ENGINEERING

Engineering is a profession which is used to develop the needs of mankind. There are various
engineering accomplishments today through innovations and research works. Such accomplishments
include dams, skyscrapers, bridges, communication devices, internet network, etc. There are failures
encountered during the design and construction of these accomplishments and such failures often lead
to more engineering successes. It is of course true that without such failures there would not have been
a strong drive for the engineers to rebuild and improve on them. This then means that the level of
engineering development as seen today would not have been attained. It further means that most
engineering accomplishments have been as a result of the courage of the engineer, and his
determination and persistency to conquer the forces of nature.

Generally in engineering, facts are often proven to be correct by starting with an assumption to the
contrary. So also, failure is first well studied and understood prior to the design of a better structure.

It is necessary to know that engineering can be misused, mis-practiced and mismanaged. A good
example of this is war technology, or driving a motor to a far distance in order to buy a product that
has a value not commensurate to the value of the fuel that will be consumed and also the wear and
tear on the vehicle.

War technology - Destruction

Poor installation in buildings - Hazards

Over estimation of Bill of Quantities - Fraud

It is not an exaggeration to say that the society equally contributes to engineering successes and
failures.

This then means that while taking decision on the proper use or misuse of a particular engineering
technology, it is very important to consider the harm it will do or constitute against its benefit to
mankind within a projected time, space and cost.

In fact, engineering is the leading profession in the conquest and utilization of matter, energy, time and
space. However, while the engineer cannot claim to be the leader, he is the grinding force behind an
engineering conquest. This is why the decisions on most engineering works are not made by the
engineer but by people who are not knowledgeable in any field of engineering.

In the early years of inventions, starting from the Bronze Age, most of the engineering inventions were
the work of people who either do not belong to the profession or even those who do not know anything
about engineering. It was very glaring then that the probability of an engineering professional to go into
invention was very minimal. This was why an inventor does not necessarily need to take his
educational background too seriously even though it can help.

It is necessary to know that the predominantly science base of technology is engineering, and it is also
the center nerve of technology. With this in mind, it then means that right from the initial take off of
the physical production of a product, many skills are brought to bear. This is why it can be said that the
skills of people in different areas of engineering fields must be readily available in the construction and
in the manufacture of an engineering product.

Such engineering personnel with their diverse skills will therefore need to work with an understanding
as a team so as to attain the desired result. By this, it can be seen that in engineering profession no
individual can work in isolation of the other.

INNOVATIVE FACTS AIDING INVENTION

The innovative facts aiding invention are not too numerous, however the two major ones are:

- Engineering courses are well structured with facts and figures thus discouraging unorthodox thinking
such that they allow no risk. Results are with safety factors in calculations, application of principles
and methodologies.

- The engineer working in an industry is made to do one and the same thing over a long period of time.
To some extent this is good as it often leads to proficiency. By this, the engineer becomes an expert in
that which he has been exposed to. Unfortunately, however, the engineer is less efficient as there will
not be any creativity again in his job.

With the constant technology development in various fields of engineering, the engineer has become
more useful particularly in Computer applications (by the use of software packages), and
Electrical/Electronics industries compared to the manufacturing industries.

It is important to note that for most engineering accomplishments, there have always been some
failures, challenges, struggles and endless agony. Usually these accomplishments take some time to be
built and many lives are sometimes lost in the process.

It is also very important to note that most successes in engineering do not take place in the
laboratories as it is in Sciences, or on paper as it is in Arts and Literature. The achievements made by
the engineer are always seen physically and this is why it can be clearly stated that the life of an
engineer is based on one important fact and this is a physical product which he can not be denied
because he has been involved in its production or construction. This is to say that if his work does not
work he is dammed, e.g. building structure.

The reason attributed to this is simply because the policies on engineering are not made by the
engineer but by politicians or administrators who are not knowledgeable in the field. This then makes it
easy to say that the life of an engineer is caught up between the world of academics and the world of
politicians/adminisrators.

The present day technology has even shown that the growth and development of engineering did not
actually start at once but it went through a gradual process in research and development.
ENGINEERING DISCIPLINES

There are various engineering disciplines and these include:

Aeronautics

Agriculture (Mechanization)

Chemical

Civil

Computer

Electrical/Electronics

Geological

Industrial

Marine

Mechanical

Metallurgical

Petroleum

Production

Structural

Each of these disciplines, again, has specialized fields.

ENGINEERING EDUCATION

Engineering education is the putting together of the scientific knowledge in various branches and then
putting them into practical usage so as to develop ways that will benefit mankind. Engineering
education if acquired is basically for sustainable development which is an economic philosophy that
recognizes everyone to live and improve on ones standard of living, while simultaneously protecting the
environment for improvement of global economy.

It can thus be seen that engineering education is for:

⚫ resource stewardship and utilization

⚫ improvement of global economy
Again, engineering education involves embarking on various forms of engineering projects which can
lead to human development as it is seen today. As of today there are various areas of engineering fields
that one can go into so as to become a specialist.

The development in technology is still opening up other areas of engineering. This has brought about
unprecedented rate of scientific and technological developments and even expansion of engineering.

