Aspe - Cold Water

Chapter 5 — Cold-Water Systems 115
5
Cold-Water
Systems
INTRODUCTION (The accepted maximum velocity is 8 fps

[2.4 m/s].)
Proper design of a building’s water-distribution
system is necessary so that the various fixtures
function properly, that excessive pressure and DOMESTIC COLD-WATER METERS
pressure fluctuations are prevented, and that
supply failure under normal conditions is Many major municipalities furnish and/or in-
avoided. The amount of cold water used in a stall a particular type of water meter. In such
building is a function of structure type, usage, locations, the meter characteristics (type, size,
occupancy, and time of day. It is necessary to flow, pressure drops, remote readouts, costs, etc.)
provide the most economical pipe sizes to meet can be obtained through the local water depart-
the peak demand without wasteful excess in pip- ment. Depending on the type of project being
ing or cost. There are at least five reasons why contemplated, a utility may request a particular
proper sizing of the piping in a water-distribu- meter (e.g., compound meter vs. turbine meter.)
tion system is essential: Whether a utility company’s meter or a meter
1. Health. This factor is of great importance. In- from another source is used, the above-men-
adequate sizing can cause negative pressures tioned characteristics must be taken into con-
in a piping system and lead to contamina- sideration. The location of the meter is of prime
tion of the water supply by backflow or back- importance. The meter shall not be subjected to
siphonage. freezing or submerged conditions. To discour-
age tapping of the piping ahead of the meter, it
2. Pressure. If adequate residual pressure can- may be required that the meter be located di-
not be maintained at equipment and fixtures rectly inside the building wall. Some jurisdictions
because of inadequate pipe sizing, improper want the meter immediately adjacent to the tap
operation will result. Excessive pressures will to prevent illegal connections between the meter
cause erosion and noise problems in the pip- and the tap. Where job conditions mandate such
ing and accelerate deterioration of the seals a location, a meter in an outside pit or manhole
in faucets. should be watertight against both surface and
3. Flow. If flow rates cannot be maintained at ground-water conditions. A reduced-pressure
adequate levels because of inadequate pipe backflow preventer is recommended at the build-
sizing, equipment performance will deteriorate. ing meter and is required by some codes and
municipalities.
4. Water service. Improper sizing can acceler-
ate erosion, corrosion, and scale buildup. Water meters for plumbing use are usually
classified as the positive-displacement type,
5. Noise. High velocities cause noise and in-
which indicate direct flow and record water pas-
crease the danger of surge pressure shock.
sage in gal (L) or ft3 (m3).
116 ASPE Data Book — Volume 2
Meter Types 3. Water pressure available.
1. Disc meter. These meters are normally s, w, 4. Size of building service.

1, 1½, and 2 in. (16, 19.1, 25, 40, and 50 5. Piping, valve, meter, and elevation losses.
mm) in size; are manufactured to meet the
6. Meter costs and tap fees.
requirements of AWWA Standard C700; have
a 150 psi (1034 kPa) maximum working pres- 7. Maintenance costs and fees.
sure; and measure flow in one direction. This Tables 5-1 to 5-3 from AWWA Standard M22
type of meter is common to residential and are reprinted as additional guidelines for water
small commercial installations and is adapt- meters.
able for remote readout systems.
2. Compound meter. These meters are normally
2, 3, 4, and 6 in. (50, 80, 100, and 150 mm) SIZING THE WATER LINE
in size; are manufactured to meet the require-
ments of AWWA Standard C700; have a 150 In practically all cases, water can be regarded as
psi (1034 kPa) maximum working pressure; an incompressible fluid and, for calculations at
and measure flow in one direction. This type approximately atmospheric temperature, it is
of meter is used when most of the flow is low customary to assume that water has a uniform
but high flows are anticipated. It is capable density of 62.4 lb/ft3 (1 kg/L), which holds nearly
of recording low flows and has the capacity constant through a temperature range of 32–60°F
for high flow rates. (0–15.6°C).
3. Turbine meter. The sizes of this meter are 2, For calculations involving water-heating sys-
3, 4, 6, and 10 in. (50, 80, 100, 150, and 250 tems such as boiler-feed pump discharge heads,
mm). This type of meter has the characteris- it is necessary to take into account the changes
tics of a compound meter but is more suit- in density, vapor pressure, and viscosity with
able for encountering a variety of flows. (A temperature. Application of the common empiri-
strainer should be installed upstream of the cal equations for water flow is limited to water at
meter.) usual atmospheric temperatures in the 32–l00°F
(0–37.8°C) range. At higher temperatures, the
4. Propeller meter. The sizes of this meter are
changes in density and viscosity have a consid-
2–72 in. (51–1829 mm). Propeller meters are
erable bearing on flow relations; where accurate
used where low flows never occur.
results are desired, use of the common empiri-
5. Fire-line meters or detector-check meters. This cal formulae is not recommended.
type of meter may be required by local codes
in a water service that feeds a fire-protection Hazen-Williams Formula
sprinkler system or fire-hydrant system. In
such a case, the installation must meet the Among the many empirical formulae for friction
requirements of the local fire official and the losses that have been proposed, the Hazen-Wil-
appropriate insurance company. The design
liams equation is the most widely used. In a con-
should include a minimum of 8 pipe diam-
venient form, it reads as follows:
eters of straight pipe upstream of the meter
before any change in direction or connections. Equation 5-1
Various types of meter can be equipped with 100 1.85 q1.85
optional accessories. Remote-readout systems, f = 0.2082  
strip-chart recorders, etc. are available for spe- C d4.8655
cific applications. where
f = Friction head, ft of liquid/100 ft
Sizing the Water Meter of pipe (m/100 m)
The following design criteria may be used as a C = Surface roughness constant
guide for selecting the proper meter: q = Fluid flow, gpm (L/s)
1. Building occupancy type. d = Inside diameter of pipe, in. (mm)
2. Minimum and maximum demand.
Table 5-1 Displacement-Type Meters Meeting AWWA Specifications—

Flow-Pressure Loss Averages
Recommended for Brands
Recommended Design Continuous Flow— of
Size, Maximum Capacity— Criteria—80% 50% of Meters
in. AWWA Flow Criteria of Maximum Capacity Maximum Capacity Avgs.
(mm) gpm (L/s) psi (kPa) gpm (L/s) psi (kPa) gpm (L/s) psi (kPa)
s×w
(16 × 19.1) 20 (1.26) 10.4 (71.76) 16 (1.00) 6.1 (42.19) 10 (0.63) 1.0 (6.9) 6
w (19.1) 30 (1.89) 10.6 (73.13) 24 (1.51) 6.9 (47.61) 15 (0.95) 1.05 (7.24) 6
1 (25.4) 50 (3.15) 9.3 (64.14) 40 (2.52) 6.3 (43.47) 25 (1.58) 1.0 (6.9) 6
1½ (38.1) 100 (6.30) 11.3 (77.10) 80 (5.05) 8.6 (59.34) 50 (3.15) 0.9 (6.21) 6
2 (50.8) 160 (10.08) 10.4 (71.76) 128 (8.08) 6.5 (44.85) 80 (5.04) 0.5 (3.45) 6
3 (76.2) 300 (18.93) 13.1 (90.39) 240 (15.14) 8.3 (57.27) 150 (9.46) 1.1 (7.59) 3
Source:AWWA Standard M22.
Table 5-2 Compound-Type Meters Meeting AWWA Specifications—

Size Maximum Capacity— Criteria—80% 50% of Meters
2 (30) 160 (10.08) 9.2 (63.48) 128 (8.07) 6.1 (42.09) 80 (5.04) 2.6 (17.94) 3
3 (80) 320 (20.19) 13.4 (92.46) 250 (15.77) 8.9 (61.36) 160 (10.08) 4.2 (28.98) 5
4 (100) 500 (31.54) 9.6 (66.24) 400 (25.23) 6.3 (43.47) 250 (15.77) 3.5 (24.15) 5
6 (150) 1000 (63.09) 9.4 (64.86) 800 (50.46) 5.8 (40.02) 500 (31.54) 2.5 (17.25) 4
8 (203) 1600 (100.94) 12.0 (82.8) 1280 (80.75) 7.8 (53.82) 800 (50.46) 4.0 (27.60) 3
Table 5-3 Turbine-Type Meters Meeting AWWA Specifications—

Size Maximum Capacity— Criteria—80% 50% of Meters
2 (50) 160 (10.08) 4.5 (31.05) 128 (7.57) 2.8 (19.32) 80 (5.04) 1.0 (6.9) 5
3 (80) 350 (22.37) 4.6 (31.74) 280 (17.66) 3.0 (20.69) 175 (11.04) 1.2 (8.3) 4
4 (100) 600 (37.85) 3.5 (24.15) 480 (30.28) 2.1 (14.5) 300 (18.93) 0.8 (5.5) 4
6 (150) 1250 (78.86) 3.5 (24.15) 1000 (69.09) 2.0 (13.8) 625 (39.43) 0.7 (4.9) 4

118
Figure 5-1 Friction Loss of Head Chart, Coefficient of Flow (C) = 140 (derived from the Hazen and Williams Formula)
ASPE Data Book — Volume 2
Chapter 5 — Cold-Water Systems
Figure 5-1 (M) Friction Loss of Head Chart, Coefficient of flow (C) = 140 (derived from the Hazen and Williams Formula)
119
Figure 5-2 Conversion of Fixture Units, fu, to gpm (L/s)

This formula is most accurate for the flow of quently used fixtures should not be reflected in
water in pipes larger than 2 in. (5 cm) and at the total demand.
velocities less than 10 fps (3 m/s).
After the designer has determined which fix-
Equation 5-1 yields accurate results only tures to include in the water demand calcula-
when the kinematic viscosity of the liquid is about tion, the maximum demand can be obtained.
1.1 centistokes, which is the case of water at Fixture unit (fu) values for each fixture can be
60°F (15.6°C). However, the kinematic viscosity assigned by using Table 5-5 and a total fu value
of water varies with temperature, from 1.8 can be obtained by adding the fu values of all
centistokes at 32°F (0°C) to 0.29 centistokes at water-using fixtures with a normal domestic di-
212°F (100°C); therefore, the tables are subject versity. The total fu value can be converted into
to this error, which may increase the friction loss a gpm (L/s) flow rate by using Table 5-6 or Fig-
by as much as 20% at 32°F (0°C) and decrease it ures 5-2 or 5-3, each of which includes a diver-
by as much as 20% at 212°F (100°C). Values of sity factor.
C, for various types of pipe, are shown in Table
The demand flow rates of all constant-use
5-4, together with the corresponding multipliers
fixtures must be added to this flow rate. A con-
that should apply to the values of the head loss, f.
stant-use fixture uses water continuously and
Figure 5-1 shows the friction loss of head does not have normal diversity. Air-conditioning
chart, C = 140, derived from the Hazen-Williams cooling towers, booster pumps, commercial laun-
formula (Equation 5-1). Figure 5-2 illustrates the dry or dishwashing equipment, lawn sprinklers,
conversion of fixture units to gallons per minute and industrial processes are examples of con-
(liters per second). stant-use fixtures. Any such equipment must be
figured separately and added to the gpm (L/s)
Factors Affecting Sizing flow rate obtained from the conversion of all fix-
ture units. This combined figure is the peak de-
The three factors affecting the sizing of a water mand flow rate for the project. (Note: Fixtures
line are the demand flow rate (gpm) (L/s), the that are timed to operate during “off” hours
velocity (fps) (m/s), and the pressure available should not be added.)
for friction loss. The fixture-unit listings in Table 5-5 are for
Demand The first factor, flow rate, is the water the total water consumption of the fixture. For
demand of the system, in gpm (L/s). There is a the purposes of sizing either the hot or cold-wa-
vast difference in the water demand flow rates of ter line, the fixture-unit loading for a fixture that
flush valves in different types of occupancy. For uses both hot and cold water would be 75% of
example, ten water closets with flush valves in the total value. The 75% figure applies only to
an apartment building may have a demand flow fixtures served by hot and cold water. It does
rate of 60 gpm (3.8 L/s), while ten water closets not apply to single-service fixtures, such as wa-
with flush valves in a public school may have a ter closets, urinals, and dishwashers.
demand flow rate of 90 gpm (5.7 L/s). The judg-
Velocity The second factor affecting the sizing
ment and experience of the designer plays an
of a water line is velocity. A maximum velocity of
important part in accommodating such differ- 15 fps (4.6 m/s), which is suggested by some
ences in the design of water systems. model plumbing codes, is much too high for many
Another problem encountered in establish- installations. A velocity above 6 or 7 fps (1.8 or
ing flow rates is the practice of counting fixtures 2.1 m/s) normally creates noise. Also, depend-
that are not normally in use. For example, a ser- ing on the piping material used and the tem-
vice sink in an office building is normally used perature, hardness, and pH of the water,
only by the janitors at night; therefore, it should velocities above 4 fps (1.2 m/s) can cause ero-
not be counted as a fixture in the total demand. sion of the piping material.
Hose bibbs are other fixtures that should not be
Another justification for lower velocities in a
figured at 100% of their number. For example,
system is water hammer. Water hammer is the
the systems of large buildings may have many
pounding force created by the sudden starting
hose bibbs installed but only a few will be oper-
or stopping of water flow, which can be caused
ated simultaneously. Individual branch lines by quick-opening or closing valves. The impact
should be sized to handle all the fixtures on the of water hammer is directly proportional to the
branch; however, the presence of these infre-
change in velocity and is equal to approximately
60 times the velocity change. For instance, if
water traveling at 15 fps (4.6 m/s) is stopped sure. If the maximum pressure is above 80 psi,
suddenly, the increase in pressure within the and a pressure-regulating device is installed, the
pipe line will be approximately 900 psi (6205.3 pressure regulator will introduce an additional loss
kPa). This increased pressure can do consider- in the piping system when the water system is at
able damage to piping systems and connected minimum pressure. The water pressure should
equipment. be determined from a fire-hydrant flow test, which
is taken as close to the site as possible and in-
Pressure The third factor affecting the sizing of a cludes static and residual pressures at a flow rate.
water line is the pressure available for friction
loss. The first step in ascertaining pressure avail- Many model plumbing codes state that, if a
able for friction loss is determining (from the lo- pressure-regulating device is installed, the avail-
cal water department) the maximum and able pressure must be considered as 80% of the
minimum water pressures and flow rate to be reduced pressure setting. Spring-operated, pres-
encountered at the project site. The maximum sure-regulating devices have a fall-off pressure
and minimum pressures may be nearly the same that is below the system pressure setting. Many
or they may vary greatly; care must be taken to engineers design a system incorporating the fall-
handle the high pressure as well as the low pres- off pressure of the equipment they are using;
Table 5-4 Surface Roughness Coefficient (C) Values for Various Types of Pipe
Values of C
Range Average Value Value Commonly
(High = Best, smooth, well-laid for Good, Used for
Type of Pipe Low = Poor or corroded) Clean, New Pipe Design Purposes
Asbestos cement 160–140 150 140

