau, Samoa, Tonga and the Kermadec Islands to
the west, the Cook Islands, Society Islands and Austral Islands in the center, and
the Marquesas Islands, Tuamotu, Mangareva Islands, and Easter Island to the east.[65]

Islands in the Pacific Ocean are of four basic types: continental islands, high islands,
coral reefs and uplifted coral platforms. Continental islands lie outside the andesite line
and include New Guinea, the islands of New Zealand, and the Philippines. Some of
these islands are structurally associated with nearby continents. High islands are of
volcanic origin, and many contain active volcanoes. Among these are Bougainville,
Hawaii, and the Solomon Islands.[66]

The coral reefs of the South Pacific are low-lying structures that have built up on
basaltic lava flows under the ocean's surface. One of the most dramatic is the Great
Barrier Reef off northeastern Australia with chains of reef patches. A second island type
formed of coral is the uplifted coral platform, which is usually slightly larger than the low
coral islands. Examples include Banaba (formerly Ocean Island) and Makatea in the
Tuamotu group of French Polynesia.[67][68]

Ladrilleros Beach in Colombia on the coast of Chocó natural region

Tahuna maru islet, French Polynesia

 

Los Molinos on the coast of Southern Chile

Water characteristics
[edit]

Sunset in Monterey County, California, U.S.

The volume of the Pacific Ocean, representing about 50.1 percent of the world's
oceanic water, has been estimated at some 714 million cubic kilometers (171 million
cubic miles).[69] Surface water temperatures in the Pacific can vary from −1.4 °C
(29.5 °F), the freezing point of seawater, in the poleward areas to about 30 °C (86 °F)
near the equator.[70] Salinity also varies latitudinally, reaching a maximum of 37 parts per
thousand in the southeastern area. The water near the equator, which can have a
salinity as low as 34 parts per thousand, is less salty than that found in the mid-latitudes
because of abundant equatorial precipitation throughout the year. The lowest counts of
less than 32 parts per thousand are found in the far north as less evaporation of
seawater takes place in these frigid areas.[71] The motion of Pacific waters is generally
clockwise in the Northern Hemisphere (the North Pacific gyre) and counter-clockwise in
the Southern Hemisphere. The North Equatorial Current, driven westward along latitude
15°N by the trade winds, turns north near the Philippines to become the warm Japan
or Kuroshio Current.[72]

Turning eastward at about 45°N, the Kuroshio forks and some water moves northward
as the Aleutian Current, while the rest turns southward to rejoin the North Equatorial
Current.[73] The Aleutian Current branches as it approaches North America and forms the
base of a counter-clockwise circulation in the Bering Sea. Its southern arm becomes the
chilled slow, south-flowing California Current.[74] The South Equatorial Current, flowing
west along the equator, swings southward east of New Guinea, turns east at
about 50°S, and joins the main westerly circulation of the South Pacific, which includes
the Earth-circling Antarctic Circumpolar Current. As it approaches the Chilean coast, the
South Equatorial Current divides; one branch flows around Cape Horn and the other
turns north to form the Peru or Humboldt Current.[75]
Climate
[edit]

Impact of El Niño and La Niña on North America

Typhoon Tip at global peak intensity on 12 October 1979

The climate patterns of the Northern and Southern Hemispheres generally mirror each
other. The trade winds in the southern and eastern Pacific are remarkably steady while
conditions in the North Pacific are far more varied with, for example, cold winter
temperatures on the east coast of Russia contrasting with the milder weather off British
Columbia during the winter months due to the preferred flow of ocean currents.[76]

In the tropical and subtropical Pacific, the El Niño Southern Oscillation (ENSO) affects
weather conditions. To determine the phase of ENSO, the most recent three-month sea
surface temperature average for the area approximately 3,000 km (1,900 mi) to the
southeast of Hawaii is computed, and if the region is more than 0.5 °C (0.9 °F) above or
below normal for that period, then an El Niño or La Niña is considered in progress.[77]
In the tropical western Pacific, the monsoon and the related wet season during the
summer months contrast with dry winds in the winter which blow over the ocean from
the Asian landmass.[78] Worldwide, tropical cyclone activity peaks in late summer, when
the difference between temperatures aloft and sea surface temperatures is the greatest;
however, each particular basin has its own seasonal patterns. On a worldwide scale,
May is the least active month, while September is the most active month. November is
the only month in which all the tropical cyclone basins are active.[79] The Pacific hosts the
two most active tropical cyclone basins, which are the northwestern Pacific and the
eastern Pacific. Pacific hurricanes form south of Mexico, sometimes striking the western
Mexican coast and occasionally the Southwestern United States between June and
October, while typhoons forming in the northwestern Pacific moving into southeast and
east Asia from May to December. Tropical cyclones also form in the South Pacific
basin, where they occasionally impact island nations.[80]