Engineering education can also be taken as having an increase in technical knowledge. It has actually
improved the lot of man. New approaches are always opening up as there is constant increase in
knowledge and more insight into innovations for technology development. Through engineering
education there has been development in the areas of manufacture and research.

Today, engineering education has been seen as a source of empowerment in all fields of human
endeavour. As there had always been before, more innovations are still opening up on daily basis even
for use in other educational fields. It also empowers the individual and by this maximizes national
intellectual resources which result into sustainable social and economic progress for the benefit of
man.

There are two forms of engineering education:

1. Academic education: This is going through engineering courses in a tertiary institution so as to

obtain a degree or diploma in an engineering field

2. Practical training: This takes place after graduating from a tertiary institution. It is a training that
involves the application of the theory obtained in the classroom which is then put into practice for the
benefit of mankind.

Basically, engineering education entails quality education, training and experience. It is very important
to note that there is no self reliant scientific or technological development that can be feasible without
the development of the engineering facilities needed for building the equipment required for research
in technology. It is on this basis that the respective nations of the world have educational policy of the
training of the engineers. By this policy, it becomes imperative that engineering students must be very
good in science subjects while in the secondary school classes.

Engineering education therefore involves thorough understanding of the fundamental scientific

principles and the practical applications of the basic knowledge underlying the branch of engineering
field being studied. The theoretical aspect of engineering is covered in the classroom while the
practical aspect is covered in an industrial environment. Again, the academic education is taken care
of by the academic engineer while the practical aspect is taken care of by the practicing engineer or by
a consultant.

Scientific approach, as of today, has become the bedrock of engineering education and practice. It has
been found out to be more superior to the technical approaches of yesteryears. The scientific approach
to engineering education has been able to:

- provide the basis for knowing the expected outcome of a process before it is fully developed. This is
to say for example an electrical engineer during the design of electrical power installation into a
building must know the amount of illumination required in any area of the building before fixing the
lighting points.

- provide a good idea of the risk level that will be involved when the exact results are known (facts of
safety)

This then means that the engineer is always able to use scientific analysis to measure how far he is
from failure. This further means that the impact of science is to increase the confidence of the society
and awareness in creating technology based systems.

Consequently, the more the application of science the higher the level of confidence in the product and
service being rendered by theveingineer in technology development and human development in general.

Again, engineering education has led to technology Aevelopment worldende, say that the development
of Science Engineering and Technology has she development and progress towards meaningful human
development and progress.

BASIC EDUCATION

Education is the acquisition of knowledge and it is open to whosoever desires it. It is the bridge across
the ocean of ignorance. It always carries a niche for itself in standard with a great penchant for an
enviable height. It can also be said to be the center for diversity and variety of experiences that
cultivate the mind, body and soul. It moulds characters and enriches spiritual growth of man right from
kindergarten to the university in various fields. Education can also be taken as increase in knowledge.
This is why the Bible says "My people are destroyed because of lack of knowledge".

It can thus be said that engineering education is a veritable weapon of social change that influences
and equalizes the social conditions of man. It has improved the lot of human race worldwide today.

A wise man, John Locke to be precise, said, "If education is expensive then try ignorance". Through
engineering education people become well informed and the Nation sees the impact of it on her
economy. Formal education actually focuses on the youths and this is future oriented. It is actually a
preparation for life and to a large extent, it is a process for accumulation of knowledge which will be
applied in the future. This is to say that as educational knowledge is acquired another room for more is
opened.

New approaches are opened up as knowledge and insight to issues pertaining to development are
increased. Through knowledge there will always be development in the area of manufacturing and
research.

Today, engineering education has been seen as a source of empowerment in all fields of human
endeavour. There are various innovations in all fields of engineering which are being used by other
fields in education.
There has been in recent times, rapid growth in Science and Mathematics which are the basic
foundation on which engineering courses are built.

The study of science actually starts from Nature Study which involves the knowledge of living and non
living things. This study involves their existence and their usefulness to nature.

The study of Nature metamorphosed into General Science and then into Biology, Chemistry and
Physics. It is from these three science subjects that various fields of engineering emanated. It can thus
be seen that engineering education is a gradual process that cannot be rushed for acquisition.

Basically, science is a way of life and it is a never ending search for knowledge and truth. The early
man in an attempt to understand the phenomenon and relationship between various elements in nature,
even including himself, embarked on an exhilarating intellectual adventure. Since engineering
education starts from the study of science it becomes very necessary to define science.

Definition:

SCIENCE can be defined pirical phorganized attempt through the study of empirical phenomena so as
to discover how things work as casual systems.

Again, Science, which is a fundamental and basic course in engineering education, has brought
together the resultant bodies of knowledge in an attempt to reconstruct the world by the process of
conceptualization. This process is done by means of systematic thought which are expressed
principally in mathematical terms.

It is very important that right from primary school the study of science must be taught in order to
pursue a course in engineering. It is not just to teach the subject that is important but making the pupils
do things that are related to it with their own hands. The same goes with Mathematics where the use of
lego toys must be used to count numbers even to build structures. In the secondary schools, the
foundation of scientific and engineering interest is concretized. This is where the true foundation is
laid even as related to life.