Fiber — 150 140
Bitumastic-enamel-lined iron or steel
centrifugally applied 160–130 148 140
Cement-lined iron or steel centrifugally applied — 150 140
Copper, brass, lead, tin or glass pipe and tubing 150–120 140 130
Wood stave 145–110 120 110
Welded and seamless steel 150–80 140 100
Continuous-interior, riveted steel
(no projecting rivets or joints) — 139 100
Wrought iron 150–80 130 100
Cast iron 150–80 130 100
Tar-coated cast iron 145–80 130 100
Girth-riveted steel (projecting rivets
in girth seams only) — 130 100
Concrete 152–85 120 100
Full-riveted steel (projecting rivets in
girth and horizontal seams) — 115 100
Vitrified clay — 115 100
Spiral-riveted steel (flow with lap) — 110 100
Spiral-riveted steel (flow against lap) — 110 90
Corrugated steel — 60 60
Value of C 150 140 130 120 110 100 90 80 70 60

Multiplier to Correct Tables 0.47 0.54 0.62 0.71 0.84 1.0 1.22 1.50 1.93 2.57
Table 5-5 Demand Weight of Fixtures, however, the 80% factor is a rule of thumb that
in Fixture Unitsa should not apply to an engineered system.
If the available water pressure at a project
Weight Minimum
site is high enough to require the use of a
(fixture units)c Connections,
in. (mm) pressure-regulating device, the pressure-regulat-
ing valve is considered the starting point of the
Fixture Typeb Cold Hot
system for the purposes of calculation.
Private Public Water Water
The next step in obtaining the pressure avail-
Bathtubd 2 4 2 (13) 2 (13) able for friction loss is to determine the residual
pressure required at the governing fixture or
Bedpan washer — 10 1 (25) — appliance (not necessarily the farthest fixture).
Bidet 2 4 2 (13) 2 (13) “Residual pressure” is the pressure required at
the fixture for it to operate properly with water
Combination sink flowing. Normally, but not always, 8 psi (55.2
and tray 3 — 2 (13) 2 (13) kPa) is required for a flush-tank system and 15
Dental unit or cuspidor — 1 a (10) — psi (103.4 kPa) is required for a flush-valve sys-
tem. Some flush-valve fixtures require 20 or 25
Dental lavatory 1 2 2 (13) 2 (13) psi (137.9 or 172.4 kPa); some water closets re-
Drinking fountain 1 2 a (10) — quire 40 psi (275.8 kPa); commercial dishwash-
ers require 20 or 25 psi (137.9 or 172.4 kPa). It
Kitchen sink 2 4 2 (13) 2 (13) is evident, then, that the residual pressure
Lavatory 1 2 a (10) a (10) should be figured as the actual pressure needed
at the governing fixture.
Laundry tray (1 or 2
compartments) 2 4 2 (13) 2 (13) The third step is to determine the static pres-
sure loss required to reach the governing fixture
Shower, each headd 2 4 2 (13) 2 (13) or appliance. The static loss (or gain) is figured
Sink, service 2 4 2 (13) 2 (13) at 0.433 psi/ft (9.8 kPa/m) of elevation differ-
ence, above or below the water main. The differ-
Urinal, pedestal — 10 1 (25) — ence in elevation is usually a pressure loss to
Urinal (wall lip) — 5 2 (13) — the system, as fixtures are normally at a higher
elevation than the source. If the fixture is lower
Urinal stall — 5 w (20) — than the source, there will be an increase in pres-
Urinal with flush tank — 3 — — sure and the static pressure is added to the ini-
tial pressure.
Wash sink, circular or
multiple (each set of Another pressure loss is created by the wa-
faucets) — 2 2 (13) 2 (13) ter meter. This loss of pressure, for a disc type
meter, can be determined from Figure 5-4 or from
Water closet: the manufacturer’s flow charts. The flow is de-
Flush valve 6 10 1 (25) — termined from charts indicating the total flow
rate, in gpm (L/s), the size and type of the meter,
Tank 3 5 a (10) — and the pressure drop for the corresponding flow.
The loss is given in pounds per square inch (psi)
a For supply outlets likely to impose continuous demands, esti-
and kilopascals (kPa). The selection of meter size
mate the continuous supply separately and add to the total demand
for fixtures. is very important in the final sizing of the piping
b For fixtures not listed, weights may be assumed by comparing system and is one variable the designer can con-
the fixture to a listed one then using water in similar quantities and trol. Many other factors, such as the height of
at similar rates. the building, city water pressure, and require-
c The given weights are for the total demand of fixtures with both ments for backflow protection or water treatment,
hot and cold-water supplies. The weights for maximum separate are dictated by codes or by the particular situa-
demands may be taken as 75% of the listed demand for the sup-
ply. tion. The designer must review the system very
d A shower over a bathtub does not add a fixture unit to the group. closely prior to the selection of a meter size. Usu-
ally, the larger the meter, the higher the initial
installation price and monthly charge. On the
Table 5-6 Conversions—Gallons per Minute (Liters per Second) to Fixture Units
Flow, Fixture Units Flow, Fixture Units Flow, Fixture Units

gpm Flush Flush gpm Flush Flush gpm Flush Flush
(L/s) Tank Valve (L/s) Tank Valve (L/s) Tank Valve
1 (0.06) 0 — 45 (2.84) 107 37 145 (9.14) 611 521

2 (0.13) 1 — 46 (2.90) 111 39 150 (9.45) 638 559
3 (0.19) 3 — 47 (2.96) 115 42 155 (9.77) 665 596
4 (0.25) 4 — 48 (3.02) 119 44 160 (10.08) 692 631
5 (0.32) 6 — 49 (3.09) 123 46 165 (10.40) 719 666
6 (0.38) 7 — 50 (3.15) 127 48 170 (10.71) 748 700
7 (0.44) 8 — 51 (3.21) 130 50 175 (11.03) 778 739
8 (0.50) 10 — 52 (3.28) 135 52 180 (11.34) 809 775
9 (0.57) 12 — 53 (3.34) 141 54 185 (11.66) 840 811
10 (0.63) 13 — 54 (3.40) 146 57 190 (11.97) 874 850
11 (0.69) 15 — 55 (3.47) 151 60 200 (12.60) 945 931
12 (0.76) 16 — 56 (3.53) 155 63 210 (13.23) 1018 1009
13 (0.82) 18 — 57 (3.59) 160 66 220 (13.86) 1091 1091
14 (0.88) 20 — 58 (3.65) 165 69 230 (14.49) 1173 1173
15 (0.95) 21 — 59 (3.72) 170 73 240 (15.12) 1254 1254
16 (1.01) 23 — 60 (3.78) 175 76 250 (15.75) 1335 1335
17 (1.07) 24 — 62 (3.91) 185 82 260 (16.38) 1418 1418
18 (1.13) 26 — 64 (4.03) 195 88 270 (17.01) 1500 1500
19 (1.20) 28 — 66 (4.16) 205 95 280 (17.64) 1583 1583
20 (1.26) 30 — 68 (4.28) 215 102 290 (18.27) 1668 1668
21 (1.32) 32 — 70 (4.41) 225 108 300 (18.90) 1755 1755
22 (1.39) 34 5 72 (4.54) 236 116 310 (19.53) 1845 1845
23 (1.45) 36 6 74 (4.66) 245 124 320 (20.16) 1926 1926
24 (1.51) 39 7 76 (4.79) 254 132 330 (20.79) 2018 2018
25 (1.58) 42 8 78 (4.91) 264 140 340 (21.42) 2110 2110
26 (1.64) 44 9 80 (5.04) 275 148 350 (22.05) 2204 2204
27 (1.70) 46 10 82 (5.17) 284 158 360 (22.68) 2298 2298
28 (1.76) 49 11 84 (5.29) 294 168 370 (23.31) 2388 2388
29 (1.83) 51 12 86 (5.42) 305 176 380 (23.94) 2480 2480
30 (1.89) 54 13 88 (5.54) 315 186 390 (24.57) 2575 2575
31 (1.95) 56 14 90 (5.67) 326 195 400 (25.20) 2670 2670
32 (2.02) 58 15 92 (5.80) 337 205 410 (25.83) 2765 2765
33 (2.08) 60 16 94 (5.92) 348 214 420 (26.46) 2862 2862
34 (2.14) 63 18 96 (6.05) 359 223 430 (27.09) 2960 2960
35 (2.21) 66 20 98 (6.17) 370 234 440 (27.72) 3060 3060
36 (2.27) 69 21 100 (6.30) 380 245 450 (28.35) 3150 3150
37 (2.33) 74 23 105 (6.62) 406 270 500 (31.50) 3620 3620
38 (2.39) 78 25 110 (6.93) 431 295 550 (34.65) 4070 4070
39 (2.46) 83 26 115 (7.25) 455 329 600 (37.80) 4480 4480
40 (2.52) 86 28 120 (7.56) 479 365 700 (44.10) 5380 5380
41 (2.58) 90 30 125 (7.88) 506 396 800 (50.40) 6280 6280
42 (2.65) 95 31 130 (8.19) 533 430 900 (56.70) 7280 7280
43 (2.71) 99 33 135 (8.51) 559 460 1000 (63) 8300 8300
44 (2.77) 103 35 140 (8.82) 585 490
other hand, a larger meter may mean a smaller- in available water supply pressures as an area
sized piping system, which might prove to be incurs growth.
more economical in the long run. These two fac-
As previously determined, the governing ap-
tors are evaluated by the designer and economic
pliance in the example in Figure 5-5 is the dish-
considerations guide the selection. Furthermore,
washer. For the same example, assume that the
if a system does not have ample pressure, a
minimum incoming water pressure is 60 psi
means of preserving the available pressure is to
(413.7 kPa). To determine the pressure available
use a larger meter, thereby decreasing pressure
for friction, start with 60 psi (413.7 kPa) and
loss. This fact may well enable the designer to
subtract 3 psi (20.7 kPa) for the meter loss, 10
eliminate the use of a water-pressure booster
psi 69 kPa) for the softener, 5 psi (34.5 kPa) for
system, thereby substantially reducing the
the water-heater coil, and 25 psi (172.4 kPa) re-
plumbing system costs.
sidual for the dishwasher. This leaves a remain-
The last step is to determine the other pres- der of 17 psi (117.2 kPa), which is the pressure
sure losses encountered between the meter and available for friction. The losses for the backflow
the governing fixture. These could be caused by preventer and the static do not occur on the line
a water softener, a backflow preventer, a filter, between the meter and the governing fixture or
or any other device that creates a pressure loss appliance; therefore, they are not included in the
in the system. calculations at this time. Only losses that occur
on the line between the meter and the governing
The “governing fixture” or appliance is the
fixture or appliance are to be included in the ini-
device that has the highest total when the re-
tial calculations to determine the pressure avail-
sidual pressure, static pressure, and all other
able for friction. The other losses will enter into
pressure losses are added. Take, for example,
subsequent calculations.
the system shown in Figure 5-5. To find the gov-
erning fixture or appliance, determine which After obtaining the pressure available for fric-
device requires the most pressure. Knowing that tion, the next step is to calculate the “average
the meter loss is the same for all parts of the pressure drop.” This is the pressure available for
system, it can be temporarily ignored. Going from friction divided by the equivalent length of the
the meter to the flush-valve water closet, there run. The quotient is multiplied by l00 to obtain
are 15 psi (103.4 kPa) residual and no static loss an answer in terms of loss in psi/100 ft (kPa/
for a total of 15 psi (103.4 kPa). As a total going l00 m). In determining the equivalent length of
through the backflow preventer, there are 16 psi run, an allowance must be made for fittings. This
(110.3 kPa) residual and 8.66 psi (59.7 kPa) static can be determined from Table 5-7 or by adding a
for a total loss of 24.66 psi (170 kPa). Going to percentage to the developed length. The average
the dishwasher, there is a total of 40 psi (275.8 pressure drop is an average loss over the system
kPa)—25 psi (172.4 kPa) residual plus 5 psi (34.5 and should be used only as a guide in sizing
kPa) loss through the water heater plus 10 psi piping.
(69 kPa) loss through the softener. Therefore, the
Part of the system can be designed to exceed
dishwasher is the governing fixture, for it has
the average pressure drop, while another part is
the highest total when the residual, static, and
designed to be less than the average. The aver-
other losses are added.
age pressure drop can be exceeded—as long as
Summarizing the steps, all the system needs the total pressure available for friction is not
or losses are subtracted from the minimum wa- exceeded. The average pressure drop calculation,
ter pressure. The remainder is the pressure avail- which is made initially, pertains only to the line
able for friction, defined as the total energy (or from the meter to the governing fixture or appli-
force) available to push the water through the ance. Care should be taken to account for the
pipes to the governing fixture or appliance. How average pressure drop calculations for the other
this force is used is up to the designer, who may lines. The branches off the main line should be
decide to use it evenly over the entire system, as sized on a different pressure-loss basis, or the
an average pressure loss, or unevenly over the branches closest to the meter may take pres-
system. In designing the system, as long as the sure away from the farthest branches. Table 5-8
designer does not exceed the pressure available shows typical flow and pressure required during
for friction, the system will work. A certain flow for various fixtures.
amount of pressure may be held in reserve, how-
ever, to allow for aging of the piping or decreases
Figure 5-3 Conversion of Fixture Units, fu, to gpm (L/s),