In the arctic, icing from October to May can present a hazard for shipping while
persistent fog occurs from June to December.[81] A climatological low in the Gulf of
Alaska keeps the southern coast wet and mild during the winter months.
The Westerlies and associated jet stream within the Mid-Latitudes can be particularly
strong, especially in the Southern Hemisphere, due to the temperature difference
between the tropics and Antarctica,[82] which records the coldest temperature readings
on the planet. In the Southern hemisphere, because of the stormy and cloudy conditions
associated with extratropical cyclones riding the jet stream, it is usual to refer to the
Westerlies as the Roaring Forties, Furious Fifties and Shrieking Sixties according to the
varying degrees of latitude.[83]

Geology
[edit]
Main articles: Geology of the Pacific Ocean and Pacific Plate

A Ring of Fire; the Pacific is ringed

by many volcanoes and oceanic trenches. This map does not show the Cascadia Subduction
Zone along part of the west coast of North America, whose trench is completely buried in
sediments. A stratovolcano in Ulawun on the island of New

Britain in Papua New Guinea Mount St. Helens in Skamania

County, Washington, U.S. in 2020
The ocean was first mapped by Abraham Ortelius; he called it Maris Pacifici
following Ferdinand Magellan's description of it as "a pacific sea" during his
circumnavigation from 1519 to 1522. To Magellan, it seemed much more calm (pacific)
than the Atlantic.[84]

The andesite line is the most significant regional distinction in the Pacific. A petrologic
boundary, it separates the deeper, mafic igneous rock of the Central Pacific Basin from
the partially submerged continental areas of felsic igneous rock on its margins.[85] The
andesite line follows the western edge of the islands off California and passes south of
the Aleutian arc, along the eastern edge of the Kamchatka Peninsula, the Kuril Islands,
Japan, the Mariana Islands, the Solomon Islands, and New Zealand's North Island.[86][87]

The dissimilarity continues northeastward along the western edge of

the Andes Cordillera along South America to Mexico, returning then to the islands off
California. Indonesia, the Philippines, Japan, New Guinea, and New Zealand lie outside
the andesite line.

Within the closed loop of the andesite line are most of the deep troughs, submerged
volcanic mountains, and oceanic volcanic islands that characterize the Pacific basin.
Here basaltic lavas gently flow out of rifts to build huge dome-shaped volcanic
mountains whose eroded summits form island arcs, chains, and clusters. Outside the
andesite line, volcanism is of the explosive type, and the Pacific Ring of Fire is the
world's foremost belt of explosive volcanism.[62] The Ring of Fire is named after the
several hundred active volcanoes that sit above the various subduction zones.

The Pacific Ocean is the only ocean which is mostly bounded by subduction zones.
Only the central part of the North American coast and the Antarctic and Australian
coasts have no nearby subduction zones.
Geological history
[edit]
The Pacific Ocean was born 750 million years ago at the breakup of Rodinia, although it
is generally called the Panthalassa until the breakup of Pangea, about 200 million years
ago.[88] The oldest Pacific Ocean floor is only around 180 Ma old, with older crust
subducted by now.[89]

Seamount chains
[edit]
The Pacific Ocean contains several long seamount chains, formed by hotspot
volcanism. These include the Hawaiian–Emperor seamount chain and the Louisville
Ridge.