With the above in mind, it becomes necessary that dedicated and innovative teachers must be
available to teach Biology, Chemistry, Mathematics and Physics as stated earlier. For the study of these
core subjects well equipped laboratories must be made available for the students to be able to perform
experiments. By this a good-would-be engineer will become exposed to the fundamentals of these core
subjects. It therefore means that for good potential engineer to be birthed the government should make
enough funds available for the teaching of these subjects. Again, in order to get good results, it is
necessary that the teachers are adequately trained with good pay packets to match and good condition
of service. When all all these are put in place the teachers will definitely stay in employment. Also, the
libraries must be stuffed with books in science and mathematics for the students to lay hands on, so as
to understand the subjects and the teachers in like manner to be able to make reference. To further
make the students understand these subjects, science fairs and competition should be organized
among secondary schools regularly.
TERTIARY EDUCATION

Tertiary education is the process of attaining a higher degree or diploma. For engineering education,
therefore, tertiary education can be through

1. direct admission into the University with the aim of obtaining a degree in engineering

2. direct admission into the Polytechnic so as to obtain Higher National Diploma and then a Post-
Graduate Diploma

3. direct admission into the Technical College then to the Polytechnic and then obtain a Post Graduate
Diploma

In most advanced countries, the first type of admission is most acceptable. The other two are often
admitted into engineering family as supportive staff when they do not go beyond the programmes at
such levels. The technological and technical training are very valuable in producing personnel who are
practical oriented than theoretical engineering practice. These categories of personnel are trained so
as to give support to the engineers in translating engineering designs into concrete physical facilities.

PROFESSIONAL ENGINEERING EDUCATION

Basically, the predominantly science based technology is engineering which is equally the center nerve
of technology. In any engineering design a well qualified and experienced engineer is often called upon
to do the design and probably to even do the construction, e.g. electrical installation of a building.

Engineering education, therefore, should be structured to produce the professional engineer as laid
down by the conditions defining the engineer. It is therefore necessary that engineering education
should be geared to making people to have the necessary scientific knowledge. This is to enable:

- the understanding of various materials.

- acquisition of necessary skills and methods.

- management of men and materials resources effectively.

According to David, E. E., the goals of engineering education in tertiary institutions are to be able to:

- understand the evolution of social or organization within the environment and of the influence of
science and engineering on its development.

- have ability to recognize and make critical analysis of a problem involving social and economic
elements so as to arrive at an intelligent opinion about it and to read with discrimination and purpose
towards these ends.

- have ability to organize thoughts logically and to express them lucidly and convincingly in oral and
written form. acquaint with some of the great master piece of literature and an understanding of their
setting in and influence upon civilization.
- develop of moral, ethical and social concepts essential. satisfy personal philosophy.

- have a career which is consistent with public welfare have a sound professional attitude.

- read an attainment of an interest and pleasure in these pursuits and thus of an inspiration to a
continued study.

Professional engineering education, therefore, starts when a potential engineer is in his third year in the
tertiary institution. At the end of the third year, he is sent on industrial training for about six months in
an industry. This training is to back up the theoretical training he has already obtained in the classroom
along with practical lessons in the laboratory.

This industrial training involves not only the student but also the institution, the government, the
industry and professional engineers.

When a student has successfully finished his engineering program, he starts with his professional
practice as a pupil engineer in his field of study for a period of one year under the supervision of a
senior professional colleague.

PRACTICAL ENGINEERING EDUCATION

Basically, practical training is very essential in the training of engineering personnel particularly in
organizations that requires it. One fact is that a better understanding of a thing cannot be obtained
until it is practiced.

By practical training, it is meant what is seen, done and felt physically. By these any problem arising
can be known and at the end solution can be found to it.

Practical engineering education can be divided into two:

1. on the job training

2. role of the professional bodies

Basically, a young engineer who is newly employed is made to undergo a two-year practical training.
He is attached to a senior engineer who will be responsible for the practical training by setting a
program of schedule for the training. Every job done by the young engineer is made to be documented
for future assessment when needed and also for scoring by assessment. good example of this is the
Pupil Engineers' Training

A Program always organized by the Federal Ministry of Works and Housing, National Electric Power
Authority, Nigerian International Telecommunications, Nigerian National Shipping Lines, and a host of
others.

Some big companies also have training programmes for their new in-take of professionals such that the
new employees get acquainted with the establishment and also the task ahead. This type of training
when so organized can either be in-house or contracted out.
In many companies, this initial training for new in-takes has been found to be of great necessity as it
enhances the young engineers to be able to adapt and fit into the system of operation of the companies.

When a young engineer finishes his in-door training program, he is again made to get acquainted with
the various engineering departments of the company. This then means that the establishment must
provide all the necessary resources and the enabling environment for the young engineer to be able to
achieve his goals and developmental needs.

One very important and good practical development program for engineers is a well structured career
development plan that must be put in place by all engineering establishment.

A well structured career development plan must contain the following:

- well defined typical career paths for the different engineering disciplines within the organization

- required competency for each work level

- documented learning, development and training modules available for delivering the competencies in
the relevant work levels

- clear cut assessment criteria for appraising performance of the engineer.

From the above it can be said that:

- an effective organization will emerge when there is the engagement of facilitating development.

- there will be encouragement of the working engineering force so as to enhance their skill and
knowledge.

