CONTENT WORDS AUXILIARY VERB

are usually nouns, verbs, adjectives, and determines the mood, tense, voice, or aspect of
adverbs. another verb in a verb phrase. Put another way,
a helping verb comes before the main (lexical)
FUNCTION WORDS verb in a sentence. Together, they form a verb
phrase. In English, the auxiliary verbs are:
help us connect important information.
Is, am, are, was, were
Content words are those which carry clear Be, being, been
meaning, such as:
Has, have, had
MAIN VERBS: go, speak, think Do, does, did

NOUNS: house, word, idea Will, shall, should, would

Can, could
ADJECTIVES: big, difficult, interesting
May, might, must
ADVERBS: slowly, clearly, quite

Function words are grammatical words that glue

a sentence together, such as: TRANSITIVE AND INTRANSITIVE

AUXILIARY VERBS: are, have, can A transitive lexical verb expresses action and
needs a direct object to receive that action,
PREPOSITIONS: to, from, for
Example: Alice sees the candle.
CONJUNCTIONS: and, but, if
Sees- lexical verb and is transitive, while the
PRONOUNS: her, I, their candle is the direct object because it receives
the action of the lexical verb sees.
ARTICLES: a/an, the
Intransitive verbs, by contrast, express action
but don’t affect a direct object.

Example: Alice dances. the word

LEXICAL VERBS
Dances -lexical verb, but it is intransitive
indicate the main action taking place in any because it doesn’t require a direct object.
sentence and therefore the intention of the
sentence becomes clear.
LINKING VERBS REGULAR AND IRREGULAR

an important lexical verb (such as a form of be A regular verb is one that forms its tenses,
or seem) that joins the subject of a sentence to especially the past tense and past participle, by
a word or phrase that tells something about the adding one in the set of generally accepted
subject. standardized suffixes. Regular verbs are
conjugated by adding either -d, -ed, -ing, or -s to
Example: The boss is unhappy. their base form.

is functions as a linking verb in the sentence Example: She looks in the mirror. -the main verb
Note that to be verbs such as is can also serve looks is a regular verb, , adding that the past
as auxiliary verbs depending on how the tense of look is looked. So, in the past tense, the
sentence is constructed. sentence would read, "She looked in the
mirror."
Example: Alice is helping Victor with his
homework. An irregular verb, meanwhile, does not follow
the usual rules for verb forms.
is serves as the auxiliary verb because it helps
the lexical verb helping. Example: The bridge they built brought traffic in
both directions.
DYNAMIC AND STATIC
The present tense of the first verb in the
A dynamic verb—also called an action verb—is sentence is build, but in the past tense, it is
used primarily to indicate an action, process, or built. Similarly, the present tense of the second
sensation. verb would be bring, but in the past tense as
used in the sentence, it's brought.
Example: They throw the ball, I hit it. They hit
the ball; I catch it.

A static (or stative) verb is used primarily to

describe a state or situation.

Example: We are what we believe we are.

Note that as in the linking verbs section, the to

be verb—in this case, are—can be a lexical verb,
describing a state of being.
SYNTAX (d) That each constituent has a certain
specifiable function in the structure of the thing
the study of the form, positioning, and as a whole.
grouping, of the elements that make up
sentences. It is about the structure of RULES OF SYNTAX
sentences. It pertains to the speaker’s
knowledge of sentences and their structures. 1. The rules of syntax combine words into
phrases and phrases into sentences.
STRUCTURE
2. They specify the correct word order in a
is fundamental to the study of syntax. Structure sentence.
is complex.
Subject-Verb-Object (SVO) The Bicol University
a. It is divisible into parts (called constituents), students elected a new University Student
Council President.
The high heat index in Albay forced
government officials to suspend classes at all The College Dean issued a memorandum on
levels. (subject-verb) the wearing of a uniform.

b. There are different kinds of parts (different 3. They also describe the relationship between
categories of constituents), the meaning of a group of words and the
arrangement of the words.
The very high heat index in Albay forced
government officials to suspend classes at all I love you only. I say what I mean.
levels.
I love only you. I mean what I say.
article, adverb, adjective, noun, prepositional
phrase/adverbial phrase, verb, noun (direct 4. They also specify the grammatical relations of
object), infinitive phrase a sentence, such as the subject and the direct
object.
(c) The constituents are arranged in a
specifiable way Your dog chased my cat. (DO)

The very high heat index in Albay forced the My cat chased your dog. (DO)
government officials to suspend classes at all
levels. 5. Syntax specifies sentence constraints based
on the sentence's verb.
Albay’s very high heat index forced the
government officials to suspend classes at all The boy found in the drawer.
levels.
The boy found the key in the drawer.

