As Edexcel unit 1

⑲2 Jan 2023 class

⑲
Topic 3A
Topic B
1A
Cell structure
Chemistry
for biologist
5/7/2023
Part 1
Cell structure
Magnification and resolution
LM vs EM
Animal cell ( ultra structure )
 Magnification The number of times an image is larger larger than actual size

I
1 cm = 10mm
A M
1mm= 1000um
1 um =1000 nm
1mm= 1000000 nm

Resolution The ability to distinguish between two points as separate ( how far a part-two points must be
to see them as a separate objects )

How to measure resolution

1/2 of the shortest wave length

of the beam being used
Light microscope
Electron microscope
Use the light beam
zomm err Electron beams
Shortest wave length= 400nm
Which has extremely short wave length
Resolution =1/ 2x 400= 200 nm
Resolution = 0.5nm
jore
Too small for
Magnification up to x1500 Higher magnification up to 500,000X
light to
interfere
 Eye piece
Eye piece graticule

Objective lens
With different magnification

Stage
With a stage micrometer
Imm

Light source

Coarse focus
Fine focus
 Light microscope
Electron microscope

Disadvantages
Advantages :
1. Non portable
1. Portable 2. Extremely expensive
2. Cheap so available at school’s and hospitals 3. Needs technical training
3. Doesn’t need technical training 4. We cant observe living cells as specimen are
4. can observe living cells examined in vacuum ( avoid scattering of electrons)
5. Real color 5. Specimen undergoes many treatments resulting in
6. Add drops of water to see the cell moving artefacts
6. Image is black and white …color are added digitally.
Disadvantages

Advantages
1. LowER resolution and magnification so can’t
be used to see smaller organelles . Higher magnification and resolution
2. Preserving and staining tissue can make / So we can see more details of cell structure
produce artefacts ( not a real part of a tissue , ( smaller organelles )
yet can be mistakenly identified as part of the
tissue ) TEM SEM
Transmission electron micrographs
Scanning electron micrographs
 TEM SEM

Provide 2D image
Similar to those obtained from LM but with greater
magnification up to 500,000times and resolution
I Provide a 3D image

Both are black and white , colors are added digitally

Eye piece graticule

40 unit ……..o.1mm….100um
1 unit ………….0.0025mm…..2.5 um

Cell …20 units ..20 x 2.5 =50 um

Double membrane bound orgaenlle

..
Single membrane bound organelle Vesicle
No membrane Microvilli

Smooth endoplasmic Cell surface membrane

reticulum
E
. Golgi body
Rough
endoplasmic
reticulum
Cytoplasm
&

Golgi vesicles

...
.
.
Ribosomes
...
Lysosomes
Nucleus with a nuclear
Centrioles
envelop Nucleolus Mitochondrion
Nuclear pores
Double membrane Single membrane Non membrane bound
bound organelles bound organelles organelles

Nucleus Large vacuole Ribosomes

Mitochondrion Golgi body Centrioles
Chloroplast Vesicle Nucleolus
Amyloplast Lysosomes
Endoplasmic reticulum

1. Endoplasmic reticulum Single membrane bound organelle

Called cisternae
Membrane connected
https://youtu.be/URUJD5NEXC8
Rough endoplasmic reticulum
Cisternal space

E Ribosomes
Cisternae Smooth endoplasmic reticulum

Structure : flattened sacs called Cisternae

Ribosomes attached to the RER ( rough endoplasmic reticulum )
-
Tubular sacs with no ribosomes
Function : ribosomes where proteins synthesis takes place ( translation ) ,
attached …synthesis of lipid and
polypeptide enter cisternal space of RER …to allow modification and packed
steroidal hormones
into a vesicle to be transported to the Golgi body
Such as testosterone / oestrogen
 Structure
2. Golgi body
Single membrane bound organelle
Transport vesicles
Lysosomes Flattened sacs with no connection between

·y
membrane
Nucleus Vesicles at end of sacs

Function :
1. Collect proteins and modification ( such as
glycosylation by adding a carbohydrate part to
Forming face produce glycoprotein / 3D).