Design Load vs. Fixture Units, Mixed System
Example 5-1 line is equivalent to 10 ft (3.1 m) in length. This

includes an allowance for fittings. The allowable
Figure 5-6 illustrates how to determine the pres-
pressure drop for friction is 10 psi (69 kPa). The
sure available for friction.
first tabulation is the friction loss in the system.
In the system shown (with a main line run-
Section A–B has an equivalent length of 10
ning from the meter, point A, to the governing
ft (3.1 m). The average pressure drop is 10 psi/
fixture or appliance, point L), each section of the
100 ft (226.2 kPa/100 m). If it is assumed that
precisely sized pipe is obtained to give a pres- each fixture is used up as friction loss, it tends
sure loss (due to friction) of exactly 10 psi/100 ft to cause more water than necessary to flow
(226.2 kPa/l00 m), the pressure loss in this sec- through the branches to use the excess avail-
tion is 1 psi (6.9 kPa) and the pressure for fric- able pressure.
tion at point B is 9 psi (62.1 kPa). In section
Method B illustrates the ideal system. All the
K–L, at point L, there is 0 pressure left for fric-
available frictional pressure in each of the
tion. This is the governing fixture.
branches is used. In actual practice, this method
The next tabulation illustrates the sizing of can not be utilized. The average pressure loss in
branches (using a different friction-loss basis each section is very high, far higher than is nor-
than was used for the main). mally accepted in modern construction. Many
engineers and designers would be concerned with
10 psi (69 kPa) available for friction loss; long-
the high pressure loss as well as with the high
est run: A–L, 100 ft (30.5 m); average pressure
velocity shown by this example.
drop: (10 × 100)/100 = 10 psi/100 ft (226.2 kPa/
100 m). Method C is a modified header system. The
main was sized on the average pressure drop of
Method A uses the same average pressure
the system and the branches sized on their al-
loss in the branches as was used in the line to
lowable frictional pressure drop. At section M–J,
the governing fixture. The pressure available for
the total allowable pressure drop over the entire
friction at the end of each branch is not 0. At
system (point A to point M) is 10 psi (69 kPa).
point M, it is 1 psi (6.9 kPa); at point R, it is 5 psi
Point M has an equivalent length of 90 ft (27.4
(34.5 kPa); and at point U, it reaches a maxi-
m) from point A. This gives an average pressure
mum of 8 psi (55.2 kPa). Unless the pressure to
Flow, liters per second

0.25
0.32
0.38
0.44
0.50
0.57
0.63
1.26
1.89
2.52
3.15
3.78
5.04
6.30
12.6
18.9
25.2
37.8
50.4
63.0
20 137.9
Pressure Loss, pounds per inch squared
16 110.3
/2"
3"
"
"
2"
6"
5/8
3/4
4"
1-1
1"
Pressure Loss, kiloPascals

10 69.0
9 62.1
8 55.2
7 48.3
6 41.4
5 34.5
4 27.6
3 20.7
2 13.8
1 6.9
4 5 6 7 8 9 10 20 30 40 50 60 80 100 200 300 400 600 800 1000
Flow, gallons per minute
Figure 5-4 Typical Friction Losses for Disk-Type Water Meters

Table 5-7 Allowance for Friction Loss in Valves and Threaded Fittings
Equivalent Length of Pipe for Various Fittings (ft)
Diameter 90° 45° Coupling
of Fitting Standard Standard Standard or Straight Gate Globe Angle
(in.) Elbow Elbow T 90° Run of T Valve Valve Valve
a 1 0.6 1.5 0.3 0.2 8 4

½ 2 1.2 3 0.6 0.4 15 8
¾ 2.5 1.5 4 0.8 0.5 20 12
1 3 1.8 5 0.9 0.6 25 15
1¼ 4 2.4 6 1.2 0.8 35 18
1½ 5 3 7 1.5 1 45 22
2 7 4 10 2 1.3 55 28
2½ 8 5 12 2.5 1.6 65 34
3 10 6 15 3 2 80 40
4 14 8 21 4 2.7 125 55
5 17 10 25 5 3.3 140 70
6 20 12 30 6 4 165 80
Note: Allowances based on nonrecessed threaded fittings. Use ½ the allowances for recessed threaded fittings or streamline solder fittings.
Table 5-7 (M) Allowance for Friction Loss in Valves and Threaded Fittings
Equivalent Length of Pipe for Various Fittings (m)
Diameter 90° 45° Coupling
of Fitting Standard Standard Standard or Straight Gate Globe Angle
(mm) Elbow Elbow T 90° Run of T Valve Valve Valve
9.5 0.3 0.2 0.5 0.09 0.06 2.4 1.2

12.7 0.6 0.4 0.9 0.18 0.12 4.6 2.4
19.1 0.8 0.5 1.2 0.24 0.15 6.1 3.7
25.4 0.9 0.6 1.5 0.27 0.18 7.6 4.6
31.8 1.2 0.7 1.8 0.4 0.24 10.7 5.5
38.1 1.5 0.9 2.1 0.5 0.3 13.7 6.7
50.8 2.1 1.2 3.1 0.6 0.4 16.8 8.5
63.5 2.4 1.5 3.7 0.8 0.5 19.8 10.4
76.2 3.1 1.8 4.6 0.9 0.6 24.4 12.2
101.6 4.3 2.4 6.4 1.2 0.8 38.1 16.8
127 5.2 3.1 7.6 1.5 1.0 42.7 21.3
152.4 6.1 3.7 9.1 1.8 1.2 50.3 24.4
Note: Allowances based on nonrecessed threaded fittings. Use ½ the allowances for recessed threaded fittings or streamline solder fittings.
Table 5-8 Flow and Pressure Required for Various Fixtures during Flow
Fixture Pressure, psi (kPa)a Flow, gpm (L/s)
Basin faucet 8 (55.2) 3 (0.19)

Basin faucet, self-closing 12 (82.7) 2.5 (0.16)
Sink faucet, a in. (9.5 mm) 10 (69) 4.5 (0.28)
Sink faucet, ½ in. (12.7 mm) 5 (34.5) 4.5 (0.28)
Dishwasher 15–25 (103.4–172.4) b
Bathtub faucet 5 (34.5) 6 (0.38)

Laundry tub cock, ¼ in. (6.4 mm) 5 (34.5) 5 (0.32)
Shower 12 (82.7) 3–10 (0.19–0.6)
Water closet, ball cock 15 (103.4) 3 (0.19)
Water closet, flush valve 10–20 (69–137.9) 15–40 (0.95–2.5)
Urinal flush valve 15 (103.4) 15 (0.95)
Garden hose, 50 ft (15.2 m), and sill cock 30 (206.8) 5 (0.32)
aResidual pressure in the pipe at the entrance of the fixture considered.
bSee manufacturer’s data.
Figure 5-5 Establishing the Governing Fixture or Appliance

METHOD A
Developed Developed Friction Friction Loss Total Pressure Pressure at End
Length in Section, Length from Loss, psi/100 ft in Section, Loss from Friction, of Section for
Section ft (m) Point A, ft (m) (kPa/100 m) psi (kPa) psi (kPa) Friction, psi (kPa)
A–B 10 (3.1) 10 (3.l) 10 (226.2) 1 (6.9) 1 (6.9) 9 (62.1)

B–C 10 (3.1) 20 (6.1) 10 (226.2) 1 (6.9) 2 (13.8) 8 (552)
C–D 10 (3.1) 30 (9.1) 10 (226.2) 1 (6.9) 3 (20.7) 7 (48.3)
D–E 10 (3.1) 40 (12.2) 10 (226.2) 1 (6.9) 4 (27.6) 6 (41.4)
E–F 10 (3.1) 50 (15 2) 10 (226.2) 1 (6 9) 5 (34.5) 5 (34.5)
F–G 10 (3.1) 60 (18.3) 10 (226.2) 1 (6.9) 6 (41.4) 4 (27.6)
G–H 10 (3.1) 70 (21.3) 10 (226.2) 1 (6.9) 7 (48.3) 3 (20.7)
H–J 10 (3.1) 80 (24.4) 10 (226.2) 1 (6.9) 8 (55.2) 2 (13.8)
J–K 10 (3.1) 90 (27.4) 10 (226.2) 1 (6.9) 9 (62.1) 1 (6.9)
K–L 10 (3.1) 100 (30.5) 10 (226.2) 1 (6.9) 10 (69) 0 (0)
METHOD B
Developed Developed Pressure Friction Friction Pressure
Length in Section, Length from at Start, Loss, psi/100 ft in Section, at End,
Section ft (m) Point A, ft (m) psi (kPa) (kPa/100 m) psi (kPa) psi (kPa)
M–J 10 (3.1) 90 (27.4) 2 (13.8) 10 (226.2) 1 (6.9) 1 (6.9)

N–H 10 (3.1) 80 (24.4) 3 (20.7) 10 (226.2) 1 (6.9) 2 (13.8)
P–G 10 (3.1) 70 (21.3) 4 (27.6) 10 (226.2) 1 (6.9) 3 (20.7)
Q–F 10 (3.1) 60 (18.3) 5 (34.5) 10 (226.2) 1 (6 9) 4 (27.6)
R–E 10 (3.1) 50 (15.2) 6 (41.4) 10 (226.2) 1 (6.9) 5 (34 5)
S–D 10 (3.1) 40 (12.2) 7 (48.3) 10 (226.2) 1 (6.9) 6 (41.4)
T–C 10 (3.1) 30 (9.1) 8 (55.2) 10 (226.2) 1 (6.9) 7 (48.3)
U–B 10 (3.1) 20 (6.1) 9 (62.1) 10 (226.2) 1 (6.9) 8 (55.2)
METHOD C
Friction Friction Pressure Friction Friction Pressure
Loss, psi/100 ft in Section, at End, Loss, psi/100 ft in Section, at End,
Section (kPa/100 m) psi (kPa) psi (kPa) (kPa/100 m) psi (kPa) psi (kPa)
M–J 20 (452.4) 2 (13.8) 0 (0) 11.1 (251.1) 1.1 (7.6) 0.90 (6.2)
N–H 30 (678.6) 3 (20.7) 0 (0) 12.5 (282.8) 1.25 (8.6) 1.75 (12.1)
P–G 40 (904.8) 4 (27.6) 0 (0) 14.3 (323.5) 1.43 (9.9) 2.57 (17.7)
Q–F 50 (1131) 5 (34.5) 0 (0) 16.6 (375.5) 1.66 (11.5) 3.34 (23)
R–E 60 (1357.2) 6 (41.4) 0 (0) 20 (452.4) 2 (13.8) 4 (27.6)
S–D 70 (1583.5) 7 (48.3) 0 (0) 25 (565.5) 2.5 (17.2) 4.5 (31)
T–C 80 (1809.7) 8 (55.2) 0 (0) 33.3 (753.3) 3.33 (23) 4.66 (32.1)
U–B 90 (2035.9) 9 (62.1) 0 (0) 50 (1131) 5 (34.5) 4 (27.6)
Figure 5-6 Determining Pressure Available for Friction