- there will emerge creativity and initiative which are part of a drive for continuous improvement in
engineering.

Putting these in place is to confirm that engineering is the bed rock of nation building. For this purpose,
therefore, and for a nation to move forward economically, the area of concentration must be in the
training of engineering personnel. By this, an engineer with practical training becomes practically
knowledgeable and possesses the technicalities that may be involved in a job. He will always come up
with practical solutions to technical problems that may be encountered as a result of his experience.

Through the practical training the engineer has already acquired, he will always show a lot of courage
and ability to discharge his duties and accomplish goals within the limits of his resources and authority.

It can thus be seen that a period of supervised engineering experience serves as an inter-ship for
individuals who are academically qualified and may subsequently apply for professional registration. It
is a period when the engineer enters the realm of professional practice. This experience always has as
much significant for the organization as well as for the engineer. The experience should be compatible
with the engineer's area of academic qualification. Additional requirements may be introduced if there
is significant inconsistency between the academic and experience qualifications.
By nature, experience is a major component in the formation of an engineer in becoming acceptable
for professional registration.

For this purpose, therefore, the exposure always includes:

practical experience

managerial experience

communication

application of theory

This is why the professional assessment for acceptability of quality of experience for registration is
based on the extent to which experience acquired meets the above areas.

Skillful application of theory is the hall mark of quality engineering work. This is why the experience of
the engineer includes meaningful participation in several aspects of the following theoretical
applications.

1.analysis which includes:

i. the scope and operating conditions

ii. feasibility assessments

iii. safety and environmental issues

iv. technology assessment

V. economic assessment

2. design and synthesis, including:

i. functionality or product specification

ii. component selection

iii. integration of components and sub systems into large systems

IV. reliability and maintenance factors

v. human and environmental aspects

vi. societal implications of the product or process

3. testing methods which include

i. devising testing methodology and techniques

ii. functional specification verification

iii. new product or technology commissioning and assessment

4. implementation methods which include

i. technology application

ii. engineering cost studies

iii. optimization techniques

iv. process flow and time studies

V. quality assurance implementation

vi. cost benefit analysis

vii. safety and environmental issues including recommendations

viii. maintenance and replacement evaluation

TRAINING PROGRAMME

Training program is usually designed for employee so as to provide the required knowledge, skill and
approach that will help him accomplish the task as demanded of him.

Basically, training has immediate practical application on the job that is to be done. It also assists the
employee in preparing himself for future responsibilities of a different nature or higher degree of
proficiency.

TRAINING NEEDS

Generally, each establishment and more particularly production industries, identify training needs for
their employees. Immediately there is information on training needs, a scheme is usually drawn bearing
in mind the number and category of people that will be involved.

Based on the above therefore, training can be arranged as a result of the following:

- high labour turn over

- unsatisfactory performance

- technological change

- planned expansion

The content of the training program must:

- be specific bringing about the knowledge and the various skills (new where necessary) to be learnt.

- include knowledge development which is to create interest and motivate the employee so as to be
able towork and appreciate how best to live and behave in the environment.

There are two basic types of training:

1. OFF-THE-JOB TRAINING

This is the case when an employee goes for training outside his environment, in which case it can be
outside his country of residence. This type of training includes:

i. orientation/induction.

ii.film show which involves probably the process of production and even at times the organizational
chart of the establishment.

iii. lecture during which the employee is made to know the history of IONS stablishment de to other
issues like CAUTIONS and ETHICS.

2. ON-THE-JOB TRAINING

This (OJT) is an environment in which an engineering personnel becomes knowledgeable in the

practical aspects of the theory he has had in the classroom. More often than not, monitoring and
control of OJT can either be centralized or decentralized. It is however very important that the training
programme is closely linked with the overall human resource development strategy and policy of the
unit department that will benefit from it.

On-the-job training is often put in place in developed environment. At the end of the training, there is
usually evaluation which will include:

i. Reaction: This will show the emotional response of the trainees as regards the training.

ii. Learning: This measures the acquired knowledge.

iii. Behaviour: This is to measure the change in the skill that has occurred as a result of the training.

iv. Result: This measures the effect of the training on the establishment.

BENEFITS OF TRAINING

There are several benefits that can be derived when a training program is put in place for the
employees in an establishment:

- greater satisfaction is achieved.

- less wastage and spoilage will be achieved.

- lower absenteeism and turnover.

- improved operative methods and systems.

- less supervisory burden.

- lower overtime costs.

- lower machine maintenance costs.

- less grievances.

- lower injury rate.

- greater employee versatility.

- better communication.

- improved morale.

- greater cooperation.

- greater input.

TYPES OF TRAINING FOR THE ENGINEER

There are various forms of training for engineering personnel and these are:

1. In-house training: This is the training that is organized by an establishment to enhance productivity,
more knowledge and skill of the engineering personnel. This same training can equally be arranged in
such a way by inviting a consulting firm to come and conduct the training. The bottom line of the
training is to improve productivity of the establishment.

2. Users' training: This is the training that is organized by an establishment for the benefit of another
establishment. There are two types of this training: through proposal submitted by a consulting firm to
training staff of an establishment training programme requested by an establishment for its employees.

