TRANSPORTATION Number 339, November 1988

RESEARCH

IRCULAR

Research Problent Statetnents:

Pedestrians

TRANSPORTATION RESEARCH BOARD I NATIONAL RESEARCH COUNCIL

Transportation Number 339, November 1988
Research ISSN 0097-8515
Circular

RESEARCH PROBLEM STATEMENTS:

Pedestrians

COMMITTEE ON PEDESTRIANS
(As of February 1, 1987)

Charles V. Zegeer, Chairman

Kenneth S. Opiela Jerry L. Barrett Gregory P. Benz

Richard D. Bloomberg Kay Colpitts Michael J. Cynecki
Peggy L. Drake Patricia H. Ehrlich John C. Fegan
David G. Fielder John J. Fruin Peter J. Hatzi
Michael R. Hill Ralph B. Hirsch Skip Hood
Christer Hyden Snehamay Khasnabis Jotin C. Khisty
Richard Knoblauch Marvin M. Levy Steven A. Smith
John Templer H.H. Van Der Molen

James K. Williams, TRB Staff

OPERATION, SAFETY AND MAINTENANCE OF TRANSPORTATION FACILITIES

James I. Taylor, Chairman

Group 3 Council

Modes
1 Highway Transportation
Transportation Research Board
Subject areas National Research Council
2101 Constitution Avenue N.W.
51 Safety Washington, D.C. 20418
52 Human Factors
54 Operation and Traffic Control

The Transportation 'Research Board is a unit of the National Research Council, which serves as an
independent advisor to the federal government on scientific and technical questions of national importance .
The Research Council, jointly administered by the National Academy of Sciences, the National Academy of
Engineering, and the Institute of Medicine, brings the resources of the entire scientific and technical
community to bear on national problems through its volunteer advisory committees.
 3

INTRODUCTION

The following procedure was used by the Subcommittee on Research Needs in

developing these research problem statements. An initial list of topics
requiring research attention was drawn from a review of research conducted
for the Federal Highway Administration in 1985. The expanded discussions
of each of these topics were circulated to the members of the entire
Pedestrian Committee early in 1986. Committee members were asked to
review these topics and to submit additional topics they felt should be
considered. Based upon the result of these submissions a list of
thirty-four research problem statement topics were prepared and sent to
each committee member for ranking as being of high, medium, or low
priority.

As a result of these rankings, 17 research problem statements were

selected for inclusion in this Circular. Three were considered to be high
priority. Five were judged to be of medium priority, and nine were felt
to be of low priority.

The members of the Subcommittee on Research Needs drafted these statements

in the proper format. They were presented to the full Pedestrian
Committee at their Annual Meeting in January 1986. The full Committee
recommended that the research problem statements be submitted to Group 3
for publication.

Members of the Subcommittee on Research Needs are:

John C. Fegan, Chairman

Federal Highway Administration

Gregory Benz
Kay Colpitts
Pat Ehrlich
Dave Fielder
4

Title: Safety and Operational Treatments of Pedestrians in Work Zones

Problem: Pedestrians in work zones experience at least two broad classes

of problems. First, the pedestrian passing by the work zone must be able
to find and execute a safe path through the construction. Second, workers
in the zone, particularly in highway work zones, must be protected from
being struck by vehicles or by objects propelled by impact with a
vehicle. Previous research on both aspects of this problem has helped
provide specifications for establishing urban construction zones and
suggested conspicuity treatments for workers, particularly flagmen.
Despite these remedial actions, recent studies have shown that flagmen are
still being frequently struck. A recent NHTSA study examined a sample of
accidents involving road workers (Ulmer, et. al., 1982). The sample was
drawn from the States of Florida and New York over a period of several
years. This study showed that about 18% of all accidents involving road
workers occurred to flagmen. Overall, accidents to people working on or
near the roadway are estimated by the same study to represent
approximately one-quarter of the percent of all pedestrian accidents. No
similar data for non-working pedestrians injured because they were forced
into the street by a construction area which impeded their safe passage
are known to exist. There also has been no systematic follow-up research
to see if the suggested guidelines for channeling pedestrians through
urban work zones have solved the problems.

Objectives: To examine the safety of pedestrians, both workers and

passers-by, in work zones on the roadway and those which impede pedestrian
passage; to determine if further research is needed; and to suggest
promising approaches.

Two parallel activities are envisioned. The first will undertake

behavioral observations of pedestrians traversing construction sites to
determine the nature and extent of difficulties they are encountering.
Simultaneously, the extent of compliance with established guidelines and
ways to improve compliance should be assessed. If problems are uncovered,
guideline revisions will be suggested for setting up construction sites
and for designing and executing pedestrian detours. An examination of
urban accident data (both vehicle accidents and falls and other related
problems, e.g., from emergency room records) should also be undertaken to
determine if there is any accident experience associated with walking
through construction sites. Diagrams of typical installations should be
prepared and published.