drop of 11.1 psi (7.6 kPa) and an unused fric- erning fixture or appliance.
tional pressure of 0.9 psi (6.2 kPa). By going 4. The static pressure loss to get to the govern-
through all the branches in the same manner,
ing fixture or appliance.
one can see that the unused frictional pressure
varies from 0.9 psi (6.2 kPa) to a maximum of 5. The meter loss.
4.66 psi (32.1 kPa). These pressures are far less 6. Other losses between the meter and the gov-
than those resulting from Method A and the av- erning fixture or appliance.
erage pressure drops are far less than those re-
sulting from Method B. Consequently, Method C 7. The pressure available for friction.
is the one most widely used by designers. In ac- 8. The average pressure drop from the meter to
tual practice, it is not necessary to calculate the the governing fixture or appliance.
average pressure drop for each branch; usually,
the branches are close together and the changes 9. The average pressure drop for the other sys-
in the average pressure drop are very small. tems.
10. The size of the line from the meter to the
The last step is to take advantage of all avail-
governing fixture or appliance.
able pressure. For example, a water heater could
be located on the roof of a building. If the water 11. The size of the branch line.
system was designed to have a residual pres- For the convenience of the designer in sizing
sure on the roof of 15 psi (103.4 kPa), then the water systems, the following tables and figures
hot water piping system can be sized with a static are provided:
pressure gain available, to be used for friction
loss in the hot water piping. Another example of • Table 5-9. Water pipe sizing, fixture units vs.
utilizing available pressure is an installation with psi/100 ft (kPa/100 m), Type L copper tub-
a combination of flush valves and flush-tank ing.
water closets sized on the basis of a flush-valve • Table 5-10. Water pipe sizing, fixture units
system having a residual pressure of 15 psi vs. psi/100 ft (kPa/l00 m), galvanized, fairly
(103.4 kPa). Within this system, the branches rough pipe.
that have only flush-tank fixtures have an addi-
tional 7 psi (48.3 kPa) of pressure, which can be • Figure 5-7. Pipe sizing data, copper tubing,
used for friction. The 7 psi (48.3 kPa) is the dif- smooth pipe.
ference between the 15 psi (103.4 kPa) and 8 psi • Figure 5-8. Pipe sizing data, fairly smooth
(55.2 kPa) residual pressures. pipe.
• Figure 5-9. Pipe sizing data, fairly rough pipe.
Velocity Method Another method designers
use to size water piping is the velocity method. • Figure 5-10. Pipe sizing data, rough pipe.
The average pressure drop available for friction
is calculated and, if it is greater than 7 or 8 psi/
100 ft (158.4 or 181 kPa/100 m), the lines are
WATER HAMMER
sized on the basis of a 5 or 6-fps (1.5 or 1.8 m/s)
velocity. In this method, the main line is conser- “Water hammer” is the term used to define the
vatively sized and the short branches may slightly destructive forces, pounding noises, and vibra-
exceed the average pressure drop. However, the tions that develop in a piping system when a
total pressure drop of the system does not ex- column of noncompressible liquid (water) flow-
ceed the allowable pressure loss for friction. ing through a pipeline at a given pressure and
velocity is stopped abruptly. The surge pressure
(or pressure wave) generated at the point of im-
Summary pact or stoppage travels back and forth through
the piping system until the destructive energy is
The following items must be determined and cal-
dissipated in the piping system. This violent ac-
culated when sizing a system:
tion accounts for the piping noise and vibration.
1. The maximum flow rate of the system.
The common cause of shock is the quick clos-
2. The maximum and minimum water pressure ing of electrical, pneumatic, spring-loaded valves
in the main. or devices, as well as the quick, hand closure of
3. The residual pressure required at the gov- valves or fixture trim. The valve closure time is
directly related to the intensity of the surge System Protection and Control
pressure.
Water hammer arresters prolong the life and
service of piping, valves, fittings, trim, equipment,
Shock Intensity
apparatus, and other devices that are part of, or
Quick valve closure may be defined as a closure connected to, a water-distribution system.
time equal to or less than 2L/a seconds, where To reduce shock pressure and confine its
“L” is the length of pipe (ft) (m) from the point of action to the section of piping in which it oc-
closure to the point of relief (the point of relief is curs, a suitable means of control must be pro-
usually a larger pipe riser or main or a water vided to absorb and dissipate the energy causing
tank), and “a” is the velocity of propagation of the shock. Water hammer arresters provide a
elastic vibration in the pipe (fps). The expression diaphragm that moves with the pressure fluc-
“2L/a” is the time interval required for the pres- tuations, absorbing the shock wave. Air or an-
sure wave to travel from the point of closure to other gas is the most effective medium to use for
the relief point and back to the point of closure. this purpose since it is highly compressible,
Maximum pressure rise can be calculated by thereby offering the maximum displacement
the following, known as Joukowsky’s formula: cushion for absorbing the shock.
Equation 5-2 Air chambers The air chamber has been uti-
lized for controlling shock for many years. The
wav unit consists of a capped piece of pipe having
Pr =
144g the same diameter as the line it serves; its length
where ranges from 12 in. to 24 ft (304.8–609.6 mm).
The air chamber is constructed in several differ-
Pr = Pressure rise above flow pressure, psi ent shapes.
(kPa)
Figure 5-11 shows a few examples of air
w = Specific weight of liquid, lb/ft3 (kg/m3)
chambers. Plain air chambers, Figure 5-11(a) and
a = Velocity of pressure wave, fps (4000– (b), are generally placed on the supply lines to
4500 average for water) (m/s [1219– fixtures or equipment. A standpipe type of air
1372 average]) chamber, Figure 5-11(c), is generally placed on
v = Change in flow velocity, fps (m/s) a piping main. A rechargeable type of air cham-
ber, Figure 5-11(d), is generally placed at the end
g = Acceleration due to gravity, 32 ft/s2
of a branch line or on a piping main.
(10 m/s2)
The air chambers shown are made of pipe
This action produces a pressure rise of ap- and fittings. Unless devices are of the correct
proximately 60 times the change in velocity. En- size and contain a prescribed volume of air, how-
gineers generally employ a velocity between 5 and
ever, they cannot be regarded as suitable even
10 fps (1.5 and 3.1 m/s), which may produce a
for the temporary control of shock.
shock pressure of 300–600 psi (2068–4137 kPa).
The resultant water-hammer shock wave trav- Most valves and fittings used in plumbing
els back and forth in the piping, between the water-distribution systems are designed and con-
point of quick closure and the point of relief, at a structed for normal maximum working pressures
rate of 4000–4500 fps (1219–1372 m/s). of 150 psig (1034 kPa). Therefore, unless an air
chamber can reduce shock pressures to some
Although noise is generally associated with
degree less than 250 psig (1724 kPa), serious
the occurrence of water hammer, water hammer
damage to the valves, fittings, and other compo-
can occur without audible sound. Quick closure
nents of the piping system may result. The com-
always creates some degree of shock—with or monly used air chamber, even when correctly
without noise. Therefore, the absence of noise sized, controls shocks only temporarily after its
does not indicate that water hammer or shock is
initial installation.
nonexistent in a water-distribution system.
Although a correctly sized air chamber tem-
porarily controls shock to within safe limits of
pressure, its performance is effective only while
Table 5-9 Water Pipe Sizing—Fixture Units vs. psi/100 ft (kPa/100 m),
Type L Copper Tubing
Pipe Size, Pipe Size,

in. (mm) in. (mm)
Pressure Pressure
Loss, ½ ¾ 1 1¼ 1½ 2 2½ Loss, ½ ¾ 1 1¼ 1½ 2 2½
psi/100 ft (12.7) (19.1) (25.4) (31.7) (38.1) (50.8) (63.5) psi/100 ft (12.7) (19.1) (25.4) (31.7) (38.1) (50.8) (63.5)
(kPa/100 m) Fixture Unitsa (kPa/100 m) Fixture Unitsa
15 69 11 81 285
1.0 0 2 6 12 21 58 155 3.2 1 6 14 26 50 183 421
(22.6) (72.4)
17 73 12 87 309
1.1 0 2 7 13 22 62 170 3.4 1 6 15 28 52 194 441
(24.9) (76.9)
20 82 13 95 336
1.2 0 3 7 14 23 67 185 3.6 1 6 15 29 55 205 460
(27.2) (81.4)
23 91 14 102 365
1.3 0 3 7 15 24 74 199 3.8 1 6 16 30 57 215 479
(29.4) (86)
26 100 15 106 390
1.4 0 3 8 15 25 81 213 4.0 1 6 16 31 58 225 500
(31.7) (90.5)
28 109 16 116 410
1.5 0 3 8 16 27 86 226 4.2 1 7 16 32 61 236 517
(33.9) (95)
31 120 18 124 430
1.6 0 3 8 17 28 93 241 4.4 1 7 17 34 63 245 533
(36.2) (99.5)
33 130 5 20 131 448
1.7 0 4 9 17 30 98 252 4.6 2 7 18 35 65 253 549
(38.5) (104.1)
36 140 6 21 139 466
1.8 0 4 9 18 31 105 264 4.8 2 7 19 36 68 263 564
(40.7) (108.6)
39 150 6 22 145 484
1.9 0 4 10 19 32 111 277 5.0 2 7 19 37 72 271 580
(43) (113.1)
42 161 7 24 153 504
2.0 0 4 10 20 33 115 287 5.2 2 8 19 38 75 280 597
(45.2) (117.6)
6 48 183 7 25 163 526
2.2 0 4 11 21 36 127 312 5.4 2 8 20 40 79 289 614
(49.8) (122.2)
7 53 205 8 26 171 *549
2.4 1 4 12 22 39 138 337 5.6 2 8 20 42 83 298 630
(54.3) (126.7)
8 59 225 8 27 177 *570
2.6 1 4 12 23 42 150 360 5.8 2 8 21 43 85 306 646
(58.8) (131.2)
9 66 245 9 29 185 *591
2.8 1 5 13 24 45 160 380 6.0 2 8 21 44 88 314 662
(63.3) (135.7)
10 74 265 9 30 199 *610
3.0 1 5 13 25 47 171 401 6.2 2 9 22 45 92 323 676
(67.9) (140.3)
Note: Velocities at 5 ( ), 6 ( ), 8 ( ), and 10 ( * ) fps.

a Numbers in small type are flush-valve fixture units; numbers in large type are flush-tank fixture units.
(Continued)
(Table 5-9 continued)

in. (mm) in. (mm)
Pressure Pressure
Loss, ½ ¾ 1 1¼ 1½ 2 2½ Loss, ½ ¾ 1 1¼ 1½ 2 2½
psi/100 ft (12.7) (19.1) (25.4) (31.7) (38.1) (50.8) (63.5) psi/100 ft (12.7) (19.1) (25.4) (31.7) (38.1) (50.8) (63.5)
10 31 202 *631 18 *56 *336 *970

6.4 2 9 22 46 95 333 692 9.8 3 12 29 64 145 460 982
(144.8) (221.7)
10 32 210 *652 19 *58 *346 *993
6.6 3 9 23 47 97 343 709 10.0 4 13 30 65 148 467 1003
(149.3) (226.2)
11 34 216 *673 20 *61 *366 *1022
6.8 3 9 23 49 101 351 725 10.4 4 13 31 67 153 480 1030
(153.8) (235.3)
11 35 *223 *693 21 *63 *374 *1039
7.0 3 9 23 50 104 359 742 10.6 4 13 31 68 155 487 1044
(158.4) (239.8)
12 37 *231 *713 22 *66 *390 *1068
7.2 3 10 24 51 106 367 758 11.0 4 13 32 71 160 500 1072
(162.9) (248.8)
12 38 *241 *732 23 *70 *405 *1089
7.4 3 10 24 52 109 375 775 11.4 4 14 33 74 166 513 1099
(167.4) (257.9)
13 40 *250 *754 24 *72 *414 *1124
7.6 3 10 24 53 112 385 791 11.6 4 14 34 76 169 520 1124
(171.9) (262.4)
13 41 *259 *774 5 25 *76 *430 *1124
7.8 3 11 25 54 114 394 808 12.0 4 14 34 79 175 533 1124
(176.4) (271.5)
14 43 *265 *793 5 *26 *80 *444 *1124
8.0 3 11 25 55 117 401 824 12.4 4 14 35 82 181 545 1124
(181) (280.5)
14 44 *273 *811 6 *27 *81 *452 *1124
8.2 3 11 26 56 120 409 840 12.6 4 15 36 84 184 552 1124
(185.5) (285)
14 46 *280 *829 6 *28 *85 *466 *1124
8.4 3 11 26 57 123 416 856 13.0 4 15 37 86 190 564 1124
(190) (294.1)
15 47 *286 *848 6 *29 *88 *480 *1124
8.6 3 11 27 57 126 423 872 13.4 4 15 37 89 195 577 1124
(194.5) (303.1)
15 48 *295 *867 6 *30 *90 *488 *1124
8.8 3 11 27 58 128 431 889 13.6 4 15 38 91 199 583 1124
(199.1) (307.6)
16 50 *305 *887 7 *31 *94 *502 *1124
9.0 3 12 27 59 130 437 906 14.0 5 16 40 94 204 595 1124
(203.6) (316.7)
16 51 *314 *908 7 *32 *98 *517 *1124
9.2 3 12 28 60 133 444 925 14.4 5 16 41 98 208 608 1124
(208.1) (325.7)
17 52 *323 *930 8 *33 *99 *526 *1124
9.4 3 12 29 61 136 450 944 14.6 5 16 41 99 210 614 1124
(212.6) (330.3)
17 54 *329 *950 8 *34 *102 *536 *1124
9.6 3 12 29 62 140 455 963 15.0 5 16 42 101 215 622 1124
(217.2) (339.3)

(Continued)

in. (mm) in. (mm)
Pressure Pressure
Loss, ½ ¾ 1 1¼ 1½ 2 2½ Loss, ½ ¾ 1 1¼ 1½ 2 2½
psi/100 ft (12.7) (19.1) (25.4) (31.7) (38.1) (50.8) (63.5) psi/100 ft (12.7) (19.1) (25.4) (31.7) (38.1) (50.8) (63.5)
8 *35 *106 *536 *1124 * * *23 *71 *160 *536 *1124