3. Seminar/Workshop: This can be arranged internally by an establishment to intimate the staff about
the latest development or new trends in aparticular area of technology. Another way of organizing this
is by organizing it for the entire public with the sole aim of creating awareness in the new trends in a
particular field in engineering.

4. Consultancy training: This is the situation whereby an establishment requests for the training of its
employees by inviting a renowned consultancy firm. Another possibility is that an establishment can
request for such training from a consulting firm that is known to be well informed in the area that the
training is being requested.
5. Special package courses for users on request: This is a training that is specially designed and
organized for an external establishment by special request.

PRACTICAL EXPERIENCE IN ENGINEERING

'Experience is the best teacher'. This is why for every employment in engineering, well experienced
engineering personnel are always sought after by every establishment.

Practical experience in engineering is an important factor in the development of an engineer for him to
be well equipped in his field. It provides the engineer with the opportunity to become aware of the
practical limitation of his profession. It also gives him the opportunity to apply his knowledge of the
theory he has had practically.

Practical experience includes the following:

- visits to existing engineering works with the opportunity to see equipment and systems in both
operational and maintenance circumstances.

- application of equipment as part of the larger system including merits of reliability, the role of
computer and understanding the end product.

- opportunity to gain more knowledge and understand the limitations of practical engineering and
related human systems in order to achieve desired goals.

- opportunity to gain more knowledge in the significance of time in engineering processes.

Basically, practical experience in engineering works starts from performing experiments and studying
the behaviour of machines and equipment. It also involves testing and maintenance. Practical
experience actually starts from:

- laboratories (while still in school and while engaged in a research).

- supervised works experience program SWEP (after the end of the fourth semester in the higher
institution).

- industrial training IT (after the eighth semester in higher institution University); after the second
semester of Higher National Diploma - Polytechnics)

- workshop exercises in professional courses (seminars and workshops).

- supervised industrial training scheme in engineering SITSE (at the end of a program in higher
institution(B.Sc and HND).

Wynne Edward defined a professional engineer as a professional who is competent by virtue of his
fundamental education and training and applying scientific methods and outlook to analyze and find
solution to engineering problems.

He also stated that the work of the engineer:

- is more of intellectual than routine mental and physical character.

- requires the exercise of original thought, judgement, ability to supervise and lead.

The engineer must therefore be closely and continually follow the progress of the work in his hand
including other branches of engineering.

From the above then, it can be clearly stated that the practical training that may have been acquired by
an engineer is less important compared to his training in creative and logical thinking, communication
skills and leadership.

Practical training is highly essential in the training of an engineering personnel in any establishment
where his services will be required.

The word 'practical' simply means what is seen done and felt physically. By this it will be immediately
observed that the solution to a problem can be deduced. One truth is that no one can better understand
what is learnt until it is well practiced either in the laboratory workshop or in the field. A well
established organization will always employ well experienced and skilled personnel. This is to enhance
creativity and initiative as part of the drive for continuous improvement of engineering.

GOVERNMENT POLICY ON ENGINEERING TRAINING

In any nation of the world, the pacemaker and pacesetter is the Government. The reason attributed to
this is that the government is to generate funds for Research and Development with a guide to their
allocation.

Generally, the bulk of the fund goes into design and development of specific technological projects. At
times a government may engage private engineering firm for research and development, e.g. oil
exploration in Nigeria.

With respect to Research and Development, there are two types:

1. Basic research which is concerned with the search for the understanding of a process or subject
matter with the expectation of a direct pay off.

2. Applied research which is concerned with the probes of the unknown for a specific goal or reason.

Development on its own is the application of science and technology that will be required to take a
successfully applied research project to its logical completion and consequent commercial sale.

There is no doubt in saying that the governments of developed nations of the world have always and
still are contributing to support research and development even in industries. This support allows for
probing into the unknown with the objective of coming up with good results that will enhance national
growth. On the other hand, companies also have been funding research and development more
particularly in the agricultural sector, e.g. UAC Foods and UTC Foods.

At the same time, Research Institutes established by government are very much involved in research
and development.

SOCIAL IMPLICATION OF ENGINEERING

The social implications of engineering are becoming an increasingly important aspect in the practice of
engineering. The working environment must therefore provide realistic involvement for the potential
consequences, both positive and negative of the project he is working on. Such aspects should include:

- recognition of the value or benefits of the engineering works to the public

- safe guards put in place to protect the public and mitigate adverse impacts

- understanding of the relationship between the engineering activity and the public

- demonstrated interest and involvement in the broader social implications of engineering

- recognition of the significant role of regulatory agencies on the practice of engineering.

However, the over-riding objective of engineering practice is to foster an awareness of the professional
responsibilities of the engineer so as to guide against conditions dangerous or threatening to life and
property or even the environment.

DEMOCRATIC APPROACH TO THE CONTROL OF ENGINEERING

Basically, the doctrine and moral responsibility of scientists and engineers is to take full responsibility
for the consequences of technology. This is to say that their duty is:

- to develop an outstanding knowledge that they perceive to be good.

- to act promptly in order to prevent the development of fields of knowledge that they believe from
being harmful to nature.

