William Stallings

Data and Computer

Communications

TCP/IP & OSI Model

TCP/IP Protocol Architecture
Developed by the US Defense Advanced
Research Project Agency (DARPA) for its packet
switched network (ARPANET)
Used by the global Internet
No official model but a working one.
Application layer
Host to host or transport layer
Internet layer
Network access layer
Physical layer
Physical Layer
Physical interface between data transmission
device (e.g. computer) and transmission
medium or network
Characteristics of transmission medium
Signal levels
Data rates
etc.
Network Access Layer
Exchange of data between end system and
network
Destination address provision
Invoking services like priority
Internet Layer (IP)
Systems may be attached to different networks
Routing functions across multiple networks
Implemented in end systems and routers
Transport Layer (TCP)
Reliable delivery of data
Ordering of delivery
Application Layer
Support for user applications
e.g. http, SMPT
TCP/IP Protocol Architecture
Model
OSI Model
Open Systems Interconnection
Developed by the International Organization for
Standardization (ISO)
Seven layers
A theoretical system delivered too late!
TCP/IP is the de facto standard
OSI Layers
Application
Presentation
Session
Transport
Network
Data Link
Physical
OSI v TCP/IP
Standards
Required to allow for interoperability between
equipment
Advantages
Ensures a large market for equipment and software
Allows products from different vendors to
communicate
Disadvantages
Freeze technology
May be multiple standards for the same thing
Standards Organizations
Internet Society
ISO
ITU-T (formally CCITT)
ATM forum
Local Area Network Technology
Personal computer LANs
Low cost
Limited data rate
Back end networks and storage area networks
Interconnecting large systems (mainframes and large
storage devices)
High data rate
High speed interface
Distributed access
Limited distance
Limited number of devices
Local Area Network Technology
High speed office networks
Desktop image processing
High capacity local storage
Backbone LANs
Interconnect low speed local LANs
Reliability
Capacity
Cost
LAN Architecture
Protocol architecture
Topologies
Media access control
Logical Link Control
Protocol Architecture
Lower layers of TCP & OSI model
Physical
Physical Layers
Encoding/decoding
Preamble generation/removal
Bit transmission/reception
Transmission medium and topology
LAN Protocols in Context
Topologies
Tree
Bus
Special case of tree
One trunk, no branches
Ring
Star
LAN Topologies
Bus and Tree
Multipoint medium
Transmission propagates throughout medium
Heard by all stations
Need to identify target station
Each station has unique address
Full duplex connection between station and tap
Allows for transmission and reception
Need to regulate transmission
To avoid collisions
To avoid hogging
Data in small blocks - frames
Terminator absorbs frames at end of medium
Frame Transmission - Bus LAN
Ring Topology
Repeaters joined by point to point links in closed
loop
Receive data on one link and retransmit on another
Links unidirectional
Stations attach to repeaters
Data in frames
Circulate past all stations
Destination recognizes address and copies frame
Frame circulates back to source where it is removed
Media access control determines when station
can insert frame
Frame
Transmission
Ring LAN
Star Topology
Each station connected directly to central node
Usually via two point to point links
Central node can broadcast
Physical star, logical bus
Only one station can transmit at a time
Central node can act as frame switch
Transmission Media
Twisted pair
Not practical in shared bus at higher data rates
Baseband coaxial cable
Used by Ethernet
Broadband coaxial cable
Included in 802.3 specification but no longer made
Optical fiber
Expensive
Difficulty with availability
Not used
Few new installations
Replaced by star based twisted pair and optical fiber
Baseband Coaxial Cable
Uses digital signaling
Manchester or Differential Manchester encoding
Entire frequency spectrum of cable used
Single channel on cable
Bi-directional
Few kilometer range
Ethernet (basis for 802.3) at 10Mbps
50 ohm cable
10Base5
Ethernet and 802.3 originally used 0.4 inch
diameter cable at 10Mbps
Max cable length 500m
Distance between taps a multiple of 2.5m
Ensures that reflections from taps do not add in