15.5 5 16 43 104 221 622 1124 30 8 26 75 168 286 622 1124
(350.6) (678.6)
9 *37 *110 *536 *1124 * * *26 *71 *160 *536 *1124
16.0 5 17 44 107 227 622 1124 32 8 27 81 168 286 622 1124
(361.9) (723.9)
9 *39 *114 *536 *1124 * * *26 *71 *160 *536 *1124
16.5 5 17 45 110 233 622 1124 34 8 28 82 168 286 622 1124
(373.2) (769.1)
*10 *41 *119 *536 *1124 * * *26 *71 *160 *536 *1124
17.0 5 18 46 114 239 622 1124 36 9 29 82 168 286 622 1124
(384.6) (814.4)
*10 *43 *124 *536 *1124 * * *26 *71 *160 *536 *1124
17.5 5 18 47 117 245 622 1124 38 9 31 82 168 286 622 1124
(395.9) (859.6)
*11 *44 *129 *536 *1124 * * *26 *71 *160 *536 *1124
18.0 6 19 49 120 250 622 1124 40 9 32 82 168 286 622 1124
(407.2) (904.8)
*11 *46 *134 *536 *1124 * * *26 *71 *160 *536 *1124
18.5 6 19 50 123 257 622 1124 42 10 33 82 168 286 622 1124
(418.5) (950.1)
*12 *48 *139 *536 *1124 * * *26 *71 *160 *536 *1124
19.0 6 19 51 126 263 622 1124 44 10 34 82 168 286 622 1124
(429.8) (995.3)
*12 *49 *144 *536 *1124 * * *26 *71 *160 *536 *1124
19.5 6 20 52 129 270 622 1124 44 11 35 82 168 286 622 1124
(441.1) (1040.6)
*13 *51 *149 *536 *1124 * * *26 *71 *160 *536 *1124
20 6 20 53 132 276 622 1124 48 11 35 82 168 286 622 1124
(452.4) (1085.8)
* *13 *53 *160 *536 *1124 * * *26 *71 *160 *536 *1124
21 6 21 54 138 286 622 1124 50 11 35 82 168 286 622 1124
(475) (1131)
* *14 *57 *160 *536 *1124 * * *26 *71 *160 *536 *1124
22 6 21 56 145 286 622 1124 55 12 35 82 168 286 622 1124
(497.7) (1244.1)
* *15 *61 *160 *536 *1124 * * *26 *71 *160 *536 *1124
23 7 21 58 152 286 622 1124 60 13 35 82 168 286 622 1124
(520.3) (1357.2)
* *16 *65 *160 *536 *1124 * * *26 *71 *160 *536 *1124
24 7 22 60 158 286 622 1124 80 14 35 82 168 286 622 1124
(542.9) (1809.7)
* *16 *68 *160 *536 *1124 * * *26 *71 *160 *536 *1124
25 7 23 62 164 286 622 1124 100 14 35 82 168 286 622 1124
(565.5) (2262.1)
* *19 *71 *160 *536 *1124
26 7 23 65 168 286 622 1124
(588.1)
* *21 *71 *160 *536 *1124
28 7 24 68 168 286 622 1124
(633.4)

Table 5-10 Water pipe sizing fixture units versus psi/100 ft. (kPa/100 m),
Galvanized fairly-rough pipe
in. (mm) in. (mm)
Pressure Pressure
Loss, ½ ¾ 1 1¼ 1½ 2 2½ Loss, ½ ¾ 1 1¼ 1½ 2 2½
psi/100 ft (12.7) (19.1) (25.4) (31.7) (38.1) (50.8) (63.5) psi/100 ft (12.7) (19.1) (25.4) (31.7) (38.1) (50.8) (63.5)
8 37 40 162
1.0 0 1 4 8 16 42 107 3.2 0 3 9 19 35 112 288
(22.6) (72.4)
9 42 6 43 174
1.1 0 1 5 9 17 45 115 3.4 0 3 10 20 36 118 302
(24.9) (76.9)
11 46 7 46 186
1.2 0 1 5 10 19 48 124 3.6 0 4 10 20 38 123 315
(27.2) (81.4)
12 51 7 49 198
1.3 0 1 6 11 20 51 133 3.8 0 4 11 21 40 129 329
(29.4) (86)
13 55 8 52 210
1.4 0 2 6 11 20 54 143 4.0 1 4 11 21 42 135 343
(31.7) (90.5)
14 62 9 54 221
1.5 0 2 6 12 21 56 153 4.2 1 4 12 22 43 141 356
(33.9) (95)
15 67 10 58 238
1.6 0 2 6 12 22 58 162 4.4 1 5 12 23 45 147 369
(36.2) (99.5)
16 74 10 62 345
1.7 0 2 6 12 23 60 171 4.6 1 5 12 23 46 153 380
(38.5) (104.1)
18 80 10 66 256
1.8 0 2 6 13 23 63 180 4.8 1 5 12 24 48 160 391
(40.7) (108.6)
20 85 11 71 265
1.9 0 2 7 13 24 66 189 5.0 1 5 13 24 49 167 403
(43) (113.1)
22 90 12 75 278
2.0 0 3 7 14 25 70 190 5.2 1 6 13 25 51 174 415
(45.2) (117.6)
25 102 13 79 290
2.2 0 3 7 15 26 77 215 5.4 1 6 13 26 52 180 426
(49.8) (122.2)
27 112 13 82 302
2.4 0 3 7 15 28 85 231 5.6 1 6 14 27 54 185 436
(54.3) (126.7)
30 124 14 85 314
2.6 0 3 8 16 30 92 245 5.8 1 6 14 27 55 191 446
(58.8) (131.2)
33 136 14 89 329
2.8 0 3 8 17 32 99 259 6.0 1 6 15 28 56 197 455
(63.3) (135.7)
36 148 15 93 343
3.0 0 3 9 18 33 105 275 6.2 1 6 15 29 57 202 465
(67.9) (140.3)

(Continued)

in. (mm) in. (mm)
Pressure Pressure
Loss, ½ ¾ 1 1¼ 1½ 2 2½ Loss, ½ ¾ 1 1¼ 1½ 2 2½
psi/100 ft (12.7) (19.1) (25.4) (31.7) (38.1) (50.8) (63.5) psi/100 ft (12.7) (19.1) (25.4) (31.7) (38.1) (50.8) (63.5)
15 96 358 8 28 164 557

6.4 1 6 15 29 58 208 474 9.8 1 8 20 41 87 291 636
(144.8) (221.7)
16 100 372 8 29 170 *570
6.6 1 6 15 30 59 213 484 10.0 1 8 20 42 88 297 646
(149.3) (226.2)
17 104 384 8 31 175 *592
6.8 1 7 16 31 61 219 495 10.4 2 8 20 43 93 304 663
(153.8) (235.3)
18 107 395 9 31 177 *603
7.0 1 7 16 32 62 224 505 10.6 2 9 21 44 95 307 669
(158.4) (239.8)
19 112 407 9 33 186 *620
7.2 1 7 16 32 64 230 515 11.0 2 9 21 45 66 315 684
(162.9) (248.8)
20 116 420 10 34 193 *638
7.4 1 7 17 33 66 236 525 11.4 2 9 22 46 101 323 697
(167.4) (257.9)
20 119 432 10 35 197 *647
7.6 1 7 17 33 67 240 535 11.6 2 9 22 47 104 327 704
(171.9) (262.4)
5 20 123 443 11 37 208 *666
7.8 1 7 17 34 68 244 544 12.0 2 9 23 48 107 334 719
(176.4) (271.5)
5 22 127 454 11 39 213 *687
8.0 1 7 18 34 71 249 554 12.4 2 9 23 49 110 348 737
(181) (280.5)
6 23 131 465 11 40 218 *698
8.2 1 7 18 35 73 253 563 12.6 3 10 23 50 112 242 746
(185.5) (285)
6 24 134 475 12 41 *226 *724
8.4 1 7 18 36 75 257 572 13.0 3 10 24 51 114 362 766
(190) (294.1)
6 25 138 487 12 43 *234 *745
8.6 1 7 19 37 77 262 582 13.4 3 10 24 52 118 370 783
(194.5) (303.1)
7 25 142 498 13 44 *239 *754
8.8 1 8 19 38 79 267 591 13.6 3 10 24 53 128 374 791
(199.1) (307.6)
7 26 146 508 13 46 *247 *775
9.0 1 8 19 39 81 272 600 14.0 3 10 24 53 122 382 809
(203.6) (316.7)
7 26 150 519 13 47 *255 *795
9.2 1 8 19 39 83 277 609 14.4 3 11 25 54 125 290 826
(208.1) (325.7)
7 27 154 532 14 48 *258 *805
9.4 1 8 20 40 85 281 618 14.6 3 11 25 55 126 394 834
(212.6) (330.3)
8 28 160 545
9.6 1 8 20 41 86 286 627
(217.2)

(Continued)

in. (mm) in. (mm)
Pressure Pressure
Loss, ½ ¾ 1 1¼ 1½ 2 2½ Loss, ½ ¾ 1 1¼ 1½ 2 2½
psi/100 ft (12.7) (19.1) (25.4) (31.7) (38.1) (50.8) (63.5) psi/100 ft (12.7) (19.1) (25.4) (31.7) (38.1) (50.8) (63.5)
14 50 *265 *827 * *33 *100 *515 *1173

15.0 3 11 26 56 129 401 854 28 4 16 41 98 225 606 1173
(339.3) (633.4)
14 52 *275 *851 * *35 *118 *521 *1173
15.5 3 11 26 57 134 411 875 30 5 17 43 104 238 611 1173
(350.6) (678.6)
15 53 *284 *875 * *40 *128 *521 *1173
16.0 3 12 27 58 138 420 896 32 5 17 45 112 250 611 1173
(361.9) (723.9)
16 54 *292 *900 * *43 *138 *521 *1173
16.5 3 12 27 59 142 428 918 34 5 18 47 117 262 611 1173
(373.2) (769.1)
16 57 *302 *924 * * *46 *148 *521 *1173
17.0 3 12 28 61 146 436 939 36 6 19 49 123 275 611 1173
(384.6) (814.4)
17 *60 *315 *947 * * *49 *159 *521 *1173
17.5 3 13 29 62 150 444 960 38 6 20 51 128 285 611 1173
(395.9) (859.6)
18 *62 *325 *969 * * *52 *160 *521 *1173
18.0 3 13 29 64 153 452 981 40 6 20 53 134 286 611 1173
(407.2) (904.8)
19 *64 *336 *992 * * *54 *160 *521 *1173
18.5 3 13 30 65 157 460 1002 42 6 21 55 141 286 611 1173
(418.5) (950.1)
20 *66 *350 *1015 * * *59 *160 *521 *1173
19.0 3 13 30 66 160 469 1023 44 6 21 56 148 286 611 1173
(429.8) (995.3)
21 *69 *362 *1040 * * *63 *160 *521 *1173
19.5 3 13 31 68 166 477 1045 46 6 22 58 154 286 611 1173
(441.1) (1040.6)
21 *72 *371 *1066 * * * *64 *160 *521 *1173
20 4 13 31 69 169 484 1066 48 7 23 60 156 286 611 1173
(452.4) (1085.8)
23 *76 *390 *1116 * * * *64 *160 *521 *1173
21 4 13 32 74 175 500 1116 50 7 23 61 156 286 611 1173
(475) (1131)
*25 *81 *410 *1165 * * * *64 *160 *521 *1173
22 4 14 34 77 183 517 1165 55 7 24 66 156 286 611 1173
(497.7) (1244.1)
*26 *85 *430 *1173 * * * *64 *160 *521 *1173
23 4 14 34 82 190 533 1173 60 7 25 72 156 286 611 1173
(520.3) (1357.2)
*27 *90 *448 *1173 * * * *64 *160 *521 *1173
24 4 15 35 85 198 549 1173 80 9 31 72 156 286 611 1173
(542.9) (1809.7)
*28 *95 *466 *1173 * * * *64 *160 *521 *1173
25 4 15 37 87 205 564 1173 100 10 31 72 156 286 611 1173
(565.5) (2262.1)
*30 *99 *484 *1173
26 4 15 39 91 211 580 1173
(588.1)

Figure 5-7 Pipe Sizing Data, Smooth Pipe

Figure 5-8 Pipe Sizing Data, Fairly Smooth Pipe

Figure 5-9 Pipe Sizing Data, Fairly Rough Pipe

Figure 5-10 Pipe Sizing Data, Rough Pipe

Table 5-11 Required Air Chambers

Nominal Pipe Flow Velocity, Required Air Chamber
Pipe Diam., Length, Pressure, fps Volume, Phys. Size,
in. (mm) ft (m) psig (kPa) (m/s) in.3 (cm3) in. (cm)
½ (12.71) 25 (7.62) 30 (0.79) 10 (3.04) 8 (1.3) ¾ × 15 (1.9 × 38.1)