Unfortunately, there is limitation to the above because it is one thing to urge the need for expert
consultation at every stage in making policy, it is another thing and a very different thing all together to
assist in making the judgement of the expert to be final. Furthermore, an engineering expert will always
not want to see every judgement he makes, which is not factual in nature, bringing with it a scheme of
values which have no special validity about it. For this reason he usually confuses the importance of
his facts with the importance of what he proposes to do about them. The only thing that can be said
and which is contrary to this doctrine is that technology is uncontrollable.

Another doctrine which is called DEMOCRATIC CONTROL of Technology is that which is concerned
with the decisions establishing which technology is good and which one is evil. Such decisions are
taken democratically thus giving each person the opportunity to cast vote. Most governments often
have mixed decisions as to involving both technology and value. Such decisions usually involve
extrapolation of known scientific facts or currently available technology. The decisions are equally of
sufficient political or moral importance for which divergence of opinions are bound to appear. This is
why the essential input from the scientific community to decision makers of governments should be
from Scientific Advisory Committee such as NSE, COREN, IEE, IEEE, CIE, etc.

During evaluation of scientific advice on issues of great social importance, it should first be recognized
that the moral responsibility which many scientific engineers feel very deeply about can easily affect
their judgement as to the state of scientific fact especially when the pertinent scientific facts are not
yet made crystal clean.

Furthermore, it is very important to be cautious of the selection of members into Scientific and
Engineering Committees. This is simply because some of the members may have dealt deeply into the
subject under discussion and have pre-concerned ideas about what the outcome should be while some
are unprejudiced but also relatively uninformed on the subject matter.

Fortunately, scientific and engineering committees usually play influential roles in decision making
without considering political responsibility. One good fact in a well organized democratic government
is that political decisions can not be separated from scientific and engineering information. This can be
better shown by answering the following questions:

1. should we build a hydrogen bomb? - Political

2. can we build a hydrogen bomb? - Scientific

Based on the two questions above, mixed fillings, comments and decisions will arise at the level of
scientific and engineering committee meetings. For this reason it is very important to always separate
scientific components from non scientific components of a mixed decision of this nature.

Therefore, in order to maintain democratic control of mixed decision, it is essential that great care
should be taken to avoid the invasion of objectivity by strongly held moral and political views.

More than often, most of the technical controversies that are conducted in public, technical claims are
made but not challenged or answered directly. Instead the opponents make other technical claims such
that the escalating process generates enormous confusion in the minds of the public.

RISK AND SAFETY IN ENGINEERING

Generally, the society comprises the government, cooperation and individuals that build and operate
engineering systems to meet human needs.

In a simple term, an engineering system is that process or device in which matter, energy or
information in one observable and definable condition is transferred into another definable condition.
The system can equally be left or maintained in its original state when subjected to external forces. In
such a system, therefore, the total cost expended on it can be said to be a measure of the worth or
benefit of the system itself.

It is often evident that any newly designed system in engineering is subject to possible malfunctioning
and consequent failure, particularly when its life span is very close. When this happens, the risk that
will be involved is the allotment of some funds for its replacement or maintenance so as to avert
failure that will be experienced on it.

Generally, by code of practice, all systems are designed to run appropriately without failure within its
specific period of operation. However, the few failures that often occur in the life of an operational
system can be said to be isolated cases which are termed ACCIDENTS.

Accidents in design technology can be defined as one or a combination of unanticipated failures which
bring about stored energy that directly or indirectly cause injury, property damage or malfunction of
the system and this may even probably include other systems.

One truth, however, is that accidents cannot be removed in engineering design despite all the safety
precautions and awareness that may be introduced during the initiation. For this reason Insurance
Policy or Guaranty is always introduced to back up the failure or malfunction of a system. The impact
of the society has made it possible to consider:

a improved communication system which is now incorporated in air crafts so as to constantly contact
the control tower during malfunctioning of one of the engines.

b development of nuclear weapons and nuclear power which are now posing serious concerns for long
term genetic.

C awareness that there should be increased corporate concern for the welfare of the individual and his
environment.

The factors for an acceptable risk, therefore, are:

1. One group is made for another.

2. There is a vast difference between the actual, quantified level of risk and the level of risk that is
perceived in the minds of individuals or groups of individuals.

3. Zero risk which is an unreasonable utopian idea

4. Lower risk which can be achieved by reducing benefits or by increasing the cost of safety systems.

In most engineering systems and components, more particularly in electric power generating stations,
accidents are either potential or total hazard. Such accidents can be attributed to: mechanical,
chemical, thermal or electrical energy which are stored during normal operation. the energy that is
released when the system malfunctions.

This is to say that on the assumption that the pipes are leaking, the pumps will become fractured, the
bearings destroyed and, consequently, hydrocarbon will escape into the atmosphere and become
vapourized. By nature, such a gas is combustible and hence when in contact with the oxygen of the air
in an area of ignited flame or spark an explosion will occur and this may result into fire out break. If the
fire is allowed to have contact with more of hydrocarbon, f hydrocarbon, an inferno will result thus
leading to more destruction of properties. This may even involve human beings being seriously injured
in the process.

From this example, it can be seen that the level of a risk is related to the malfunction of so many
components of a system. The end result of this is loss of energy. Consequently, risk is a 'cause and
effect' relationship between input events which can lead to energy release and output events which are
the results of the released energy. This again means that the cause aspect of an accident therefore
implies that any quantitative description of risk contains a measure of probability that a given failure
must occur.