The second part of the study should undertake a detailed look at accidents
involving workers at highway construction sites. A specific focus of this
examination should be the determination of whether existing high
visibility materials used by workers are inadequate. This examination
will lead to the development of additional or revised guidelines or
training for protecting workers, particularly flagmen, at construction
sites.

Key Words: Pedestrian accidents, safety guidelines, construction zone

safety.
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Related Work: See discussion of related research in "Problem" discussion.

Ur gency/ Priority : The problem statement is rated the highest priority of

all the research need statements presented by the committee.

Cost: A cost of $100,000 for a 12 month study should provide for a

thorough assessment of any problems and the suggestion of new or revised
guidelines.

User Community: The audience for this research need statement is FHWA and
AASHTO. The primary users of the research will be state DOT and highway
authorities and local public work agencies responsible for roadway and
utility construction and maintenance.

Implementation: The findings would be presented in the form of new or

revised guidelines and training for protecting workers at construction
sites ... Distribution would be through association and government agencies.

Effectiveness : Improving and developing new guidelines for pedestrian

safety in work zones will reduce injuries and fatalities in construction
zones.

Title: Pedestrian Accident Characteristics

Problem : While not growing at the rate of some other accident-types,

pedestrian accidents continue to constitute a significant proportion of
all traffic accidents. In 1982, 16.6 percent of all fatalities (7,274)
were pedestrians. Also in 1982, it was estimated that 125,000 pedestrians
were involved in accidents with motor vehicles in which only 6 percent
escaped injury.

Many studies have been made of pedestrian accidents. However, the data
collected on most of those accidents studied were sparse and usually
confined to very general characteristics. The analyses of these general
characteristics have proven useful in the development of some very
effective accident countermeasures, but there remains a critical need for
greater details which can lead to a better understanding of the cause of
accidents and the development of even more effective countermeasures.

In recent years, limited research budgets have precluded large-scale

pedestrian accident data collection efforts. However, at least one (and
possibly other) large continuous accident' data collection systems, the
National Accident Sampling System (NASS), includes pedestrian accidents.
To date, no known in-depth analyses have been performed on this data. The
opportunity to analyze a wealth of pedestrian accident data without
incurring the cost to collect it should not be ignored. Such an analysis
could lead to significant improvement in accident scene. In addition,
6

there are scene photographs, diagrams and other uncoded data in the hard
copy file. There are presently about 1800 cases in the data base. An
analysis of the data might begin by first obtaining a distribution of all
univariates. The next level would consist of looking at bivariate
distributions, and finally at selected multivariate distributions. Other
tasks would include examining other existing data bases, such as FARS,
AAA, and the National Safety Council, to see if additional analyses were
appropriate. Ways could also be explored to incorporate existing exposure
data into the analyses.

Objective: To explore recent accident data bases in an effort to better

define the characteristics of pedestrian accidents, and to identify
specific pedestrian safety problems.

Key Words: Pedestrian safety, accident data analysis.

Related Work: See discussion in Problem discussion.

Urgency/Priority: This research problem was given the second rank under
the highest priority category.

Cost: The study would require mostly analyst time plus some computer
time. The estimated cost would be $75,000 for a 12-month study.

User Community: The audiences for this research need statement are FHWA
and AASHTO. The primary users will be state and local highway and safety
organizations.

Implementation: The findings would be published as a report and as

articles for technical journals.

Effectiveness: The results of this research may identify significant

factors in pedestrian-vehicle accidents, and measures can be taken to
reduce accident fatalities and injuries.

Title: Guidelines for Improved Usage of Pedestrian Safety Measures

Problem : Some pedestrian safety measures (e.g., bus stop relocations,

street closures and curb parking arrangements) do not require involvement
of the pedestrian to achieve their potential effectiveness. Others (e.g.,
barriers, pedestrian signals and crossing guards) require an active,
positive, use by the pedestrian. A large proportion of pedestrians are
not obedient to pedestrian signal controls, their crossing behavior being
affected more by vehicular speed and gap size. Pedestrian barriers are
often scaled or destroyed, rather than the pedestrian using the desired
crossing point. Pedestrian grade separations are often shunned and go
virtually unused, while people continue to cross a hazardous roadway
 7

at-grade.

Some limited research has been done on pedestrian behavior where these
types of devices have been employed . Some rules of thumb have been
derived and some insights into pedestrian behavior have been gained.
However, the state of knowledge has not been synthesized in this respect.
Furthermore, large gaps exist in understanding of the motivation which
drives pedestrian behavior with respect to these countermeasures. More
knowledge is needed which can be translated into practical guidelines.
The planners and designers in the U.S. need a set of guidelines for
selection, design and placement of pedestrian safety devices for their
most effective use. These must reflect pedestrian behavior
characteristics derived from other research.