Jack is a competent lawyer.

Jack is lives in Quezon City.

Vince tries to be a gentleman. PHRASE
a group of words that forms a grammatical
Vince tries Robert to be a gentleman. component. It can be used to communicate
something. It is a part of a sentence and cannot
6. Syntax specifies sentence constraints based stand on its own. Phrases provide more
on the sentence's verb. information about whatever the sentence is
speaking about.
The boy found in the drawer.
• Phrases are just a part of the sentence
The boy found the key in the drawer. and cannot stand alone.
• They do not give complete meaning if
Jack is a competent lawyer. taken out of context.
• They are mostly used to provide extra
Jack is lives in Quezon City. information about the subject, object or
other components in a sentence.
7. Syntax rules also tell us how words form • There can be more than one phrase in a
groups and are hierarchically ordered in a sentence.
sentence. • Make sure that the phrase gives your
sentence clarity and does not simply
The captain ordered the old men and the old accumulate the sentence with
women off the ship. information.

The captain ordered the old men and the According to the Oxford Learner’s Dictionary -a
women of any age off the ship. The meanings group of words without a finite verb, especially
depend on how the words in the sentence are one that forms part of a sentence.
grouped (specifically, to which words does the
adjective ‘old’ apply?). According to the Cambridge Dictionary
-a group of words that is part of, rather than the
The captain ordered the old men and women of whole of a sentence.
the ship.”
The Collins Dictionary
The captain ordered the [old [men and women]] -a short group of words that people often use as
of the ship. The captain ordered the [old men] a way of saying something. The meaning of a
and [women] of the ship. phrase is often not obvious from the meaning of
the individual words in it. -a small
group of words which forms a unit, either on its
own or within a sentence.
DIRECT OBJECT is a word or phrase that receives
the action of the verb. The Merriam-Webster Dictionary
-a word or group of words forming a syntactic
constituent with a single grammatical function.
NOUN PHRASE a group ADVERB PHRASE
of words that have a noun or pronoun. It is used a group of words that includes an adverb and
to modify the noun. In other words, it can be other modifiers. It performs all the functions of
said that a noun phrase can function as a an adverb. It can be placed in any part of the
subject, an object, or a complement in a sentence, with respect to the part of speech
sentence. they modify.

Example: My brother’s friend had come to visit Example: We are planning to finish our group
him. (Used as a subject) project by the end of May.

Scented candles are my favourite. (Used as a Later this evening, my cousins and I have
subject) planned to go to the park.

The students were asked to find the buried They saw some abandoned puppies at the
treasure. (Used as an object) corner of the street.

ADJECTIVE PHRASE PREPOSITIONAL PHRASE

a group of words that consists of an adjective. It consists of a preposition and an object. It works
can be used to complement it. It provides more just like an adjective or an adverb. It relates the
information about the noun or pronoun in a subject and the verb in a sentence. It is used to
sentence. In other words, it can be said that it modify the nouns and verbs in a particular
functions just like an adjective in a sentence. sentence.

Example: Annu has silky, smooth hair. Example: It was too hard for me to concentrate
with the kids jumping around.
People, living in large cities, often find it
difficult to reach in time. The jewelry boxes were kept inside the
cupboard.
The team that made it to the final was
congratulated in front of the whole school. On the way to New York, we caught sight of the
famous Niagara Falls.
VERB PHRASE
can be used just like a verb. It consists of a main Some of the most common prepositions that
verb and an auxiliary verb. begin prepositional phrases are to, of, about, at,
before, after, by, behind, during, for, from, in,
Example: Students are practicing hard in order over, under, and with.
to participate in the state tournament.

Aaron has been writing multiplication tables for

three hours.

The dogs have been barking continuously.

SENTENCE Subordinate clause/ Dependent Clause is
a string of words used to express a complete missing either a subject or a verb, or sometimes
thought. There’s a lot of flexibility about what it has both but still isn’t grammatically
constitutes a sentence, but the central rule is independent. In either case, subordinate clauses
that it must contain both a subject and a verb. must be joined to an independent clause.

MAIN TYPES OF SENTENCES Subordinate clauses are almost always

introduced by special linking words or phrases
Declarative (statement): A standard sentence known as subordinating conjunctions:
that points out a fact. Use periods (.) connectors like “while,” “because,” or “as long
as,” plus certain prepositions like “before” and
Example: That dog won’t sit. “after.”