This probability can only be determined by the frequency of occurrence of such incidents which is the
number of failures that may have occurred during a given period of time divided by the number of units
that are operating within the same given period.

The second part of the cause is the severity which is associated with a given failure. With the example
in view, severity is related to the energy released by the failure event multiplied by the probability that
a sufficient portion of the energy impacts injury or malfunctioning effect on a person or object. It can
again be seen that the fundamental notion that the risk associated with an event is a function of both
the frequency of the event and its severity is intuitively reasonable. Risk often reflects modern
concepts of reliability engineering.

Basically, there is no perfectly safe product because every product has a non zero probability of failure.
There will equally be a non zero probability which will ascertain that such a failure will result in injury
to somebody or affect other equipment or system. In order therefore to make a product or system to be
safer, the reliability engineer must decrease the frequency of failure of the resulting injuries or
decrease the severity of such injuries or both.

The most direct method for the evaluation of the risk or hazard from a process or activity is to multiply
the frequency of failure by the average severity that results from the use of or exposure of the process.

Such a product is known as HAZARD INDEX or RISK INDEX. It then means that the acceptable risk is a
relative or comparative parameter and it varies from individual to individual and society to society.

Similarly, acceptable level of pollution, noise and speed limit on highways varies from place to place. It
is important to note however that any activity which has a risk level below that due to random (ACT OF
GOD) phenomenon should be considered safe by any criteria. This is because the society has no control
over it, e.g. lightning strokes.

On account that past experience or engineering analysis indicates that severe consequences can result
from a failure, it then mean that a new product or process must be fully tested before it is placed on
the market stalls. It is on this basis that companies and other allies while complying with safety
regulations should observe the failure rate curve so as to determine whether a defect causing infant
mortality remains in the system or whether the defect can be repaired or the component should be
replaced. The engineer in this regard has the challenge to make the proper separation between design
load and the abusive overload.

In fact, it is always possible to monitor the rate of failure of major products, equipment and systems.
This is to enable the manufacturers, operators and government officials to keep to the control of failure
frequency. The unknown factor in risk assessment deals with failure of a part (even though usually
inexpensive) that is placed in the interior of some components. A typical example of this is a failing
accelerator of an automobile. This can be handled by switching off the ignition thus bringing the
vehicle to a stop. If, however, the failure occurs at a busy intersection and the driver is too flustered to
turn off the ignition, there is the likelihood that he will run over pedestrians before he can stop the
vehicle.

Of course, this is already late as he has taken a wrong risk that led him into having an accident with the
involvement of probable deaths and injuries on human and properties. This example, therefore,
suggests that the risk was foreseeable than the auto-manufacturer should have installed a second
parallel spring into the system. This is to say that the failure of one spring will not lead to the system
failure if applied. However, in the absence of good engineering data on failure rates, one can argue that
it is better to err on the side of caution such that when in doubt it makes it better and safer.

Traditionally, the market place provides the control on risk. This is to say that if one product is safer
than the other and if safety is of concern to the individual, then he will prefer to go for the safer
product when given the opportunity to do so.

The major voluntary decision that is available to any customer is whether or not to insure the product
he has just bought, e.g. motor vehicle. It is very important to note that it is a better decision to go for
the insurance rather than not. If the vehicle is not insured definitely there is no protection for which the
availability of the insurance certificate becomes important when there is an accident.

By legislation some Agencies of government have been established so as to control the risks that are
occurring in the society. Such Agencies include the following:

1. NAFDAC- National Agency for Food, Drug and Control.

2. FEPA- Federal Environmental Protection Agency.

3. FRSC- Federal Roads Safety Corps.

Engineers often question whether there is a backing by law to render correct decisions as related to
complex matters. This then makes the engineer and even the scientist to want to be like the politicians
where it becomes necessary that they should respect the ability of the public to determine its own best
interest. The best method therefore in assuming reasonable risk levels is to ensure that capable and
well trained individuals in the various fields of engineering are involved in the decision making,
particularly that which pertains to engineering as related to the following:

- operation of safety related systems

- proper keeping and maintaining data

- giving more awareness to the public on what RISK is all about.

DANGERS IN ENGINEERING

In engineering, there are dangers just like in any other profession. This is to say that engineering can be:

- mis-used.

- mis-managed.

- mis-practiced.

e.g

- war technology-destruction

- internet-Yahoo! Yahoo!!

- poor installation of power in buildings hazards (short circuits, fire outbreak)

- over estimation of prices/bill of quantities - fraud

From the above, therefore, it can be stated that the society often contributes to the success and failure
of engineering.

In a society, there can be some measures for economic control like the following:

1. Walled Buildings: Housing Estate

2. Mass Transit: Transportation

3. Water Works: Pipe-borne Water.

ENGINEERING COLLABORATION OF INDUSTRY WITH GOVERNMENT

Engineering collaboration with industry is very vital in the development of any Nation. It is in this
environment that students gain their practical experience in the profession. This is to say that the
training of engineering professionals should be industry driven.