½ (12.71) 100 (30.5) 60 (1.57) 10 (3.04) 60 (9.8) 1 × 69½ (2.5 × 176.5)
¾ (19.1) 50 (15.25) 60 (1.57) 5 (1.52) 13 (2.1) 1 × 5 (2.5 × 12.7)
¾ (19.1) 200 (61.0) 30 (0.79) 10 (3.04) 108 (17.7) 1¼ × 72½ (3.2 × 184.2)
1 (25.4) 100 (30.5) 60 (1.57) 5 (1.52) 19 (3.1) 1¼ × 127/10 (3.2 × 32.3)
1 (25.4) 50 (15.25) 30 (0.79) 10 (3.04) 40 (6.6) 1¼ × 27 (3.2 × 68.6)
1¼ (31.8) 50 (15.25) 60 (1.57) 10 (3.04) 110 (18.0) 1¼ × 54 (3.2 × 137.2)
1½ (38.1) 200 (61.0) 30 (0.79) 5 (1.52) 90 (14.8) 2 × 27 (5.1 × 68.6)
1½ (38.1) 50 (15.25) 60 (1.57) 10 (3.04) 170 (27.9) 2 × 50½ (5.1 × 128.3)
2 (50.8) 100 (30.5) 30 (0.79) 10 (3.04) 329 (53.9) 3 × 44½ (7.6 × 113.0)
2 (50.8) 25 (7.62) 60 (1.57) 10 (3.04) 150 (24.6) 2½ × 31 (6.4 × 78.7)
2 (50.8) 200 (61.0) 60 (1.57) 5 (1.52) 300 (49.2) 3 × 40½ (7.6 × 102.9)
it retains its initial charge of air. Air-chamber In most installations where there are several
requirements are shown in Table 5-11. fixtures, usually only one fixture valve will be closed
The air charge can be depleted during the at a time. Occasionally, however, two or more fix-
flow cycle since water is drawn from all direc- ture valves may be closed at the same instant.
tions during flow. Moreover, the entrapped air is Table 5-12, “Sizing and Selection of Water-Hammer
also diminished by turbulence. During this pro-
cess the water absorbs the air, and as the unit
becomes waterlogged, it loses its ability to ab-
sorb shock.
Water hammer arresters
Symbols There are six manufactured sizes of

water hammer arrester, each having a different
capacity to control shock in piping systems of
varied sizes and scopes. The following symbols,
recommended by the Plumbing and Drainage
Institute (PDI), were devised to denote the range
in size of water hammer arrester:
A–B–C–D–E–F
“A” is the smallest-sized unit and “F” represents a b c d
the largest.
Figure 5-11 Air Chambers: (a, b) Plain Air
Sizing and placement Sizing is based on fix- Chambers, (c) Standpipe Air Chamber,
ture units for single and multiple-fixture branch (d) Rechargeable Air Chamber
lines and on pipe size.
Arresters,” takes into consideration all design fac- To prevent the harboring of Legionella
tors, including simultaneous usage, pipe size, pneumophila, bellows containing rubber should
length, flow, pressure, and velocity. not be used.
Table 5-12 Sizing and Selection of

BACKFLOW PREVENTION
Water-Hammer Arresters
Theoretically, a well-designed and operated wa-
PDI Units A B C D E F
ter-supply system should always be under a con-
Fixture Units 1–11 12–32 33–60 61–113 114–154 155–330 stant positive pressure, and contamination via
backflow or back-siphonage should never be able
In the sizing of cold and hot-water branch to enter the distribution mains. Unfortunately,
lines, it is usual practice to obtain the total num- accidents do occur when excessive water de-
ber of fixture units on each branch line. This mands for fire protection, operation of booster
information is then applied to sizing charts to pumps, flushing of water mains, repairs, modi-
determine the required size of the branch line. fications, and maintenance to the distribution
system cause the water pressure to drop.
The properly sized water-hammer arresters
can be selected once the total number of fixture Whenever the pressure in the distribution
units for a cold or hot-water branch line is system becomes low or negative, a condition de-
known. It is only necessary to apply the fixture velops that allows contamination to enter the
units to Table 5-12 and select the appropriate distribution system through connections with
water-hammer arrester. fixtures, equipment, or tanks that contain toxic,
unsafe, or unpleasant liquids or gases. These
Note the following: physical connections by which a water supply
• When water pressure in the line exceeds 65 may be contaminated are known as “cross con-
psig, select the next larger size water-ham- nections.” There are numerous, well-documented
mer arrester. cases where cross connections have been respon-
sible for contaminating drinking water and, as a
• If the fixture-unit total includes a fraction, it result, sometimes contributing to the spread of
should be rounded up to the next larger whole fatal disease.
number. Thus, if the total is 11½ fixture units,
the unit should be sized for 12 fixture units. The contamination of a water system through
cross connections can be avoided. This section
• All sizing data in this chapter are based on describes the current recommended practice for
flow velocities of 10 fps (3 m/s) or less. the detection and elimination of unprotected
It is suggested that the engineer employ PDI cross connections.
symbols for the riser diagrams for sizing water-
hammer arresters. This practice will enable Types of Cross-Connection Control
manufacturers to furnish the correct units. Device
The location of the water-hammer arresters
from the start of the horizontal branch line to When plumbing fixtures and equipment in wa-
the last fixture supply on the branch line should ter-supply systems are subject to backflow con-
not exceed 20 ft (6.1 m) in length. When the ditions, approved air gaps, backflow preventers,
branch lines exceed the 20-ft (6.10-m) length, or vacuum breakers should be used. The follow-
an additional water-hammer arrester should be ing methods or devices can be used to protect
used and each should be sized for half the fix- against backflow or back-siphonage:
ture-unit load. It has been established that the • Approved air-gap separation.
preferred location for the water-hammer arrester
• Barometric loop.
is at the end of the branch line between the last
two fixtures served. Units for branches serving • Mechanical protection devices.
pieces of equipment with quick-closing valves • Reduced-pressure-principle backflow devices
should be placed within a few ft (m) of the equip- (RPBD).
ment isolation valve.
• Double-check valve assemblies (DCVA).
• Atmospheric vacuum breakers (AVB).
• Pressure vacuum breakers (PVB). vacuum breaker should be used only to isolate a
• Check valves with vent port (CVB). severe hazard if area isolation is provided. Where
a moderate hazard exists, a double-check valve
The theory of backflow and back-siphonage assembly, or pressure or atmospheric vacuum
and the devices for their prevention are described breaker may be used. Where a minor hazard ex-
in Volume 4, Chapter 9, of the ASPE Data Book ists, a pressure or atmospheric vacuum breaker
(forthcoming). Refer to local codes and standards or check valves with vent port (no test cocks)
before making selections. may need to be installed.
Toxicity and probability of occurrence illus-
Assessment of Hazard
trate the relationship between assessment of
The correct application of devices depends on the hazard and application of devices. Because of
correct assessment of the degree of hazard, on the subjective nature of assessing hazard, such
whether back pressure or back-siphonage will oc- illustrations cannot be used as a strict guide,
cur, and on knowledge of the operation of various providing a fixed answer for all circumstances.
types of approved backflow-prevention device. Instead, past experience and local code require-
ments must also be used as guides. Such past
In applying the recommendations outlined experience was the basis of Tables 5-13 and 5-14.
in this section, three degrees of hazard must be
considered: severe, moderate, and minor. They The requirement of protection increases as a
are defined as follows: function of both an increase in the probability
that backflow or back-siphonage will occur and
1. Severe. A cross connection or probable cross an increase in the toxicity or possible toxicity of
connection involving any substance in suffi- a potential source of contamination. Where it is
cient concentration to cause death or spread highly probable that backflow or back-siphon-
disease or illness or containing any substance age will occur, say from a standpipe in a tall
that has a high probability of causing such apartment building, the need for a backflow-pre-
an effect. vention device is low if the hazard of the poten-
2. Moderate. A cross connection or probable tial source of contamination (sinks, water closets,
cross connection involving any substance etc.) becoming toxic is very low. The converse is
that has a low probability of becoming a se- also true, however, where a known health haz-
vere hazard and would constitute a nuisance ard exists, the tendency is to be conservative
or be aesthetically objectionable if introduced when selecting a backflow-prevention device
into the domestic water supply. (RPBD used in place of DVC). The risk factor for
a health hazard is usually of greater concern than
3. Minor. An existing connection, or a high prob- the probability of backflow or back-siphonage in
ability of a connection being made, between the selection of a device.
the domestic water pipe and any pipe, equip-
ment, vat, or tank intended for carrying or
holding potable water that has a low prob- Premise Isolation
ability of becoming contaminated with any
In addition to installing backflow-prevention de-
substance.
vices at the source of potential contamination, it
The application of backflow and back-sipho- may be necessary, or required by code, to install
nage prevention devices is related to the prob- a backflow-prevention device on the water-ser-
ability of contamination as well as the recognition vice pipe to isolate an entire area or premise.
of an existing health hazard. For the assessment This additional protection for the purveyor’s wa-
of probability, consideration must be given to the ter system is warranted if the potential health
possibility of changes being made to piping, im- hazard is severe, or if a high probability exists
proper use of equipment, negligence of the cus- that piping within a premise will be changed. If
tomer, etc. inspection on private property is restricted, the
only protection for the purveyor’s water system
Where a severe hazard exists, an air-gap
is the installation of a backflow-prevention de-
separation or a reduced-pressure-principle,
vice on the water-service pipe.
backflow-prevention device should be used be-
cause these two devices offer the highest known Whenever possible, in-plant isolation is pre-
degree of protection. An atmospheric or pressure ferred over premise isolation because it protects
Table 5-13 Guide to the Assessment of Hazard and Application of Devices—

Isolation at the Fixture
Recommended Additional
Description of Assessment of Recommended Device for Area of
Cross Connection Hazard Device at Fixture Premise Isolation
Aspirator (medical) Severe DCAP, AVB or PVB RPBD

Bed pan washers Severe DCAP, AVB or PVB RPBD
Autoclaves Severe DCAP, AVB or PVB RPBD
Specimen tanks Severe DCAP, AVB or PVB RPBD
Sterilizers Severe DCAP, AVB or PVB RPBD
Cuspidors Severe DCAP, AVB or PVB RPBD
Lab bench equipment Severe DCAP, AVB or PVB RPBD
Autopsy & mortuary equip. Severe AVB or PVB
Sewage pump Severe RPBD
Sewage ejectors Severe RPBD
Firefighting system (toxic-foamite) Severe RPBD
Connection to sewer pipe Severe AG
Connection to plating tanks Severe RPBD RPBD
Irrigation system or
chemical injectors or pumps Severe RPBD
Connection to salt-water cooling system Severe RPBD
Tank vats or other vessels containing
toxic substances Severe RPBD
Connection to industrial fluid systems Severe RPBD
Dye vats or machines Severe RPBD
Cooling towers with chemical additives Severe RPBD
Trap primer Severe AG
Steam generators Moderatea DCV
Heating equipment Moderatea DCV
Irrigation systems Moderatea DCV, AVB or PVB
Swimming pools Moderatea DCV or AG
Vending machines Moderatea DCV or PVB
Ornamental fountains Moderatea DCV or AVB or PVB
Degreasing equipment Moderatea DCV
Lab bench equipment Minora AVB, PVB or CVP
Hose bibbs and yard hydrants Minora AVB
Trap primers Minora AG
Flexible shower heads Minora AVB
Steam tables Minora AVB
Washing equipment Minora AVB
Shampoo basins Minora AVB
Kitchen equipment Minora AVB
Aspirators Minora AVB
Domestic heating boiler Minora CVP
aWhere a higher hazard exists (due to toxicity or health hazard), additional area protection with RPBD is required. See Table 5-14 for
additional information.
in-plant personnel and, in most cases, the de- 4. Laboratories.

vice can be sized smaller because in-plant pip- 5. Piers, docks, and other waterfront facilities.
ing is smaller. However, even with in-plant
isolation, the purveyor may still require premise 6. Sewage-treatment plants.
isolation. 7. Food and beverage-processing plants.
The choice of devices for in-plant or premise 8. Chemical plants using a water process.
isolation depends on the degree of hazard. Sev-
eral premises that fall into the severe hazard clas- 9. Metal-plating plants.
sification and should be considered for isolation 10. Petroleum-processing or storage plants.
from the purveyor’s system are noted in Tables
11. Radioactive-material-processing plants and
5-13 and 5-14 and on the following list.
nuclear reactors.
1. Premises with unapproved auxiliary water
12. Car-washing facilities.
supplies.
13. Animal-research, care, and processing
2. Premises where inspection is restricted.
plants.
3. Hospitals, mortuaries, clinics, etc.
Table 5-14 Guide to the Assessment of Facility Hazard and Application of Devices—
Containment of Premise
Recommended Device
Description of Premise Assessment ot Hazard on Water-Service Pipe
Hospital building with operating,

mortuary, or laboratory facilities Severe RPBD
Plants using radioactive material Severe RPBD
Petroleum-processing or stage facilities Severe RPBD
Premise where inspection is restricted Severe RPBD
Sewage-treatment plant Severe RPBD
Commercial laundry Severe RPBD
Plating or chemical plants Severe RPBD
Docks, dockside facilities Severe RPBD

(if no protection at fixture)
DCV
(if protection at fixture)
Food & beverage-processing plants Severe RPBD
Pleasure boat marina Severe RPBD
Tall buildings (protection against

excessive head of water) Moderate DCV
Steam plants Moderate DCV
Fire or sprinkler system to tall building

(protection against excessive head of water) Moderate DCV
Installation Requirements B. The relief-valve outlet of the reduced-

pressure device shall not be directly con-
1. All backflow devices should be installed in nected to the drain. An air gap of not less
an accessible area to facilitate inspection, than 2 diameters of the relief valve outlet
semiannual or annual testing, and mainte- or 1 in. (2.5 cm), whichever is greater,
nance. Some municipalities now require li- must separate the drain from the outlet.
censed inspectors to test and report on each
C. A funnel type collector or splash screen
device on an annual basis. Consideration
should be used to direct the discharge to
should be given to future changes that may
take place in the plumbing system. The de- the drain to prevent objectionable spillage
vices should be installed so that they will re- or splashing.
main accessible regardless of new or future 3. Pressure and atmospheric vacuum breakers
piping. Check the manufacturer’s literature may also “split” or spill water. Spillage may
for minimum clearances required for the re- occur during the testing of devices. Care must
moval of parts. be taken in choosing the location of devices
so that spillage will not cause damage or be
2. Adequate drainage should be provided for the
a nuisance.
discharge from the reduced-pressure-device,
relief-valve port. Minimum flow rates and 4. Do not install a reduced-pressure device in a
diameters of relief-valve porting are given in pit below ground unless a drain to the sur-
Table 5-15 as a guide in the sizing of drain face is provided. If the atmospheric vent is
pipes. submerged in groundwater, a cross connec-
tion is created that may be more serious than
A. In the case of a reduced-pressure de-
the hazard the device isolates.
vice installed in a hut, the “bore-sighted”
daylight drain must be capable of han- 5. Before the installion of a backflow-preven-
dling the volumes discharged from the tion device, pipelines should be thoroughly
relief valve. flushed to remove all foreign material that
could foul the operation of the device.
Table 5-15 Minimum Flow Rates and Size of Minimum Area of RPBD
Minimum Flow Rate Minimum Diameter of