Interrogative (question): This is a sentence To build sentences, you can use an independent
asking a question. Use question marks (?) clause by itself or combine it with a
subordinating clause, another independent
Example: Why won’t that dog sit? clause, or both.

Exclamatory (exclamation): This is a modified Subordinating conjunctions showing cause and

declarative sentence used to add emphasis or effect
show emotion, urgency, or high volume. Use
exclamation points (!) The subordinating conjunction that is simplest
to explain is because. Because is a conjunction
Example: I’ve tried everything, but that dog still with just one purpose: to show a cause-and-
won’t sit! effect relationship between a subordinate
clause and a main clause. On its own, a clause
Imperative (command): This is a sentence telling beginning with because is incomplete.
someone or something to do an action. The
subject is assumed, so you don’t need to include A clause that shows a causal relationship, such
it. Imperative sentences can use either periods as “because he wouldn’t wear a seat belt”
or exclamation points. (answering the question “Why?” or “For what
purpose?”), is often referred to as a clause of
Example: Please sit. purpose.

CLAUSE Other subordinating conjunctions that can show

a group of words that contains a subject and cause-and-effect relationships and function in
verb (except for some imperative clauses) and the same way are as, since, though, due to,
can be either independent or subordinate. An provided that, because of, and unless.

Independent clause can exist as a complete

sentence on its own.
Some words are subordinating conjunctions
only when they’re used in certain ways. When
it’s used to mean “in order that,” so and so that
are subordinating conjunctions (but when so is
used to mean “therefore,” it’s a coordinating It’s essentially two simple sentences joined
conjunction). Although for is often used as a together.
preposition (as in “she collected money for
charity”), when it’s used to mean “because,” it’s Example: King Kong didn’t want to destroy the
a subordinating conjunction (“He did not eat, city, but Godzilla enjoyed it.
for he was fasting.”).
COMPOUND-COMPLEX SENTENCE STRUCTURE
Subordinating conjunctions signaling
relationships of time or place has at least two independent clauses and at
least one subordinate clause. Think of it as a
Another function of subordinating conjunctions compound sentence consisting of one or more
is to show a relationship between two clauses complex sentences.
involving a transition of time or place. Some
examples of such subordinating conjunctions Example: After King Kong mustered all this
are once, while, when, whenever, where, strength, he threw a final punch and Godzilla
wherever, before, and after. fell.

SIMPLE SENTENCE STRUCTURE VERB TENSES

are changes or additions to verbs to show when
a standalone independent clause with a subject the action took place: in the past, present, or
and verb. Note that a simple sentence can future. The phrase verb tense is also used for
contain two subjects or two verbs, but not two grammatical aspects, which add more details
of each. about the duration or time an action takes.
When you combine the four grammatical
Example: King Kong and Godzilla destroyed the aspects with the past, present and future, you
city. end up with twelve main verb tenses in English.

COMPLEX SENTENCE STRUCTURE Verb tenses show when an action took place, as
well as how long it occurred. The main verb
combines an independent clause with one or tenses are the past, present, and future.
more subordinate clauses. Complex sentences
always use subordinating conjunctions to
connect the clauses.

Example: King Kong and Godzilla destroyed the

city because they were fighting.

COMPOUND SENTENCE STRUCTURE PAST, PRESENT, AND FUTURE TENSES

combines two independent clauses using a The past, present, and future are the central
coordinating conjunction like the FANBOYS (For, divisions of time in English. The present
And, Nor, But, Or, Yet So) or using a semicolon. represents actions happening now, while the
past represents actions that happened earlier,
and the future describes actions that will For regular verbs, you form the simple past
happen later. tense by adding the suffix –ed to the end of the
verb (or just –d if the past tense verb already
Simple tense ends in an e).
a grammatical aspect that refers to the normal
forms of the past, present, and future tenses— Be careful of irregular past tense verbs,
nothing fancy! Unlike the other aspects, it however. These don’t follow the normal rules
doesn’t add any new information. and use their own unique forms for the past
tense. For example, the past tense of the
Perfect tense irregular verb go is went.
It’s used for actions that relate to other points in
time, either completed or ongoing. Regular verbs: I picked up the glass, but it
dropped from my hand.
Example, in the sentence I have played soccer
since I was a child, the perfect tense indicates Irregular verbs: This morning I went to the store,
that the action occurred continuously in the but I forgot the milk.
past and still happens in the present. By
contrast, in the sentence I played soccer when I PAST PERFECT
was a child, the simple past tense indicates that
the action occurred only in the past and has no [had] + [past participle] What if
relation to the present. you’re talking about two different actions in the
past and want to show that one happened
The perfect tenses use a conjugation of the before the other? The past perfect, also known
auxiliary verb have with the past participle of as the pluperfect, shows that one past action
the main verb. happened earlier than another one.