Secretory / Golgi 2. Packaging and transporting the modified protein

vesicles in a secretory / Golgi vesicle

Maturing face
3. Production of
A) Golgi vesicles / secretory vesicles
B) lysosomes ( which contain hydrolytic enzymes )
RER Golgi body

Both are single membrane bound organelle Process and pack the lipids

No connection between
Interconnected sacs
membrane ( stacks of sacs)
 How proteins in the ribosome reach the cell membrane ?

1. Protein is synthesised in the ribosomes on the rough endoplasmic reticulum

( ribosomes are considered site of translation )
2. Proteins enter the sac ( cisternal space) of ER allowing them to be
modified ( example folded into a secondary structure )
3. Packed into a TRANSPORT vesicle , that BUD OFF the rough
endoplasmic reticulum .
4. fuse with Golgi body ( FORMING face) and modified such as glycosylation .
5. Modified protein is packed into a SECRETORY VESICLE and BUD off
the maturing face
• Move towards the cell surface membrane and fuse with it
• And if it releases its content out of the cell by EXOCYTOSIS using ATP
6. While other vesicles move to be used inside the cell such as lysosomes
( containing hydrolytic enzymes )
6/7/2023
Part 2
Mitochondria
Lysosomes
Centrioles
Nucleus
Ribosomes
Prokaryotes
3. Mitochondrion Matrix
70S ribosome Golgi body Mitochondria

S
Stalked Outer membrane Single membrane Double membrane
x Loop of DNA
particles / ATP Inter membrane space x 70S ribosomes
synthase x Cristae
Surrounded by vesicles
X
Inner membrane Cisternae ( flattened sacs ) Rod shaped

Folded ( cristae )
Loop of DNA

Structure :
1. Rod shaped
2. Inner membrane called CRISTAE to increase surface area to carry more ATP synthase for aerobic
respiration.
3. Outer membrane is more permeable than inner membrane
4. Inter membrane space
5. Matrix containing loop of DNA and 70 S ribosomes .

Function : 1.Cut at different angles

Site of aerobic respiration to produce ATP and also plays a role in lipid synthesis 2. At different stages of
growth
4. Lysosomes

Structure :
1. Dark spherical sac
2. Single membrane bound organelle
3. Hydrolytic enzymes needed for digestion of
A) worn out organelles
B) fuse with phagosome ( vesicle containing bacteria ) To digest the engulfed pathogen

Function: Read
1. Acrosome ..where it releases its content its content out of the sperm cell by exocytosis
2. Phagocytosis : where it fuse with the phagosome which is formed by the phagocyte
upon engulfing of the pathogen by endocytosis …to digest pathogen by digestive
enzymes .
3. Apoptosis : programmed cell death
4. Autophagy : break down damaged cell organelles
 5. Centrioles Non membrane bound organelle

2 centrioles found at right angle to one another

Position of centrioles near the nucleus is called centrosome
Each centriole is made of nine triplets of microtubules

Function:
Act as MTOC ( microtubule organising center ) to assemble / form the spindle fibres ( prophase ) ….to separate
the chromosomes / chromatids .

6. Nucleus

Double membrane bound organelle

Nuclear envelop with nuclear pores
Outer membrane of nuclear envelop is continuous with the membrane of rough endoplasmic reticulum
Contain chromatin ( lossely coilded state of chromosomes made of DNA coiled around histone proteins)
Contain nucleolus

Chromatin
Nucleolus Nuclear envelop

Y
Nuclear
pores
 Function of the nucleus :
1. Contain chromatin ( loosely packed state of chromosome ) made from DNA around histone proteins …
carry genes ..to be inherited and control cell activities .
2. DNA contains genetic codes for protein synthesis
3. RNA is formed inside the nucleus
4. Contain the nucleolus which responsible for the formation of rRNA ( ribosomal RNA ) and combine with
protein to form ribosomal subunits .

7. Ribosome

Non membrane bound organelle '

Found attached to the RER or free in cytoplasm
Site of translation for protein synthesis
Made from 2 subunits ( large and small) made in the nucleolus from rRNA and proteins .