Economy
[edit]
The exploitation of the Pacific's mineral wealth is hampered by the ocean's great
depths. In shallow waters of the continental shelves off the coasts of Australia and New
Zealand, petroleum and natural gas are extracted, and pearls are harvested along the
coasts of Australia, Japan, Papua New Guinea, Nicaragua, Panama, and the
Philippines, although in sharply declining volume in some cases.[90]

Fishing
[edit]
Fish are an important economic asset in the Pacific. The shallower shoreline waters of
the continents and the more temperate islands
yield herring, salmon, sardines, snapper, swordfish, and tuna, as well as shellfish.
[91]
Overfishing has become a serious problem in some areas. Overfishing leads to
depleted fish populations and closed fisheries, causing both economic and ecologic
consequences.[92] For example, catches in the rich fishing grounds of the Okhotsk
Sea off the Russian coast have been reduced by at least half since the 1990s as a
result of overfishing.[93]

Environment
[edit]
See also: Great Pacific garbage patch and Environmental impact of shipping
 Pacific Ocean currents have created three

islands of debris.[94] Marine debris on a Hawaiian coast in 2008

The Northwestern Pacific Ocean is most susceptible to micro plastic pollution due to its
proximity to highly populated countries like Japan and China.[95] The quantity of small
plastic fragments floating in the north-east Pacific Ocean increased a hundredfold
between 1972 and 2012.[96] The ever-growing Great Pacific garbage patch between
California and Japan is three times the size of France.[97] An estimated 80,000 metric
tons of plastic inhabit the patch, totaling 1.8 trillion pieces.[98]

Marine pollution is a generic term for the harmful entry into the ocean of chemicals or
particles. The main culprits are those using the rivers for disposing of their waste. [99] The
rivers then empty into the ocean, often also bringing chemicals used as fertilizers in
agriculture. The excess of oxygen-depleting chemicals in the water leads to hypoxia and
the creation of a dead zone.[100]

Marine debris, also known as marine litter, is human-created waste that has ended up
floating in a lake, sea, ocean, or waterway. Oceanic debris tends to accumulate at the
center of gyres and coastlines, frequently washing aground where it is known as beach
litter.[99]

In addition, the Pacific Ocean has served as the crash site of satellites, including Mars
96, Fobos-Grunt, and Upper Atmosphere Research Satellite.

Nuclear waste
[edit]
 In 2020, Japanese Prime Minister Suga declined to drink the
bottle of Fukushima's treated radioactive water that he was holding, which would otherwise be
discharged to the Pacific.[101]
From 1946 to 1958, Marshall Islands served as the Pacific Proving Grounds, designated
by the United States, and played host to a total of 67 nuclear tests conducted across
various atolls.[102][103] Several nuclear weapons were lost in the Pacific Ocean,[104] including
one-megaton bomb that was lost during the 1965 Philippine Sea A-4 incident.[105]

In 2021, the discharge of radioactive water from the Fukushima nuclear plant into the
Pacific Ocean over a course of 30 years was approved by the Japanese Cabinet. The
Cabinet concluded the radioactive water would have been diluted to drinkable standard.
[106]
Apart from dumping, leakage of tritium into the Pacific was estimated to be between
20 and 40 trillion Bqs from 2011 to 2013, according to the Fukushima plant.[107]

Deep Sea Mining

[edit]
An emerging threat for the Pacific ocean is the development of deep-sea mining. Deep-
sea mining is aimed at extracting manganese nodules that contain minerals such as
magnesium, nickel, copper, zinc and cobalt. The largest deposits of these are found in
the Pacific Ocean between Mexico and Hawaii in the Clarion Clipperton Fracture Zone.
[108]

Deep-sea mining for manganese nodules appears to have drastic consequences for the
ocean. It disrupts deep-sea ecosystems and may cause irreversible damage to fragile
marine habitats.[109] Sediment stirring and chemical pollution threaten various marine
animals. In addition, the mining process can lead to greenhouse gas emissions and
promote further climate change. Preventing deep-sea mining is therefore important to
ensure the long-term health of the ocean.[citation needed]

Major ports and harbors

[edit]

This section needs

expansion. You can help
by adding to it. (December
2020)
Main article: List of ports and harbors of the Pacific Ocean
List of major ports
[edit]