Objective : A set of practical guidelines useable by local agencies to

enhance their ability to effectively choose, design and apply pedestrian
safety measures.

o Acquire and synthesize current knowledge on pedestrian use of

countermeasures requiring their active participation. Pedestrian
behavioral research should be referenced along with field studies of
installations.

o Document current designs and warrants employed for pedestrian safety

measures. Document current guidelines for their application and
available data on their effectiveness. Document examples of desirable
and undesirable behaviors associated with specific measures.

o Assess candidate measures and behaviors and select a set for further
study. Conduct additional laboratory and field research to determine
pedestrian motivational and behavioral characteristics which affect
usage of the selected measure and how to effectively deal with those
attributes to achieve the objective of the measure.

o Develop a set of guidelines of selection, design and placement of the

selected measures.

Key Words: Pedestrian behavior.

Related Work: See discussion of Problem.

Urgency/Priority : The problem statement was given the third rank under
the highest priority category.

Cost: The research study is estimated to cost $250,000 and require a

period of 20 to 24 months.

User Community: The audience for this research need statement is FHWA,
AASHTO and ITE. The primary users will be state and local highway and
safety organization and planning and design disciplines responsible for
pedestrian safety.
8

Implementation: A set of guidelines for selection, design and placement

of the selected measures will be developed and issued as a manual;
articles for professional technical journals will also be prepared.

Effectiveness: This research will lead to improved effective measures to

enhance pedestrian safety which will reduce pedestrian fatalities and
injuries.

Title: Time-Space Analysis of Crosswalks and Corners

Problem: The current draft of the New Highway Capacity Manual contains a
new method of analysing the adequacy of corners and crosswalks based on a
"time-space" concept. In addition, the new analysis procedure provides a
means of evaluating the effect of turning vehicles on pedestrian crosswalk
adequacy, and conversely, the effect of heavy pedestrian crossing volumes
on the vehicular capacity of the intersection. In the latter application
it would identify pedestrian crossings where turn restrictions or special
signalization strategies should be employed to increase intersection
capacity. The method is adaptable to microcomputer programming.

While for the most part, the time-space method is based on previous
pedestrian traffic and walking speed research, there has been no
broad-based field validation of the method which compares theoretical
value with actual observed traffic conditions at various types of urban
intersections. Analyzing the effects of pedestrian crossing time-space is
a new analytical technique with the promise of a better understanding of
the functioning of complex traffic areas such as intersections where there
is a mix of pedestrians and different vehicle types competing for the same
"green-time".

Objectives: (a) To validate the time-space method for determining the

level-of-service for crosswalks and corners; (b) to determine the effects
on intersection vehicular capacity of pedestrian crossing activity; (c) to
provide an up-date of the Highway Capacity Manual (HCM) section on
time-space analysis; (d) to develop a micro-computer program for analysing
crosswalks and corners; and (e) to develop a training program, using the
case-study approach to instruct practitioners in the use of the HCM
time-space analysis technique.

The approach will include time-lapse photography/video analysis of

selected intersections for different conditions in a number of cities to
establish:

(a) for corners

pedestrian densities and levels-of service for a range of
pedestrian volumes and signal cycles;
 9

(b) crosswalks
pedestrian densities and levels-of-service for a r.ange of
crossing volumes, signal cycles, crosswalk length and width, and
time-space requirements for turning vehicles of different
classifications (autos, buses, trucks).

(c) intersection capacity

the threshold values where heavy pedestrian volumes delay turning
vehicles to the extent that the through-put and capacity of the
intersection is reduced; curves, formulae and other ~eans of
estimating intersection capacity reductions for different types
of intersections (1 way-1 way, 1 way-2 way, 2 way-2 way) due to
pedestrian crossing activity.

Key Words : Pedestrians, level-of-service, sidewalks, intersections,

pedestrian-vehicle conflict, walking.
Related Work : Recently, the New York Department of City Planning
completed a study to validate and calibrate the time-space concept for
Manhattan conditions. The research found that the time-space concept was
able to replicate observed and measured pedestrian conditions, recommend
several refinements and calibrate parameters for the procedure as
presented in the new HCM. However, this research was only for Manhattan
conditions and may not be valid for other applications. Thus a more
geographically balanced analysis is needed.

Urgency / Priority : The Pedestrian Committee has ranked this research

statement the first one under Medium Priority.

Cost: $250,000 for a 24 month period, including field collection of data

in three to five cities, development of necessary curves and formulae, a
micro-computer analysis procedure, and a training program to instruct
practitioners in the use of the time space analysis technique.

User Community: The audience for this research need statement is FHWA and
AASHTO. The primary users of the research will be local agencies
responsible for ensuring safe and comfortable conditions at pedestrian
facilities.

Implementation: The findings would be presented in the form of addenda to

the new HCM; as technical articles in professional journals such as the
Transportation Research Record, ITE Journal, and NCHRP publications.
Also, a training program could be incorporated as part of a larger program
on the new HCM.