Continuous tense She had arrived at the office before she realized
We use the continuous tenses (also known as it was Sunday.
the progressive tenses) for ongoing actions or
actions that happen a while before completion. I ran to my car when I noticed my wife had left
For example, they are studying all night means already.
the studying lasts many hours before it’s
finished.

The continuous tenses use a conjugation of the

auxiliary verb be along with the main verb’s
present participle, or –ing form.

PAST TENSES PAST CONTINUOUS

SIMPLE PAST [was/were] + [present participle]

We use the simple past to show actions Use the past continuous to show an ongoing
completed in the past, with no extra emphasis. action in the past, especially if the action was
interrupted by another action. It’s also used for
habitual actions that occurred in the past but
not in the present. It’s usually used with adverbs Often the simple present is just the root verb
like always or adverb phrases like all the time. with no changes or additions. The main
exception to this is when the subject is third
My dog was whimpering in his sleep when the person and singular. In this case you add the
TV woke him up. suffix –s. If the verb ends in o, ch, sh, th, ss, gh,
or z, you add –es. If the verb ends in a
As kids, my friends and I were always getting consonant and y (and the subject is third-person
into trouble. singular), drop the y and add –ies.

PAST PERFECT CONTINUOUS Today I feel like a million bucks!

[had] + [been] + [present participle] My brother carries the groceries while my sister
The past perfect continuous tense is used just stays on the couch.
like the past perfect tense, except it describes
ongoing actions that happened in the past PRESENT PERFECT
instead of a one-time occurance. It’s often used
with the words when, until, and before to [have/has] + [past participle]
connect it to another past action.
Although it’s quite common, the present perfect
Before he got his first job as a writer, he had is one of the most difficult English verb tenses.
been working as a proofreader. It is used to describe a few different types of
actions, including:
I had been living on my friend’s couch for a year
until they kicked me out. an ongoing action started in the past that is not
yet completed

the same action completed multiple times in

the past and likely to be completed again

an action completed very recently (usually with

just or now)

an uncompleted action that is expected to be

finished (in the negative)

Additionally, the present perfect can be used to

emphasize the significance of a completed
PRESENT TENSES action, especially one that happened over time.

SIMPLE PRESENT

The simple present is the most basic of the We have tricked him every April Fool’s Day since
English tenses. It’s used for individual actions or we were kids.
habitual actions in the present.
My niece has grown so much this year! Future tenses

Simple future

Present continuous Use the simple future for actions that have not
happened yet but will later. To form the simple
[am/is/are] + [present participle] future, just place the modal verb will before the
root form of the main verb. (Note that if the
action will happen in the near future, you can
use the present continuous instead.)
Use the present continuous to show an action
happening right now or in the near future.

She will be president one day.

I am reading The Hitchhiker’s Guide to the

Galaxy for the fifth time!
I will not go to the wedding without a date!

We are eating pizza tonight.

Future perfect

[will] + [have] + [past participle]

Present perfect continuous

[have/has] + [been] + [present participle]

The future perfect shows an action that will be
completed in the future by a specified time.
Because it depends on another time, the future
The present perfect continuous shows an perfect is often used with words like by, before,
ongoing action in the present that was started at, or when.
in the past. It is often used to emphasize the
length of time.

By the time you read this, I will have already

left.
We have been waiting for over an hour!

She will have eaten lunch before her sister even

The team has been practicing nonstop for the wakes up.
tournament.
Future continuous

[will] + [be] + [present participle]

Use the future continuous tense for future

actions happening over a period of time,
especially when a specific time is mentioned.
The future continuous tense also shows more
certainty and likelihood than the simple future.

By this time tomorrow, I will be drinking

margaritas on the beach.

We will be attending a meeting from noon until

3 p.m.

Future perfect continuous

[will] + [have] + [been] + [present participle]

The future perfect continuous depicts future

ongoing actions that continue up until a certain
point. Like the future perfect and future
continuous, it’s used with a specified time.

In ten minutes, my parents will have been

waiting in traffic for four hours.

I will have been eating healthy for a whole year

by September.