Size of Device Past Relief Valve Relief Valve Porting (IPS)
in. mm gpm L/s in. mm
½ and s 15 and 17 2.5 0.19 a 10

¾ and 1 20 and 25 4.15 0.31 ½ 15
I¼ and 1½ 32 and 40 8.30 0.63 ¾ 20
2 50 16.70 1.27 1 25
2½ 65 16.70 1.27 1 25
3 80 25.00 1.89 1¼ 32
4 100 33.40 2.53 1½ 32
6 150 33.40 2.53 1½ 32
8 200 50.00 3.79 2 50
10 250 50.00 3.79 2 50
12 300 62.50 4.74 2½ 65
14 350 75.00 5.68 3 80
16 400 83.00 6.29 3 80
6. Use of an in-line strainer may be required if water-service and backflow-prevention

the condition is such that foreign material is device.
continually collecting in the line and lodging
15. Adequate support should be provided for de-
under seating surfaces. No strainer is to be
vices 6 in. (150 mm) and larger to prevent
used in a fire line without the approval of
damage to connected pipe.
the insurance underwriters or fire marshal.
16. Backflow-prevention devices should be pro-
7. Isolating valves are necessary on reduced-
tected against damage. Units placed in work
pressure backflow devices, double-check
areas, areas with public access, or areas with
valve assemblies, and pressure vacuum
vehicular traffic should be protected by
breakers to permit replacement, testing, and
fenced enclosures, stanchions, or some other
maintenance. means.
8. Internally weighted double-check valve as-
17. The possibility of vandalism and theft should
semblies must be installed in the horizontal
be considered when choosing a location for a
position. Some brands of spring-loaded,
backflow-prevention device.
double-check valve devices also must be in-
stalled in the horizontal position. Check the 18. For reduced-pressure-principle and double-
list of approved devices issued in each juris- check-valve devices located outside of build-
diction and the manufacturer’s recommen- ings, consideration should be given to the
dations. use of landscaping, etc., to obtain an aes-
thetically pleasing installation.
9. All reduced-pressure-principle devices must
be installed in the horizontal position, un- 19. In a device installed in a deep chamber, the
less it is specifically noted otherwise in the chamber should be self venting. Workers
manufacturer’s data. Compensation Board regulations require that
the air within a chamber be checked for com-
10. Check with the authority having jurisdiction bustible gas and adequate oxygen content
and the manufacturer before installing any
before a workman enters the chamber.
backflow device in hot-water lines.
20. A coupling should be installed in the line to
11. Backflow preventers are not to be installed allow flexibility for alignment during instal-
in corrosive or polluted atmospheres. The lation.
surrounding atmosphere can enter the pipe-
line through the open vent port of atmo- 21. When installing a double-check-valve, check-
spheric and pressure vacuum breakers, valve-with-vent-port, or reduced-pressure-
check valves with vent ports and reduced- principle device on the feed waterline to a
pressure-principle devices. pressure vessel, always install the pressure-
relief valve between the backflow device and
12. Reduced-pressure-principle devices, double-
the pressure vessel.
check valves, and vacuum breakers installed
in regions subject to freezing must be pro- 22. If possible, a reduced-pressure-principle or
tected by the insulation of the units in above- double-check-assembly device should be in-
ground, heated structures. Care should be stalled no more than 3 ft (1 m) above the
taken to enure that the testing and mainte- floor to facilitate access.
nance of the unit is not hindered by the ap-
plication of the insulating material.
INADEQUATE WATER PRESSURE
13. For installations where 24-hour, uninter-
rupted service is a necessity, a parallel de- When pressure in public water mains is not great
vice should be provided to permit annual enough to satisfy building requirements, there
testing and maintenance. The bypass or par- are three ways to boost pressure to an accept-
allel device must provide the same degree of able level: with a hydropneumatic tank, a grav-
protection as the main-line device. ity tank, or a booster pump. These systems can
14. For 8-in. (200-mm) and larger units, a be used singly or in combination.
method of lifting and installation is required.
Existing crane facilities should be taken ad-
vantage of when determining a location for a
Hydropneumatic-Tank System Typical installation details for hydro-

pneumatic-tank systems are shown in Figure
A hydropneumatic tank is not a storage tank. 5-13.
Its sole purpose is to boost inadequate pressure,
though it operates between predetermined pres- Three factors are considered in the selection
sure limits and always contains a minimum of a hydropneumatic tank: water–air ratio, pump
amount of water. capacity, and desired water withdrawal. Assume
the system demand is 100 gpm (6.3 L/s) con-
It was the storage concept that led to the stant, the maximum number of pumping cycles
establishment of many wholly incorrect water- is 6/h (5 min on, 5 min off), and withdrawal of
air ratios, which are still in use today. Formerly, 25% of the total tank capacity is desired. Tank
a 50% tank volume was split into 25% water and size can be determined by equating ½ of the pump
25% air. This resulted in a total of 75% water capacity (limited to no more than 6 pumping
and 25% air in the tank. Later, this was “re- cycles/h) to the 25% withdrawal capacity. For
fined” to 66Q% water and 333% air. example, 100 gpm/2 = 50 gpm, and 5 min × 50
Figure 5-12 illustrates that water remaining gpm = 250 gal. Thus, 250 gal should equal 25%
in a tank after a given pressure drop cannot be withdrawal. Tank capacity, then, is 100% or 250
used as a reserve. Assume that a sufficient sup- × 4 = 1000 gal.
ply of water is available and that it must be de- Selecting capacity on this basis results in a
livered to all water-service outlets at a minimum minimum size tank and maintenance of efficient
pressure of 15 psi (103.4 kPa). A 1000-gal (3785- cycling operation of the pumps.
L) capacity tank is selected and filled using the
rule-of -thumb ratio: q water, 3 air. A minimum
Gravity-Tank System
tank pressure of 40 psi (275.8 kPa) is required
to overcome static head and friction losses if a Basically, a gravity-tank system consists of an
pressure of 15 psi (103.4 kPa) is required at the elevated tank and a pump or pumps for raising
highest and farthest outlet. The maximum pres- water to fill the tank. Controls in the tank start
sure differential in the tank is limited by how and stop the pumps to maintain fluid level and
much pressure variation the piping system can
tolerate. Usually, a variation of 20 psi (137.9 kPa)
is acceptable. On this basis, the tank high pres-
sure is set at 60 psi (413.7 kPa), and the system
is ready for operation.
Figure 5-12 Hydropneumatic Pressure

System Layout that Determines Figure 5-13 Typical
the Minimum Tank Pressure Hydropneumatic Supply System
capacity. Water then flows from the tank to the taining the water level in this way ensures a rela-
waterlines by gravity action. tively constant water pressure regardless of
whether demand is at a low or peak condition.
Three approaches may be used to determine
The following piping connections are required at
tank capacity for a building:
the tank:
1. Rule of thumb. An arbitrary tank capacity
• Water supply to the tank.
equal to 30 times pump capacity (gpm) (L/s)
is recommended by some authorities. This • Water supply to the system.
criterion theoretically provides a building • Overflow line.
with a 30-min emergency reserve supply of
• Tank drain.
water in case of power failure or disruption
of the source of water supply. The locations of these connections on the
tank are illustrated in Figure 5-14. The system
2. Empirical. With this method, the quantity of shown is also equipped with fire-standpipe and
water required for emergency conditions is
sprinkler connections to meet local code require-
arbitrarily fixed. Based on this determina-
ments. The tank connections shown in Figure
tion, the length of time needed for pumping
5-14 provide the required water supply for each
the water before safe shutdown can be esti-
system, with the sprinkler reserve at the bot-
mated. tom, the fire-standpipe reserve at the next level,
3. Cycling of pumps. The capacity of the tank and the water storage at the top. Piping connec-
is sized so that cycling of pumps will not oc- tions to the standpipe and sprinkler systems
cur more than 6 times per hour. This trans- should be fitted with bronze strainers within the
lates to 5 min off, 5 min on. The fewer the tank to prevent any debris from entering those
cycles per hour, the less the wear and tear systems.
on motors and the less maintenance required.
Level controls are installed in the tank to start
Reducing the number of cycles, however, will
and stop pumps at low and high levels. The level
produce greater fluctuations in tank-water
control can be a float switch, pressure switch,
reserve.
electric prober, or any other acceptable device.
Selecting a tank that provides a large water
surface relative to its capacity makes it possible Tanks should be equipped with both high and
to withdraw a considerable volume of water with- low-level alarms. The low-level alarm indicates
out appreciably lowering the liquid level. Main- that the pumps are not keeping up with demand.
Figure 5-14 Piping Connections for a