Effect i veness : Refining and calibrating the time-space approach will

improve the ability of practitioners to provide safe and convenient
pedestrian facilities. This will improve the pedestrian environment in
areas such as downtown business districts thereby enhancing their economic
vitality and viability. The improved safety will reduce pedestrian
fatalities and injuries. Reduced pedestrian-vehicle conflicts will
improve vehicular traffic flow and reduce traffic congestion and the
associated air pollution.
10

Title: Pedestrian Gap Acceptance

Problem: Although pedestrian gap acceptance has been examined in several

studies, a comprehensive examination of the various parameters affecting
pedestrian gap acceptance has not been conducted. A wide variety of
pedestrian, roadway, and environmental characteristics must be considered
when examining gap acceptance. Data on gap acceptance would be useful in
determining where various pedestrian safety treatments (signals,
overpasses, cross-walks, etc.) should be installed.

Objective: To provide a sound empirical basis for determining the gap in

the traffic stream that pedestrians require to cross an uncontrolled
roadway.

Key Words : Gap availability, pedestrian crossings, pedestrian warrants,

sight distance, pedestrian visibility, gap study.

Related Work: Previous work has used a limited number of test subjects in
a simulated crossing situation. In order for the results to be most
useful to the practitioner, the research should be a field data collection
effort and not be conducted in an artificial setting. The
risk/consequences of a pedestrian's crossing decision are too difficult to
simulate. Also refer to FHWA contract DTFH61-85-C-00079, "Measuring
Pedestrian Volumes and Conflicts".

Urgency/Priority: The Pedestrian Committee gives this research a "medium"

priority. It ranks fifth out of 34 evaluated by the Committee.

Cost: The estimated cost is $100,000 for a period of 18 months.

User Community: FHWA, NHTSA, and state and local traffic engineers,
planners, designers and safety specialists.

Implementation: One important product of the research would be the

development of techniques to allow the local practitioner to determine the
"gap availability" at various locations. These techniques could be added
to the Traffic Control Devices Handbook.

Effectiveness: Gap acceptance should be measured for a variety of

pedestrian characteristics (age, sex, accompaniment) and roadway
characteristics (width, operating speed, ADT, ratio of ADT to capacity,
sight distance restrictions, etc.). In addition, the potential role of
vehicle factors (speed, size, color, noise level) and environmental
factors (rain, fog, snow, darkness) should be considered. An MOE might be
the observed percentage of pedestrian crossings without conflicts of the
total attempted crossings.
 11

Title: Nighttime Pedestrian Safety

Problem : A large number of pedestrian accidents occur after dark. The

risk is made even more extreme by the lesser exposure; few people walk at
night and those who do are in the presumably more competent age
group--young and middle-aged adults. Yet walking is necessary for many
people, either as a primary mode of transportation at times or as access
to other transportation modes. Furthermore, this need may increase in the
future because of energy costs. In addition, the recent flood of advice
on health matters has emphasized walking as a useful health measure. With
the heightened interest in health, people likely will walk more and, for
many people, the only block of time available during the winter half of
the year occurs during darkness or half-light. Thus, an already-serious
problem may be exacerbated in the near future.

Objective: To reduce the excessive risk in walking after dark by

educating the public.

Key Words: Pedestrian visibility, retroreflective clothing, nighttime

accident countermeasures.

Related Work: Certain countermeasures have been shown to increase

pedestrian conspicuity, notably the use of a flashlight and
retroreflective material that is contoured to give information that a
human being is present, not just a reflector. In this country there has
never been a broad promotion of the effective protection techniques
presently available.

Urgency/Priority: The Pedestrian Committee gives this problem a "medium"

priority. It ranks sixth out of 34 evaluated by the Committee.

Cost: The estimated cost is $180,000 for a period of 12 months.

User Community: AASHTO, FHWA, NHTSA, AAA, National Safety Council.

Implementation: This project should assemble and evaluate the information

available from those states that require use of flashlights and/or
retroreflective material at night. In addition, a feasibility study
should be made of mandating retroreflective treatment of all normal
exterior garments by manufacturers. Finally, a campaign should be
conducted that is designed to motivate the public to protect those who
walk in the dark (either planned or unplanned pedestrian trips) and to
publicize the simple, inexpensive means for protection that are readily
available. This campaign should be designed with due regard for the
knowledge of social scientists about influencing motivation. The
effectiveness of the campaign should be rigorously evaluated and a
cost-effectiveness evaluation made.

Effectiveness: The ultimate societal impact of this research should be

reduced nighttime accidents involving pedestrians. Measures of public
acceptance of a public relations campaign might be before-after random
nighttime observations of pedestrians in retroreflective versus
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non-retroreflective clothing conducted in a managable-size study area.

Title: Safety Effects of Alternative Crosswalk Marking and Signal Systems

Problem: The wide variety of crosswalk marking and signal systems in use
constitutes a veritable menagerie of treatments (zebra, pelican, panda,
etc.). We need to determine which treatment is the most effective in the
various types of highway situations.

Objective: To determine the operational and safety effects associated

with various crosswalk marking and signal systems.

Key Words: Pelican crosswalks, zebra crosswalks, panda crosswalks,

pedestrian crosswalks, crosswalk markings.