80 S ribosomes ( 25 nm ) ..RER / cytoplasm …….RNA : protein 1 :1

70 S ribosomes ( 18 nm ) ….mitochondrion , chloroplast , prokaryotes …….RNA : protein 2 :1
Arrange the oragnelles in respect to their size

Nucleus ……..chloroplast ……mitochondrion…..nucleolus ……..lysosomes …..centrioles ….ribosomes

Plant cell only Animal cell only

LM …..nucleus , cell membrane , cell wall , chloroplast , mitochondria , vacuole , nucleolus

EM ….all + lysosomes , centrioles , ribosomes , ER , Golgi body , Grana of chloroplast , vesicles

Trace pathway taken by a secreted protein Using Radioactive amino acid

Ribosomes …..RER…….Golgi Body ……vesicle ….cell surface membrane

 Cell membrane
Normal function+ site of
some respiratory enzymes
⑱
Ribosomes Pili..help bacteria attach
Site of protein synthesis to the host cell

·
I

Mesosomes

·
Capsule
Infolding of the inner
membrane maybe Help them survive dry
photosynthetic membrane conditions . Protect from
phagocytes.

o
Loop of DNA
Naked with no
Plasmid
histone proteins
Carry genes to make the
bacteria resistant to specific
types of antibiotics
Cell wall
Flagellum
Made from murein preventswelling and
Beats for movement bursting of bacterial cell and help keep its
shape and protection to the cell contents
 Prokaryotes Eukaryotes

No membrane bound organelles Membrane bound organelles

1. Double : nucleus , mitochondria , chloroplast .
2. Single membrane : Golgi body , vesicles , RER,
SER, vacuole , lysosomes
3. Non membrane : ribosome , nucleolus ,
centrioles

70 S ribosome
Both 80 S and 70 S ribosomes

Cell wall made from peptidoglycan/ murein Animal X

Plant ( cellulose )
Fungi ( chitin)

Plasmids
Mesosomes
X
Pili

Circular DNA ( naked with no histone Linear DNA( associated with histone proteins and
proteins)not enclosed inside a nucleus enclosed inside a nucleus )
12/7/2023
Part 3
Plant cell
Practice
Plant cell
 70S ribosomes
Cholorplast Thylakoid contains chlorophyll

Loop of DNA
S
Granum ( plural grana )
stacks of thylakoids

Stroma
Starch grains

Mitochondrion Chloroplast

• both are double membrane bound organelles

• Both have loop of DNA and 70 S ribosomes
• Both have large inner folded membrane ..increasing surface area where
enzyme cataylsed reactions takes place .
• Both are biconvex shape .

Matrix Stroma

X Thylakoid and chlorophyll

Large vacuole

• single membrane bound organelle

• With surface membrane called tonoplast
• Filled with sap solution ( water with some salts and
sugars )

Function :
1. Turgidity
2. Lower water potential inside the cell to allow water
to enter by osmosis
3. Store sugars and salts in water

Amyloplast

Double membrane bound organelle

Store starch ( amylose and amylopectin)
Found in all plant parts which contain large storage of starch
as potatoes tubers
 Level of organisation

Cell …..smallest building unit of an organism

Tissue : a group of cells of similar structure that work together to form a specific function
Organ : group of different tissues that work together to perform a specific function or group of functions

Types of tissue ( four ) :

1. Muscle
2. Nervous
3. Connective tissue ( having matrix …bone and cartilage , and blood )
4. Epithelial tissue / epithelium ( layer of cells linning the inner or the outer layers of an organ )
= epithelium

Ciliated columnar
Squamous epithelial cells Columnar

-...
Flat cells
Lining alveoli and blood vessels Trachea
Endothelium …..a single layer of squamous epithelial cells Oviduct
lining inner part of an organ
Check list :
1. Definitions of magnification and resolution
2. Measurements and conversions ( mm , um , nm ) .
I

3. Advantages and disadvantages of LM and EM A M

4. Types of EM ....TEM and SEM
5. Measuring cells using eye piece graticule and stage micrometer
6. Ultra structure of animal and plant cells → Structure and Function .

A) endoplasmic reticulum
B) Ribosome
Describe how proteins made by ribosomes reach the cell surface membrane
C) Golgi apparatus
I

Rough ER vs Golgi body

D) lysosomes Golgi body vs Mitochondria
E) mitochondria
F)centrioles
G) nucleus
H) cholorplast Chloroplast vs mitochondria

I) large permanent vacuole

J)plasmodesmata
K) Amyloplast

7. Compare the size of organelles

8. Double , single and non membrane bound organelle
9.Prokaryotic structure