Gravity Water-Storage Tank with Reserve Capacity for Firefighting
The high-level alarm warns that water has Dead-end service The type of service in which
reached the overflow level and is spilling to waste. the PRV is required to close bottle-tight when
When storage tanks are used for gravity feed, there is no demand on the system.
consideration must be given to the weight of the
Fall-off The amount that pressure is decreased
tank and water so proper support can be
from set pressure to meet demand. The amount
provided.
of fall-off depends on the quantity of flow—the
greater the flow, the greater the fall-off. A fall-off
Booster-Pump System of 20 psi (137.9 kPa) is considered to be the maxi-
mum allowable fall-off.
There are two ways to make a continuously run
system deliver a relatively constant system pres- No-flow pressure The pressure maintained in
sure under varying load conditions. One way is the system when the PRV is shut tight so that
to use a constant-speed pump with a pressure- high pressure at the inlet of the valve is not per-
regulating valve in the discharge piping. The mitted to enter the system.
other way is to vary the speed of the pump shaft
Reduced-flow pressure The pressure main-
either at the motor or in the coupling.
tained at the PRV outlet when water is flowing.
A variety of booster-pump systems are cur- The no-flow (closed), set-point pressure of a PRV
rently in use, with more being introduced all the is always higher than the reduced-flow (open)
time. Detailed information on the design criteria pressure. A PRV that is set to open at 45 psi
and operational characteristics of water-pressure (310.3 kPa) pressure (no-flow) would deliver a
boosting systems is given in the ASPE Pumps reduced-flow pressure of 30 psi (206.8 kPa) at
and Pump Systems Handbook. peak demand if a 15 psi (103.4 kPa) fall-off had
been selected. Then the reduced-flow pressure
at peak flow would be 30 psi (206.8 kPa).
EXCESS WATER PRESSURE
Response The capability of a PRV to respond
One of the main sources of trouble in a water- to change in outlet pressure.
distribution system is excessive pressure. Un- Sensitivity The ability of a PRV to sense a
less a piece of equipment, fixture, or operation change in pressure. If the valve is too sensitive
requires a specified high pressure, a water sys- and quick to respond, the results are over-con-
tem should not exceed a maximum of 80 psi trol and a hunting effect. Not enough sensitivity
(551.6 kPa) (check local code). To ensure this, a results in operation that is sluggish and great
pressure-regulating valve (PRV) should be in- variations in the outlet pressure.
stalled.
Set pressure That pressure, at the outlet of
The purpose of a pressure-regulating valve the PRV, at which the valve will start to open.
is to reduce water pressure from higher, supply-
main pressures to desirable and adequate flow Types of pressure-regulating valve All pres-
pressures when water is required at fixtures, sure-regulating valves fall into the following gen-
appliances, or equipment. eral categories:
• Single-seated—direct-operated or pilot-oper-
Pressure-Regulating Valves ated.
• Double-seated—direct-operated or pilot-oper-
Definitions The following are definitions of ated.
terms used in discussing, sizing, and ordering
pressure-regulating valves: Single-seated pressure-regulating valves are
used for dead-end service and when the flow to
Accuracy The degree of fall-off in the outlet be regulated is intermittent. For dead-end ser-
pressure from the set pressure at full-flow ca- vice, the valve must be able to shut tight and
pacity. Also, the capability of producing the same not permit the passage of any water when there
results for repetitive operations with identical is no demand. Double-seated PRVs are used for
conditions of flow. continuous-flow conditions. They are not suited
for dead-end service and should never be used
for this purpose.
Direct-operated PRVs tend to have a reduc- mance. Also, this type of installation reduces the
tion of the outlet pressure in direct proportion velocity of flow (there’s less pressure drop across
with the increase of the flow rate. Pilot-operated two regulators than across one), providing longer
PRVs will maintain a close fluctuation of the valve life.
outlet pressure independent of the flow rate as-
Selection of PRVs and pressure settings is
suming that the valve was sized properly.
fairly simple. The first PRV could reduce from
Sizing, selection, and installation Initial cost, 250 to 150 lb (1723.7 to 1034.2 kPa) and the
maintenance cost, and specific project require- second from 150 to approximately 50 lb (1034.2
ments regarding flow rates and pressure should to 344.7 kPa) or there could be some similar di-
determine which PRV is recommended for a par- vision. PRV size can be selected according to the
ticular application. manufacturer’s capacity tables if it is remem-
bered that each PRV should exceed the total ca-
Sizing and selection of a pressure-regulating pacity of the system.
valve can be performed after the following crite-
ria are estimated: inlet pressure, outlet pressure, Where there is a wide variation of demand
and capacity (flow rate). “Inlet pressure” is the requirements and where it is vital to maintain a
maximum pressure expected upstream of the continuous water supply as well as provide
regulating valve. “Outlet pressure” is the pres- greater capacity, “parallel installation” is recom-
sure required downstream of the regulating valve. mended. Parallel installation is the use of two or
For large-capacity systems, which may also ex- more smaller size pressure-regulating valves
perience periods of low flow, or when extreme serving a larger size supply-pipe main. This type
pressure reductions are expected, it is not ad- of installation should be employed wherever there
visable to have only one regulating valve. is a wide variation of reduced-pressure require-
ments and where it is vital to maintain a con-
A PRV sized to accommodate both small and tinuous water supply. It also has the advantage
large flows has, in general, a high noise level of providing increased capacity beyond that pro-
during operation. In addition, small flows will vided by a single valve where needed. Multiple
produce wire-drawing of the seat and possible installation improves valve performance for
chatter. widely variable demands and permits the ser-
In addition to having economic advantages, vicing of an individual valve without the com-
the proper application of pressure-regulating plete shutdown of the line, thus preventing costly
valves can greatly influence the overall perfor- shutdowns.
mance of the system. Under most circumstances, For a two-valve parallel installation, the to-
a good application can increase system perfor- tal capacity of the valves should equal or exceed
mance, reduce operating costs, and ensure a the capacity required by the system. One valve
longer life expectancy for regulators. should be set at 10 psi (69.0 kPa) higher delivery
For example, where initial pressures exceed pressure than the other. For example, assume
200 psi (1379.0 kPa) or where there is a wide that the system requires 400 gpm (25.2 L/s) and
variation between the initial pressure and the the reduced-flow pressure required is 50 psi
reduced pressure, or where the initial pressure (344.7 kPa). Select two valves, each rated at 200
varies considerably, “two-stage reduction” is ben- gpm (12.6 L/s), with one valve set at 50 psi (344.7
eficial. Two-stage reduction is the use of two PRVs kPa) and the other valve set 10 psi (69.0 kPa)
to reduce high service pressure proportionately higher at 60 psi (413.7 kPa). Thus, when low
and to eliminate an extremely wide variance be- volume is required, the higher-set valve oper-
tween the initial and reduced pressure. It is rec- ates alone. When a larger volume is demanded,
ommended where the initial pressure is 200 lb both valves open, delivering full-line capacity.
(1379.0 kPa) or more and where the ratio of ini- Another possible choice is to install two PRV
tial to reduced pressure is more than 4 to 1 (e.g., combinations of different sizes. This is practical
200 to 50 lb [1379.0 to 344.7 kPa]), or where the on larger installations where supply lines are 2
initial pressure fluctuates greatly. The advan- in. (50 mm) and larger and where there are fre-
tage of this installation is that neither valve is quent periods of small demand. The smaller PRV
subjected to an excessive range of pressure re- would have the 10-psi (69.0-kPa) higher delivery
ductions. This seems to stabilize the final reduced pressure and thus operate alone to satisfy small
pressure, ensuring close and accurate perfor- demands, such as urinals and drinking foun-
tains. When a larger volume is demanded, the as follows (or as required by the administrative
main PRV would open to satisfy the system de- authority):
mand. For example, take an apartment building
1. Cleaning and disinfection applies to both hot
requiring 300 gpm (18.9 L/s) at 60 psi (413.7
and cold, domestic (potable) water systems
kPa). The selection might be a 4-in. (100-mm)
and should be performed after all pipes,
PRV rated for 240 gpm (15.1 L/s) (80% of total
valves, fixtures, and other components of the
maximum flow rate) and set at 60 psi (413.7 kPa)
systems are installed, tested, and ready for
and a 1½-in. (40-mm) PRV rated for 60 gpm (3.8
operation.
L/s) and set at 70 psi (472.7 kPa).
2. All domestic yard, hot and cold-water piping
Manufacturers have tables indicating recom-
should be thoroughly flushed with clean, po-
mended capacities and valve sizes for use in par-
table water prior to disinfection to remove
allel installations.
dirt and other contaminants. Screens of fau-
cets and strainers should be removed before
TESTING, CLEANING, AND flushing and reinstalled after completion of
disinfection.
DISINFECTION OF DOMESTIC,
WATER-SUPPLY SYSTEMS 3. Disinfection should be done using chlorine,
either gas or liquid. Calcium or sodium hy-
Testing pochlorite or another approved disinfectant
may be used.
Prior to disinfection, connection to faucets and
4. A service cock should be provided and lo-
equipment, and installation of pipe insulation,
cated at the water-service entrance. The dis-
the domestic water system should be hydrostati-
infecting agent should be injected into and
cally tested for leakage. A typical test for interior
through the system from this cock only.
piping is accomplished by capping all system
openings, filling the system with water, and then 5. The disinfecting agent should be injected by
pumping a static head into the system at a mini- a proportioning pump or device through the
mum of 1½ times the working pressure (100 psi service cock slowly and continuously at an
[689.5 kPa] minimum) for a period of not less even rate. During disinfection, flow of the dis-
than 2 hours. The aforementioned test require- infecting agent into the main connected to
ments are acceptable to most inspectors, but note the public water supply is not permitted.
that 80 psi (551.6 kPa) is the maximum pres- 6. All sectional valves should be opened during
sure allowed by most designs and codes. disinfection. All outlets should be fully opened
Under conditions where systems are subject at least twice during injection and the re-
to freezing, and with the approval of the author- sidual checked with orthotolidin solution.
ity having jurisdiction, an air test may be sub- 7. If chlorine is used, when the chlorine residual
stituted for the water test. This can be concentration, calculated on the volume of
accomplished by connecting an air compressor water the piping will contain, indicates not
to the system, bringing the system up to 40 psi less than 50 parts per million (ppm) or milli-
(275.8 kPa), checking for leaks with liquid soap, grams per liter (mg/L) at all outlets, then all
repairing any leaks, and then subjecting the sys- valves should be closed and secured.
tem to a minimum of 1½ times the working pres-
sure (100 psi [689.5 kPa] minimum) for a 8. The residual chlorine should be retained in
minimum of 2 hours. the piping systems for a period of not less
than 24 hours.
Any equipment that may be damaged by
these tests should be disconnected from the 9. After the retention, the residual should be
system. not less than 5 ppm. If less, then the pro-
cess should be repeated as described above.
Cleaning and Disinfecting 10. If satisfactory, then all fixtures should be
flushed with clean, potable water until re-
New or repaired potable water systems shall be sidual chlorine by orthotolidin test is not
cleaned and disinfected prior to use whenever greater than that of the incoming water sup-
required by the administrative authority. The ply (this may be zero).
method to be followed should be per AWWA or
11. All work and certification of performance NOTE: It should be understood that local code
should be performed by approved applica- requirements, if more stringent than above sug-
tors or qualified personnel with chemical and gested procedures, shall be included in the speci-
laboratory experience. Certification of perfor- fications.
mance should indicate:
• Name and location of the job and date REFERENCES
when disinfection was performed.
• Material used for disinfection. 1. American Water Works Association (AWWA).
AWWA cross connection control manual. New York.
• Retention period of disinfectant in pip-
ing system. 2. AWWA. AWWA standard for disinfecting water
mains, AWWA C601.
• Ppm (mg/L) chlorine during retention.
3. AWWA. AWWA standard for disinfection of water
• Ppm (mg/L) chlorine after flushing. storage facilities, AWWAD105.
• Statement that disinfection was per- 4. AWWA. Standard for hypochlorites, AWWA B300,
formed as specified. AWWA M22.
• Signature and address of company/per- 5. AWWA. Standard for liquid chlorine, AWWAB301.
son performing disinfection.
6. Manas, V.T. National plumbing code illustrated
12. Upon completion of final flushing (after re- handbook. New York: McGraw-Hill.
tention period) the contractor should obtain 7. n.a. 1978. Piping systems fundamentals and ap-
a minimum of one water sample from each plication. Plant Engineer Magazine.
hot and cold-water line and submit samples
to a state/province and/or local, approved 8. US Department of Commerce, National Bureau
of Standards. BMS 65, Methods of estimating
laboratory. Samples should be taken from loads in plumbing systems, by R.B. Hunter.
faucets located at the highest floor and fur- Washington, DC.
thest from the meter or main water supply.
The laboratory report should show the fol- 9. US Department of Commerce, National Bureau
of Standards. BMS 66, Plumbing manual. Wash-
lowing: ington, DC.
• Name and address of approved labora- 10. US Department of Commerce, National Bureau
tory testing the sample. of Standards. BMS 79, Water distributing sys-
• Name and location of job and date the tems for buildings, by R.B. Hunter. Washington,
DC.
samples were obtained.
• The coliform organism count. An accept- 11. White, George Clifford. 1972. Handbook of chlo-
rination. New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold.
able test shall show the absence of
coliform organisms. (Some codes require
an acceptable test for 2 consecutive days.)
• Any other tests required by local code
authorities.
13. If analysis does not satisfy the above mini-
mum requirements, the disinfection proce-
dure must be repeated.
14. Before acceptance of the systems, the con-
tractor should submit to the architect (engi-
neer) for his review 3 copies of the laboratory
report and 3 copies of the certification of per-
formance as specified above.
15. Under no circumstances should the contrac-
tor permit the use of any portion of domestic
water systems until they are properly disin-
fected, flushed, and certified.

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Chapter 5 — Cold-Water Systems 115

INTRODUCTION (The accepted maximum velocity is 8 fps

Meter Types 3. Water pressure available.

1. Disc meter. These meters are normally s, w, 4. Size of building service.

Table 5-1 Displacement-Type Meters Meeting AWWA Specifications—

Source:AWWA Standard M22.

Table 5-2 Compound-Type Meters Meeting AWWA Specifications—

Source:AWWA Standard M22.

Table 5-3 Turbine-Type Meters Meeting AWWA Specifications—

Source:AWWA Standard M22.

Figure 5-2 Conversion of Fixture Units, fu, to gpm (L/s)

Asbestos cement 160–140 150 140

Value of C 150 140 130 120 110 100 90 80 70 60

Flow, Fixture Units Flow, Fixture Units Flow, Fixture Units

1 (0.06) 0 — 45 (2.84) 107 37 145 (9.14) 611 521

Figure 5-3 Conversion of Fixture Units, fu, to gpm (L/s),

Example 5-1 line is equivalent to 10 ft (3.1 m) in length. This

Flow, liters per second

Pressure Loss, kiloPascals

Flow, gallons per minute

Figure 5-4 Typical Friction Losses for Disk-Type Water Meters

a 1 0.6 1.5 0.3 0.2 8 4

9.5 0.3 0.2 0.5 0.09 0.06 2.4 1.2

Basin faucet 8 (55.2) 3 (0.19)

Bathtub faucet 5 (34.5) 6 (0.38)

Figure 5-5 Establishing the Governing Fixture or Appliance

A–B 10 (3.1) 10 (3.l) 10 (226.2) 1 (6.9) 1 (6.9) 9 (62.1)

M–J 10 (3.1) 90 (27.4) 2 (13.8) 10 (226.2) 1 (6.9) 1 (6.9)

Figure 5-6 Determining Pressure Available for Friction

Pipe Size, Pipe Size,

Note: Velocities at 5 ( ), 6 ( ), 8 ( ), and 10 ( * ) fps.

(Table 5-9 continued)

Pipe Size, Pipe Size,

10 31 202 *631 18 *56 *336 *970

Note: Velocities at 5 ( ), 6 ( ), 8 ( ), and 10 ( * ) fps.

(Table 5-9 continued)

Pipe Size, Pipe Size,

8 *35 *106 *536 *1124 * * *23 *71 *160 *536 *1124

Note: Velocities at 5 ( ), 6 ( ), 8 ( ), and 10 ( * ) fps.

Note: Velocities at 5 ( ), 6 ( ), 8 ( ), and 10 ( * ) fps.

(Table 5-10 continued)

Pipe Size, Pipe Size,

15 96 358 8 28 164 557

Note: Velocities at 5 ( ), 6 ( ), 8 ( ), and 10 ( * ) fps.

(Table 5-10 continued)

Pipe Size, Pipe Size,

14 50 *265 *827 * *33 *100 *515 *1173

Note: Velocities at 5 ( ), 6 ( ), 8 ( ), and 10 ( * ) fps.

Figure 5-7 Pipe Sizing Data, Smooth Pipe

Figure 5-8 Pipe Sizing Data, Fairly Smooth Pipe

Figure 5-9 Pipe Sizing Data, Fairly Rough Pipe

Figure 5-10 Pipe Sizing Data, Rough Pipe

Table 5-11 Required Air Chambers

½ (12.71) 25 (7.62) 30 (0.79) 10 (3.04) 8 (1.3) ¾ × 15 (1.9 × 38.1)

Water hammer arresters

Symbols There are six manufactured sizes of

Table 5-12 Sizing and Selection of

10 31 202 631 18 56 336 970

8 35 106 536 1124 * * 23 71 160 536 *1124

14 50 265 827 * 33 100 515 1173