Related Work:

Urgency/Priority: The Pedestrian Committee gives this research a "medium"

priority. It ranks seventh out of 34 research problem statements.

Cost: The estimated cost is $100,000 for a period of 24 months.

User Community: AASHTO, FHWA, NCUTCD (Markings and Signals Technical

Committees), state and local traffic engineers.

Implementation: Practitioners at the local level could select the type of

crosswalk marking and signal system most appropriate for the location
type.

Effectiveness: MOEs should include: the number of pedestrian accidents

per each type of crossing, the number of accidents per pedestrian using
each type of crossing, and the number of accidents per exposure
(pedestrian volume times vehicle volume) for each type of crossing. Other
MOEs might also be used.

Title: Innovative Solutions to Pedestrian Accident Types

Problem : There is a tendency for pedestrian safety efforts to become

inbred because experts from a limited number of disciplines typically are
included in countermeasure research efforts. Creative idea generation
procedures using participants from related fields (e.g., aviation safety,
 13

crowd control) have been used to "unchain" the process and begin focusing
on ideas that are somewhat less conventional. The generation of ideas
without regard to implementation constraints often can uncover the kernal
of an effective solution. New idea generation can consider recent
technological developments. Recently developed information on the causes
and nature of pedestrian problems can be a powerful catalyst to the
creative process.

Recent evidence appears to implicate the driver in many pedestrian

accidents. Even where the pedestrian has committed the critical
behavioral error, lack of alertness to the possibility of pedestrian
presence and/or driving at an excessive speed can contribute to accident
occurrence. Further, two categories of victims--young children and the
alcohol-impaired pedestrian--cannot always be expected to act reliably in
their own behalf. Exhortations to the driver have not proved to be
sufficiently effective. Although use of traffic controls can help, they
cannot be universally deployed and many accidents are occurring at
controlled locations. Pedestrian signals do not appear to improve safety
and are not even relevant to the many non-intersection (midblock)
crossings where accidents occur. Therefore, it appears to be extremely
beneficial to find innovative ways to alert the driver to pedestrian
threats and promote an appropriate behavioral response (e.g., reduction in
speed).

Objective: To obtain creative input from disciplines in addition to

psychology and traffic engineering in an effort to identify new
countermeasure approaches. Specific emphasis should be placed on finding
ways to alert the driver to pedestrian activity and/or to modify the
driver's behavior by manipulation of the environment, particularly where
pedestrian risk is high. In addition, an attempt should be made to
identify design or other techniques that encourage more cautious crossing
behavior at intersections, reduce pedestrian exposure to vehicles, and
encourage better recognition by motorists of pedestrian crossing rights
and problems at intersections.

Key Words: Pedestrian accident countermeasures, defensible space,

brainstorming, technology transfer, technology sharing, pedestrian
innovations.

Urgency/Priority: The Pedestrian Committee gives this research a "medium"

priority. It ranks eight out of 34 research problem statements.

Cost: The estimated cost is $100,000 for a period of 12 months.

I·l
User Community: FHWA, NHTSA, IACP, AAA, NSC, AIA, ITE, NAS, ASCE, Human
Factors Society, other non-engineering organizations.
Implementation: The final product will be a list of innovative problem
solution approaches considered worthy of further research, together with
appropriate implementation, evaluation, and feasibility information, a
priority value, and a recommended timing for addressing the area.

Effectiveness: Ultimately, reduced pedestrian accidents.

14

Title: School Trip Safety

Problem: The school trip is regarded by the local community as a great
concern. Generally, a youngster's trip to and from school is perceived by
the public as a "problem" -- real or otherwise. Frequently, the school
trip is a highly emotional issue that involves many groups -- parents,
local officials, teachers, school officials, police and school
organizations such as the PTA. A "perceived problem" most often results
in action of some sort -- sometimes without much real basis for that
action. With a better understanding of school trip accidents and their
alternative countermeasures, local communities would be prepared to
effectively deal with school trip safety issues.

Previous research of school trip accidents is not only outdated, but

limited in its scope and inconsistent in its findings. Because school age
children continue to be overrepresented in pedestrian accidents when
compared to their proportion of the population, and because there has been
a shift in the percentage of all pedestrian accidents within the school
age group, there is a need for more current research with regard to school
trip accidents.

Objective: Utilizing data from cities of various population sizes,

geographic area and general characteristics, determine the extent of the
involvement of school age children (elementary through junior high school)
in pedestrian accidents occurring during the trip to and from school;
identify characteristics of that involvement, such as age, time of day,
urban or rural, pedestrian action, vehicle action and speed, type of
roadway/number of lanes, length of school trip, sight distance,
availability of sidewalks/paths and precipitating factors; compare
characteristics of school trip accidents to non-school trip accidents; and
identify countermeasures in effect at the time of the accidents, such as
presence of safety patrols, presence of traffic control devices, safe
route to school programs or sight distance improvements.

Key Words : Pedestrians, accidents, countermeasures, accident

characteristics.