By this, most governments establish organs which take care of the training, particularly that which
involves the students. This exercise is funded so as to promote and encourage the acquisition of skills
in industry with a view to generate a pool of indigenous trained manpower that will be sufficient to
meet the needs of the economy. The funding involves both the government and the industry. Under this
scheme engineering students are mostly engaged for a period of six months (University undergraduates
at 400 level) and four months (Polytechnic students after HNDI). At the end of this, the students go
back to their respective institutions so as to complete their individual program. This scheme has thus
been built into the academic programmes of all engineering disciplines in the Universities and
Polytechnics.

In Nigeria for example, it dawned on the government in 1971 that there was the need for engineering
students to have some industrial based practical training in their respective fields of academic
endeavour. Hence, the Industrial training fund was established by Decree 47. By this Decree the ITF
was empowered to put together the contributions of industrial setups in Nigeria and those of the
Federal Government so that they can all pay into the Fund. The Fund is to promote and encourage the
acquisition of skills in industries with a view of generating a pool of indigenous trained manpower that
will be sufficient to meet the needs of the economy.

ITF is also to contribute to the training of engineers by the provision of the funds for the operation of
Students Industrial Work Experience Scheme (SIWES). It has thus bridged the gap between tertiary
institutions and the industries. Basically, therefore, training of engineering professional should be
industry based.

NATIONAL POLICY ON ENGINEERING

The form and direction of national economic and development policies dictate very largely the scale
and tempo of technological growth in a developing nation. One fact remains that it is the government
finance that controls the economic activities. This then becomes very important to conclude that a
well formulated socio- economic policy is established and sustained for a reasonable time scale of six
to ten years. By this the imaginations of investors and entrepreneurs can be fired to produce the
laudable results.

The industrial based and materials must be available to make possible the practical application of the
result of research and inventions.

Generally, the current challenge to an engineer is mainly on local sourcing of raw materials and the
manufacturing components, spare parts and machines. The engineer in particular has also been urged
to use his skill

- to help control erosion and drought.

- to utilize solar energy and other renewable energy sources.

- to design simple waste recycling equipment from local materials including biomass.

From the above, it can be seen that the engineer can do more by using and specifically adapting known
technology always, provided that other necessary inputs are available. In such a case not only will the
engineer need the full collaboration and support of other specialist groups, there will still be the need
for importation of some machinery and equipment at the initial stages. The reason for this can not be
far fetched from the fact that the stage of development may not have made available everything it
requires to be available. This then means that there will be the need for more study and research.

In all of these, government policy must be consistent in its micro and macro economic plans and the
policies should permanently support the growth of local expertise and technology.

An engineer, because of the nature of his education, training and activities, has automatically become
the center of properly formulated policy of national development of a nation that is still at the primary
level of development.

NIGERIA FIVE YEAR DEVELOPMENT PLAN

Before Nigeria got her independence in 1960, the economy was just the same as it was in every other
colonies under Britain. As at that time, there were resources to be exploited and used but still left
untouched. The reason for this was that their development did not fit into the objectives of the colonial
rulers. Besides, majority of the populace were still living in the rural areas, engaged in farming. It was
only towards the end of the colonial era that Nigeria began to think of Development and Planning. As
that time Nigeria still believed in foreign aids while the aid givers believed in working with a plan.

Basically, planning provides for a conscious and cautious approach to public investment. It is also to be
the touch stone of efficient development.

The first Five-Year Development Plan in Nigeria was from 1962 to 1966 and this was later extended to
1968 as a result of the Civil War of 1967. The implementation of this plan was grossly affected by
political crisis that engulfed the country at that time and also by the civil war

which lasted from 1967 to 1970.

The second Five Year Development Plan was from 1970 to 1974. This was real and hence was said to
be the First Five Year Development plan in Nigeria since Independence. From thence, the influence of
the Federal Government in the economy of the Nation has been all pervading. This is to say that the
Government has not restricted herself to the usual traditional areas of just providing infrastructural
support, law and order but also has made direct investments through her public owned

Corporations, Companies and Joint Ventures.

During this same period, when increased oil revenue aided the economy, five principal national
objectives were raised:

1. a united, strong and self reliant nation

2. a great and dynamic economy

3. a just and egalitarian society

4. a land of bright and full opportunity

5. a free democratic society.

To back this up, the Nigerian Enterprises Promotion Decree was promulgated in 1972 through which a
number of implementing institutions came into being. Some of such institutions include:

1. Administrative Staff College of Nigeria ASCON, Badagry

2. Nigeria Agricultural Bank

3. Nigerian National Oil Corporation

4. Industrial Training Fund

5. Nigeria Standards Organization

6. Nigeria Engineering and Construction Company

7. National Electric Power Authority

8. Nigerian Ports Authority and a host of others.

The third Five year Development Plan between 1975 and 1980 saw an extension of the public sector
over the economy. Even though it adopted the objectives of the second Development Plan, it has in
addition some implementing and measurable objectives. Such objectives include:

- increase in per capita income more evenly distributed income

- reduction in the level of unemployment

- increase in the supply of high level manpower

- diversification of the economy

- balanced development

- indigenization of economic activity

In a nutshell, the Development Plans that have been gone through till date have improved the lot of
economy of Nigeria to some extent. All of these serve as stimulant to the development of efforts
throughout the economy.