phase
Max 100 taps
10Base5
10Base2
Cheapernet
0.25 inch cable
More flexible
Easier to bring to workstation
Cheaper electronics
Greater attenuation
Lower noise resistance
Fewer taps (30)
Shorter distance (185m)
Repeaters
Transmits in both directions
Joins two segments of cable
No buffering
No logical isolation of segments
If two stations on different segments send at
the same time, packets will collide
Only one path of segments and repeaters
between any two stations
Baseband Configuration
Ring LANs
Each repeater connects to two others via
unidirectional transmission links
Single closed path
Data transferred bit by bit from one repeater to
the next
Repeater regenerates and retransmits each bit
Repeater performs data insertion, data
reception, data removal
Repeater acts as attachment point
Packet removed by transmitter after one trip
round ring
Ring Repeater States
Listen State Functions
Scan passing bit stream for patterns
Address of attached station
Token permission to transmit
Copy incoming bit and send to attached station
Whilst forwarding each bit
Modify bit as it passes
e.g. to indicate a packet has been copied (ACK)
Transmit State Functions
Station has data
Repeater has permission
May receive incoming bits
If ring bit length shorter than packet
Pass back to station for checking (ACK)
May be more than one packet on ring
Buffer for retransmission later
Bypass State
Signals propagate past repeater with no delay
(other than propagation delay)
Partial solution to reliability problem (see later)
Improved performance
Ring Media
Twisted pair
Baseband coaxial
Fiber optic
Not broadband coaxial
Would have to receive and transmit on multiple
channels, asynchronously
Timing Jitter
Clocking included with signal
e.g. differential Manchester encoding
Clock recovered by repeaters
To know when to sample signal and recover bits
Use clocking for retransmission
Clock recovery deviates from midbit transmission
randomly
Noise
Imperfections in circuitry
Retransmission without distortion but with
timing error
Cumulative effect is that bit length varies
Limits number of repeaters on ring
Solving Timing Jitter
Limitations
Repeater uses phase locked loop
Minimize deviation from one bit to the next
Use buffer at one or more repeaters
Hold a certain number of bits
Expand and contract to keep bit length of ring
constant
Significant increase in maximum ring size
Potential Ring Problems
Break in any link disables network
Repeater failure disables network
Installation of new repeater to attach new
station requires identification of two
topologically adjacent repeaters
Timing jitter
Method of removing circulating packets required
With backup in case of errors
Mostly solved with star-ring architecture
Star Ring Architecture
Feed all inter-repeater links to single site
Concentrator
Provides central access to signal on every link
Easier to find faults
Can launch message into ring and see how far it gets
Faulty segment can be disconnected and repaired
later
New repeater can be added easily
Bypass relay can be moved to concentrator
Can lead to long cable runs
Can connect multiple rings using bridges
Star LANs
Use unshielded twisted pair wire (telephone)
Minimal installation cost
May already be an installed base
All locations in building covered by existing installation
Attach to a central active hub
Two links
Transmit and receive
Hub repeats incoming signal on all outgoing
lines
Link lengths limited to about 100m
Fiber optic - up to 500m
Logical bus - with collisions
Two Level Star Topology
Hubs and Switches
Shared medium hub
Central hub
Hub retransmits incoming signal to all outgoing lines
Only one station can transmit at a time
With a 10Mbps LAN, total capacity is 10Mbps
Switched LAN hub
Hub acts as switch
Incoming frame switches to appropriate outgoing line
Unused lines can also be used to switch other traffic
With two pairs of lines in use, overall capacity is now
20Mbps
Switched Hubs
No change to software or hardware of devices
Each device has dedicated capacity
Scales well

Store and forward switch

Accept input, buffer it briefly, then output
Cut through switch
Take advantage of the destination address being at
the start of the frame
Begin repeating incoming frame onto output line as
soon as address recognized
May propagate some bad frames
Hubs and
Switches (diag)