Related Work: School Trip Safety and Urban Play Areas (1975) and
Pedestrian Trip Making Characteristics and Exposure (1985).

Urgency/Priority: Low

Cost: $150,000

User Community: FHWA, NHTSA, State and local transportation agencies.

Implementation: Current information on school trip accidents, their

characteristics, and the countermeasures in effect at the time of those
accidents will assist officials in better defining the problem with school
age children in order to develop countermeasures to reduce these
accidents.

Effectiveness: This study would foster a better understanding of the

accidents experienced during the school trip which would lead to the
 15

development of a safer environment for these trips.

Title: Methods for Determining Sidewalk Adequacy

Probl em: A method for determining the adequacy of sidewalks based on

actual sidewalk conditions is not available. The Highway Capacity Manual
method for evaluating the adequacy of sidewalks is based on previous
pedestrian traffic research in buildings. The impact of traffic signals,
street furniture and other flow conditions which differ from those
occuring in buildings are not considered.

Obj e c tive: To establish a method for evaluating the adequacy of sidewalks

under existing conditions and under the impacts of new developments, e.g.,
for differ_ent signal cycles and locations of street furniture. To develop
a training program using the case study approach to instruct practitioners
in analyzing sidewalks.

Key Words: Sidewalk width, trip conditions, pedestrian volume, training.

Related Work: The 1986 NY HPR Study, "Pedestrian Movement Analysis".

Urgency/Priority: Low

Cost: $100,000

User Community: FHWA, AASHTO, TRB, State and local transportation

agencies.

Implementation: The information obtained from this research could be used

to update the Highway Capacity Manual to make it more applicable to actual
sidewalk conditions. A training program would assist practitioners in
being able to analyze sidewalk adequacy.

Effe ctivenes s: Adequate sidewalks would enhance the walking trip and
improve pedestrian flow particularly in congested areas.

Title: Parking Facility Design for Pedestrian Safety

Probl em: While accidents occurring in off-street parking facilities are

not often documented in municipal records systems, there is experience
which indicates that these occur~with sufficient frequency to be of
concern. It has been recognized that the design standards for off-street
16

parking are often dictated by architectural and economic factors.

Pedestrian safety and convenience are often forgotten.

There are features of circulation, parking stall design and walkway

treatment which currently result in maximizing, rather than minimizing,
the exposure of pedestrians to moving vehicles. Other problems, such as
visibility and sight distance are also matters of safety concern.
Designers currently are without guides and criteria on which to base
improved designs.

Objective: To arrive at design criteria and guidelines which will enhance

pedestrian safety in off-street surface or structure parking.

Key Words: Off-street parking, parking structure, sight distance.

Related Work: Pedestrian Convenience and Safety on Suburban and Rural

Highways.

Urgency/ Priori ty : Low

Cost: $75,000

User Community: Local planning agencies, developers, A/E firms, and land
use designers.

Implementati on: The design criteria and guidelines could be used by

developers and designers in designing off-street surface or structure
parking which is safer and more convenient for pedestrians. Planning
agencies could use the information during reviews for approving
developments which include parking facilities.

Effectiveness: The exposure of pedestrians to moving vehicles could be

reduced which would enhance their safety in parking facilities.

Title: Improved Pedestrian Accident Reporting

Problem : Analysts of pedestrian accidents require as complete and

detailed a picture of what occurred as is feasible.
In some cases data are not collected because accidents go unreported.
Spot studies of emergency room files show that pedestrian-automobile
injuries are treated which do not appear in the local jurisdiction
accident record files. Often these are cases resulting from crashes in
off-street locations, such as privately owned parking lots, which are not
required to be reported. In other cases an injury may be so slight that
the bruised pedestrian walks away and the incident is forgotten. Other
unreported cases of pedestrian injury do not involve motor vehicles, but
are within the realm of traffic accidents. Additionally the
 17

representation of the pedestrian accident on the report form and in fields

of the automated records has been inadequate, and the information is often
inaccurate. There is a need to capture these accidents so that as
complete a picture as possible may be formed, within a time frame that is
not unreasonably long, thereby gaining sufficient sample size to support
statistical analysis.

Objective : To identify means for max1m1z1ng the percentage of pedestrian

accidents reported and for acquiring sufficient information to meet the
needs of the variety of data users.

Key Words: Pedestrian injuries, pedestrian accidents, accident reporting.

Related Work: Unknown

Urgency/Priority: Low

Cost: $100,000

User Community: FHWA, NHTSA, State and local highway safety offices

Implementation: An improved pedestrian accident data base and reporting

system which can relate to data in other data bases, will allow the user
to do more refined analyses of the pedestrian problem and apply
appropriate countermeasures to reduce the problem.

Effectiveness: The implementation of appropriate countermeasures to

address the pedestrian accident problem will result in fewer pedestrian
accidents.