 Acapulco
 Auckland
 Bangkok
 Busan
 Callao
 Cebu City
 Dalian
 Guangzhou
 Haiphong
 Ho Chi Minh City
 Hong Kong
 Honolulu
 Jakarta
 Johor Bahru
 Kaohsiung
 Keelung
 Long Beach
 Los Angeles
 Manila
 Melbourne
 Nagoya
 Nakhodka
 Oakland
 Osaka
 Panama City
 Portland
 San Diego
 San Francisco
 Seattle
 Shanghai
 Singapore
 Sydney
 Tianjin
 Tokyo
 Valparaíso
 Vancouver
 Vladivostok
 Yokohama
List of seas, gulfs and bays by surface area
[edit]

 Philippine Sea : 5,695,000 km2 (2,199,000 sq mi)

 Coral Sea : 4,791,000 km2 (1,850,000 sq mi)
 South China Sea: 3,500,000 km2 (1,400,000 sq mi)
 Tasman Sea : 2,300,000 km2 (890,000 sq mi)
 Bering Sea : 2,000,000 km2 (770,000 sq mi)
 Sea of Okhotsk : 1,583,000 km2 (611,000 sq mi)
 Gulf of Alaska : 1,533,000 km2 (592,000 sq mi)
 East China Sea: 1,249,000 km2 (482,000 sq mi)
 Sea of Japan : 978,000 km2 (378,000 sq mi)
 Solomon Sea : 720,000 km2 (280,000 sq mi)
 Arafura Sea : 650,000 km2 (250,000 sq mi)
 Banda Sea : 470,000 km2 (180,000 sq mi)
 Yellow Sea : 380,000 km2 (150,000 sq mi)
 Gulf of Thailand : 320,000 km2 (120,000 sq mi)
 Java Sea : 320,000 km2 (120,000 sq mi)
 Gulf of Carpentaria : 300,000 km2 (120,000 sq mi)
 Celebes Sea : 280,000 km2 (110,000 sq mi)
 Sulu Sea : 260,000 km2 (100,000 sq mi)
 Bismarck Sea : 250,400 km2 (96,700 sq mi)
 Flores Sea : 240,000 km2 (93,000 sq mi)
 Molucca Sea : 200,000 km2 (77,000 sq mi)
 Gulf of Anadyr : 200,000 km2 (77,000 sq mi)
 Gulf of California : 160,000 km2 (62,000 sq mi)
 Gulf of Tonkin : 126,250 km2 (48,750 sq mi)
 Halmahera Sea : 95,000 km2 (37,000 sq mi)
 Bohai Sea : 78,000 km2 (30,000 sq mi)
 Gulf of Papua : 70,400 km2 (27,200 sq mi)
 Koro Sea : 58,000 km2 (22,000 sq mi)
 Bali Sea : 45,000 km2 (17,000 sq mi)
 Savu Sea : 35,000 km2 (14,000 sq mi)
 Bohol Sea 29,000 km2 (11,000 sq mi)
 Seto Inland Sea : 23,203 km2 (8,959 sq mi)
 Sibuyan Sea 22,400 km2 (8,600 sq mi)
 Seram Sea 12,000 km (7,500 mi)
 Visayan Sea 11,850 km2 (4,580 sq mi)
 Gulf of Panama 2,400 km2 (930 sq mi)
 Manila Bay : 2,000 km2 (770 sq mi)
 Tokyo Bay : 1,500 km2 (580 sq mi)
List of islands in the Pacific
[edit]
Main article: List of islands in the Pacific Ocean
 Theories of natural delimitation between the
Atlantic and Pacific oceans
[edit]
Map showing the proposal presented by the thesis entitled "Natural delimitation between the
Pacific and South Atlantic oceans by the Shackleton Fracture Zone".
Scientific researchers have proposed delimiting the boundary between the Atlantic and
Pacific oceans by two different natural boundaries, by the Shackleton Fracture
Zone[110] and by the Scotia Arc[111][112][113] the former being more current than the latter.

See also
[edit]

 Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation

 List of rivers of the Americas by coastline#Pacific Ocean coast
 Pacific Alliance
 Pacific coast
 Mikhail Tikhanov
 Pacific Time Zone
 Seven Seas
 Trans-Pacific Partnership
 War of the Pacific
 Natural delimitation between the Pacific and South Atlantic oceans by the
Shackleton Fracture Zone
 Natural delimitation between the Pacific and South Atlantic oceans by the Scotia Arc
Portals:
 Oceans
 Environment
 Ecology
 Geography
 Weather
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