Title: Driver Countermeasures of Pedestrian Crossing Accidents

Problem : Recent evidence appears to implicate the driver in many

pedestrian accidents. Even where the pedest!."ian is said to be "at fault",
lack of alertness to the possibility of pedestrian presence and/or speed
in excess of that which is prudent frequently contributed. There are a
number of ways of alerting the driver to possible conflicts. Police
presence is one but is temporary and very expensive. Environmental
changes would include rumble strips, yellow warning flashers, "scramble"
signal operation, increasing crosswalk visibility, more parking removal
near crosswalks to provide unobstructed view of the corner where
pedestrians gather to cross. Other possibilities include traffic
diversion from neighborhoods, redesign of streets for speed reduction and
speed bumps, etc.

Objective: To find ways to alert the driver to pedestrian activity and/or

modify the driver's behavior by manipulation of the environment where
18

pedestrian risk is high.

Key Words : Crosswalks, pedestrian flashers, speed reduction.

Urgency/Prior'ty : Low

Cost: It is estimated that $200,000 would be needed over a 24 month span.

User Community: AASHTO , NHTSA, FHWA, state and local traffic engineers
and safety specialists.

Imp lementation : Primary users would be city and county areas of dense
population, as well as concentrated housing and commerical areas.

Title: Evaluation of Alternative Pedestrian Actuated Warning Beacons

Problem: A true need for additional emphasis at non-signalized pedestrian

crosswalks exists. The National Safety Council reports that 88,000
pedestrians were killed or injured in motor-vehicle collisions in 1983.
63.7% or 56,056 occurred when the pedestrian was crossing the street;
26.4% at intersections, 37.3% between intersections. They did not
differentiate between signalized and non-signalized locations. They do
indicate, however, that 23.7% of all motor vehicle accidents involved
drivers failure to yield the right-of-way. At non-signalized
intersections the only protection for pedestrians crossing the street is
the requirement that drivers yield the right-of-way to pedestrians.

Pedestrian crossing warning signs, marking and beacons are utilized at

non-signalized crosswalks to improve driver compliance to yielding to
pedestrians. None require drivers to stop unless the pedestrian is in
danger of being run over by the vehicle. They exist at all times, whether
a pedestrian is there to cross or not, and are, therefore, easily ignored
by drivers.

The view of a pedestrian walking across a street is what alerts a driver

to the presence of the person and provides the input for the driver to
decide whether to stop or yield. Multiple threat and dart-out pedestrian
collisions often occur because the pedestrian is not seen by the driver in
time for the decision to stop to be made. An alternative dynamic device
is needed to alert the driver to the presence of a pedestrian.

For example, Seattle, Washington has created a dynamic device to

supplement the movement of the pedestrian and alert drivers to the fact
that a pedestrian is crossing. Push buttons have been installed for a
pedestrian to actuate overhead flashing lights at various crosswalks. The
beacon remains static until actuated by a pedestrian. The pedestrian
crosses the street while the lights flash, then the device reverts to its
 19

static position.

There exists a need to determine the effectiveness of this type of device

under varying conditions of land use, street width, traffic volume, flash
duration, color of lights, etc., and to develop guidelines for its
application to hazardous crossings where warrants for full signalization
are not met.

It is anticipated that seven device configurations might be field tested

and evaluated. An overhead crosswalk sign alone could be the basis for
comparison. Six flashing light configurations could be compared to the
basic sign: 1) sign with continuously flashing yellow beacon, 2) sign
with pedestrian push-button (ppb) flashing yellow beacon, 3) sign with ppb
flashing read beacon, 4) continuous flashing yellow beacon alone, 5) ppb
yellow flashing beacon alone, 6) ppb flashing read beacon alone.

Objective : To test the safety effectiveness of pedestrian push-button,

flashing crosswalk beacons and develop design criteria and installation
guidelines for their use.

Key Words: Crosswalks, pedestrian signs

Urgency/Priority: Low

Cost: $150,000 to $200,000

User Community: AASHTO, FHWA, NHTSA

Implementation: The device could be used by cities and other areas of

pedestrian concentration (county, school, etc.).

Title: Guidelines for Use of Pedestrian Actuated Devices

Problem : There are many unanswered questions on the subject of pedestrian

indications and pedestrian actuation of traffic signals. Some of these
are:
1. Under what circumstances of vehicle/pedestrian volume, land use,
visibility of vehicle indications, signal timing, etc. do
WALK/DON'T WALK indications need to be installed at traffic
signalized locations.

2. What are the circumstances which require the installation of

pedestrian actuation equipment at actuated traffic signals.

3. Are WALK/DON'T WALK indications required at actuated traffic

signals or can a pedestrian use the vehicle indications.
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4. At what level of side street vehicular volume is it necessary to

provide pedestrian actuation at actuated traffic signals.

5. What is the accident experience at locations where WALK/DON'T

WALK indications exist as compared to where they don't.

6. Are there any other users, such as bicyclists, who need traffic
signal actuation equipment.

7. Is there a consistency and user expection in the application of

WALK/DON'T WALK indications and use of pedestrian actuation
equipment.

Objective: To develop a user's guide for determining under what

circumstances pedestrian WALK/DON'T WALK indications should be installed
and when pedestrian actuation of traffic signals and devices is warranted.

Key Words: Walk signals, pedestrian accidents at signals, bicycle

actuation.

Urgency/Priority: Low

Cost: $50,000 for a questionnaire and survey, and develop guidelines.

User Community: AASHTO, ITE, NHTSA, FHWA, local and state traffic
engineers

Implementation: Via the Manual on Uniform Traffic Control Devices(MUTCD),

professional associations and technical publications.

Title: Assessing Economic Impacts of Pedestrian Improvements

Problem : There are a variety of reasons for implementing pedestrian

improvements: increase safety at high hazard locations (reduce pedestrian
accidents), to improve pedestrian access, enhance pedestrian mobility,
provide increased pedestrian capacity, and increase urban (pedestrian)
activity. Unfortunately, pedestrians as a transportation modal user group
are relatively incohesive and inarticulate. There are few groups or
organizations championing the cause of pedestrians. As a result,
providing pedestrian improvements is essentially a reactive process, and
having the softest voice, pedestrians are usually the last served.
Among the reasons (though seldom articulated) for carrying out pedestrian
improvements is that certain ones can ultimately have economically
beneficial consequences to the specific locale in which the improvement is
carried out; the community, the city, and so on. Such benefits might
include: improved business climate; increased retail sales; increased
commercial activity; increased attendance at cultural or sporting events;
 21

enhanced access to employment and increases in employment; generation of

increased taxes; economic benefits due to the construction activity
itself; increased property values; and reduced pollution, congestion and
delay time.

It would be desirable if the economic consequences of pedestrian

improvements were better understood. This would better enable
transportation professionals to include these benefits as a further reason
for considering and/or implementing improvements which would enhance the
pedestrian environment. It would provide a positive or affirmative
rationale for providing such improvements rather than a negative or
reactive one (e.g., as a result of deaths or injuries).

Approach:

Task 1: identify an array of improvements which, it is postulated,

might lead to enhanced economic activites, e.g., pedestrian
malls, auto-free zones, new/reconstructed/refurbished
sidewalks or paths, Woonerfs, pedestrian walkways on
bridges, improved pedestrian crossing (signals at
crosswalks, overpasses), or other improvements which result
in improved pedestrian access or mobility.

Task 2: identify study locations where such improvements are

comtemplated, proposed, or have recently been undertaken.
An "impact zone" would be selected for each
study location.

A "before and after" study would then be carried out to identify the
economic consequences (benefits and dis-benefits) attributable to these
specific improvements.

Objectives: To determine the extent to which various types of pedestrian

improvements result in measurable/economic benefits or dis-benefits.

Key Words: Pedestrian cost-benefits, pedestrian improvements.

Related Work: NCHRP Project 20-19 "Pedestrian Convenience and Safety on

Suburban and Rural Highways" is complete. (See NCHRP Reports 294 A and
B.) It covers current and proposed pedestrian facilities in outlying
commercial areas and how to encourage consideration of their safety and
convenience during design and long term planning.

Urgency/Priority: Low

Cost: $200,000 (18 month contract period).

User Community: AASHTO, Land Planners, Urban Land Institute, FHWA, state
and local traffic engineers.

Implementation: Through TRB and ITE publication and the Urban Land
Institute.
22

Title: Pedestrian Accomodations at Ramps, Jughandles and other Turning

Roadways

Pedestrian needs are largely ignored at many ramps, jughandles, and for
some channelized roadways. The reconstruction of roadways employing the
"Jersey Barrier", for example, restricts pedestrian cross flows to widely
spaced channelized intersections. At such locations, the primary intent
of the traffic engineer in many instances is to increase vehicle capacity,
maintain smooth vehicle flow, and minimize multi-vehicle accidents. If
pedestrian volumes are low, pedestrians may be totally ignored in terms of
providing for safe crossings both parallel to and across the main
roadway. This may create a hazardous or near impossible crossing
situation for the pedestrians. In situations where pedestrian
accommodations are made, they may be insufficient or inappropriate to
provide safe passage by pedestrians without adversely affecting vehicle
safety or operations.

There is a need to define the various types of ramps, jughandles, and

channelization where pedestrian accommodations are needed and then
recommend the types of treatment which are most effective for pedestrians
and traffic. Finally a users manual should be developed to provide for
easy implementation of recommended procedures.

Objectives: To identify conditions at ramps, jughandles and channelized

roadways where pedestrian accommodations are needed and recommend the
types of treatments which are appropriate for various situations.

Key Words: Interchange design, pedestrian safety.

Urgency/Priority: Low

Cost: The estimated cost of this project is approximately $150,000 for a

24-month period.

User Community: AASHTO, ITE, NHTSA, FHWA, local and state traffic and
maintenance engineers.

Implementation: User's manual which could be made available to state

highway departments and designers.