ФАКУЛТЕТ ЗА ЕЛЕКТРОТЕХНИКА И ИНФОРМАЦИСКИ ТЕХНОЛОГИИ

FACULTY OF COMPUTER SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING

Bits and bytes

10101010101010
10101010101010
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What is data?
 Data are the facts and statistics collected
together for reference or analysis
 Data is information such as facts and
numbers used to analyze something or
make decisions
 Computer data is information in a form that
can be processed by a computer
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Definition given by ChatGPT

 Data refers to raw facts and figures that can be
processed or analyzed to generate information.
 It can exist in various forms, such as numbers,
text, images, or audio, and serves as the
foundation for decision-making, research, and
various computational processes.
 Data becomes meaningful when organized,
interpreted, or contextualized.
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What is information?
 The facts provided or learned about something
or someone
 What is conveyed or represented by a particular
arrangement or sequence of things
 Knowledge obtained from investigation, study, or
instruction
 A collection of facts or details that provide
context and relevance, allowing individuals to
understand, analyze, and act upon a specific
situation or topic
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How is information represented?

 Computers represent, process, store, copy, and

transmit everything as numbers
 hence "digital computer"
 The numbers can represent anything
 not just numbers that you might do arithmetic on
 The meaning depends on context
 as well as what the numbers ultimately represent
 e.g., numbers coming to your computer or phone from
your wi-fi connection could be email, movies, music,
documents, apps, Zoom meeting, ...
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Why binary numbers?

 Some of the first computers, such as ENIAC
from 1946, were using decimal arithmetic units
based on vacuum tubes
 Von Neumann: “Our fundamental unit of memory
is naturally adapted to the binary system since
we do not attempt to measure gradations of
charge at a particular point in the Selectron but
are content to distinguish two states.”
 The first computer Z3, created by Konrad Zuse
and released in 1941 used the binary system
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How are they used in the

computers?
 Binary is used in computers because it's
easy to make fast, reliable, small devices
that have only two states
 high voltage/low voltage, current flowing/not
flowing (chips)
 electrical charge present/not present (RAM,
flash)
 magnetized this way or that (disks)
 light bounces off/doesn't bounce off (cd-rom,
dvd)
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What’s a bit?
 A bit represents one 2-way decision or a choice
out of two possibilities
 yes / no, true / false, on / off, up / down, north / south,
...
 The abstraction of all of these is represented as
0 or 1
 enough to tell which of TWO possibilities has been
chosen
 a single digit with one of two values
 hence "binary digit“
 hence bit
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To summarize
 Bit - binary digit, the smallest unit of
storage (like an atom)
 A bit stores just a 0 or 1
 "Computer is all 0's and 1's" ... bits
 Anything with two separate states can store 1
bit
 Chip uses electricity 0/1 states
 Hard drive uses spots North/South magnetism
0/1 states
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Bytes
 Bit too small to be much use
 Group 8 bits into a byte (1 Byte = 8 Bits)
 One byte = grouping of 8 bits
 e.g. 0 1 0 1 1 0 1 0
 One byte can store one letter, e.g. 'b' or 'x‘

 Byte is the unit of information storage

 All storage is measured in bytes, despite
being very different hardware
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How much can one byte hold?

How many distinct/separate patterns can
be made with 1, 2, or 3 bits?

Number of bits Distinct Patterns

1 01
2 00 01 10 11
3 000 001 010 011
100 101 110 111
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Bits
 In general: add 1 bit, double the number of
patterns
1 bit – 2 patterns 5 bits – 32
 2 bits – 4  6 bits – 64
 3 bits – 8  7 bits – 128
 4 bits – 16  8 bits – 256
 Mathematically: n bits yields 2ⁿ patterns (2 to
the nth power)
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One Byte - 256 Patterns

 1 byte is group of 8 bits
 Introduced by Werner Buchholz in 1956,
when he designed IBM computers
 8 bits can make 256 different patterns
 How to use the 256 patterns?
 How to store a number in a byte?
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One Byte - 256 Patterns

 Start with 0, go up, one pattern per
number, until run out of patterns (256)
 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, ... 254, 255
 One byte holds an integer number 0..255
 Code: pixel.setRed(n) took a number
0..255. Why?
 Red value stored in one byte
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SI vs. IEC
 Standard SI (International System of Units) vs.
IEC (International Electrotechnical Commission)
representation
 Hard disk manufacturers use standard SI
notation
 1МB = 1.000.000 B / 80GB = 80.000.000.000 B
 Windows uses IEC notation
 The capacity of 80GB disk is presented as 74,56 GB
 250 GB is presented as 232 GB
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Kibibyte, Мebibyte...
1 kibibyte (KiB) = 1.024 bytes
1 kilobyte (KB) = 1.000 bytes
1 mebibyte (MiB) = 1.048.576 byte
1 megabyte (MB) = 1.000.000 bytes
1 gibibyte (GiB) = 1.073.741.824 bytes
1 gigabyte (GB) = 1.000.000.000 bytes
1 tebibyte (TiB) = 1.099.511.627.776 bytes
1 terabyte (TB) = 1.000.000.000.000 bytes

Learn more about these prefixes from:

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Binary_prefix
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Kilobyte or KB
 One kilobyte (KB) is a
collection of about
1000 bytes. A page of
ordinary roman
alphabetic text takes
about 2 kilobytes to
store (about one byte
per letter). A typical
short email would
also take up just 1 or
2 kilobytes.
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Megabyte or MB (1)
 One old 3½ “ floppy holds 1,44 Megabytes. It
can store one small book
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Megabyte or MB (2)
 100 MB can store several volumes of an
encyclopedia
 650 MB is the capacity of one CD-ROM
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Gigabyte or GB
 1 GB holds almost two CD-ROMs
 1 GB can store several shelves of books
100 GB is sufficient for a home library
 ChatGPT was trained using databases from the
internet that included a massive 570 GB of data
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Terabyte or TB
 3,6 million images, 300 KB each, or 300
hours of video of good quality
 1.000 copies of Encyclopedia Britannica
 In April 2011, U.S. Library of Congress
collected data with a capacity of 235 TB (5
TB a month)
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Petabyte or PB
 In 2022, U.S. Library of Congress
managed 21 PB of digital collection
content, comprising 914 million unique
files
 Google processes around 20+ PB of data
every day
 The NSA processes 30+ PB of data every
day
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Positional representation systems

 A numeration system in which a real

number is represented by an ordered set
of characters where the value of a
character depends on its position
 Positional notation
 base (or radix) – positive integer
 vocabulary – symbols for representing digits
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Positional numeration systems

 The most frequently used:

 decimal (base: 10, vocabulary: 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5,
6, 7, 8, 9)
 binary (base: 2, vocabulary: 0, 1)
 octal (base: 8, vocabulary: 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6,
7)
 Hexadecimal or sexadecimal (base: 16,
vocabulary: 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, A, B, C,
D, E, F)
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Binary notation system

 The reason for the binary notation system
concerns the nature of electricity in computer
circuits.
 Easy to store with bistable elements - relays
 Reliably transmitted on noisy and inaccurate
wires (media)
0 1 0

3.3V
2.8V

0.5V
0.0V
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Conversions
Binary - decimal
101001112 =
1*27 + 0*26 + 1*25 + 0*24 + 0*23 + 1*22 + 1*21 + 1*20 = 16710
Decimal - binary
167/2 = 83 1
83/2 = 41 1
41/2 = 20 1
20/2 = 10 0
10/2 = 5 0
5/2 = 2 1 101001112
2/2 = 1 0
1/2 = 0 1
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Conversion of floating numbers

Binary - decimal
0.1101012 =
1*2-1 + 1*2-2 + 0*2-3 + 1*2-4 + 0*2-5 + 1*2-6 = 0.82812510
Decimal – binary
0.828125*2 = 1.656250
0.656250*2 = 1.312500
0.312500*2 = 0.625000
0.625000*2 = 1.250000
0.250000*2 = 0.500000
0.500000*2 = 1.000000
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Byte in different notations

 Byte = 8 bits 0
1
0
1
0000
0001
 Binary 000000002 ...11111112 2 2 0010
3 3 0011
 Decimal 010 ... 25510 4 4 0100
5 5 0101
 Hexadecimal 0016 ... FF16 6 6 0110
7 7 0111
 ‘0’...‘9’ and ‘A’...‘F’ 8 8 1000
9 9 1001
A 10 1010
B 11 1011
C 12 1100
D 13 1101
E 14 1110
F 15 1111
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Binary into octal

 Binary can be easily converted into octal
 Why?
 810 = 10002
 101001112 = ???8
 Let’s present it as triples:
010 100 1112 = 2478
 Was the calculation correct?
2*82 + 4*81 + 7*80 = 2*64 + 4*8 + 7*1 = 167
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Binary into hexadecimal

 Binary can be converted into hexadecimal
 Why?
 1610 = 100002
 101001112 = ???16
 Let’s present it as quadruples:
1010 01112 = A78
 Was the calculation correct?
10*161 + 7*160 = 10*16 + 7*1 = 167
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Floating binary into octal

 0.1101012 = ??? 8
 Let’s again present the bits as triples:
 0. 110 1012 = 0.65 8
 Was the calculation correct?
0.65 8 = 6*8-1 + 5*8-2 =
6*.0125 + 5*0.015625 =
0.75 + 0.078125 = 0.828125
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Floating binary into hexadecimal

 0.1101012 = ??? 16
 Let’s again present the bits as quadruples:
 0. 1101 01002 = 0.D4 16
 Was the calculation correct?
0.D416 = 13*16-1 + 4*16-2 =
13*.0125 + 5*0.015625 =
0.75 + 0.07812500 = 0.82812510
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Numbers and characters in

computers
 One byte works well for individual characters
 Computers are also good at manipulating
numbers
 ASCII is an encoding representing each typed
character by a number
 For example: A is 65, B is 66, a is 96, space is
32
 "Unicode" is an encoding for Cyrillic, typically 2-
bytes per "character“
 It is used for all non-English scripts
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Storing numbers
 Integers are typically stored with either 4
or 8 bytes
2 bytes: -32768 (-215) to 32767 (215-1)
 4 bytes: -2147483648 (-231) to 2147483647
(231-1)
 8 bytes: -9223372036854775808 (-263) to
9223372036854775807 (263-1)
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Binary arithmetics
 Adding in binary is just like normal addition with
carrying
0 +0= 0
0+1= 1
1+0= 1
 1 + 1 = 10

 For example:
 1010 1111 + 1000 0001 = 1 0011 0000
 Subtraction, multiplication, division are
analogous
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Integer overflow
 When you run out of bits you can't carry
anymore
 Leftmost bit indicates sign, so carrying to the
leftmost bit changes a number from positive to
negative.
 So, adding 1 to 32767 goes to -32768
 Similarly, adding 1 to 2147483647 goes to
-2147483648
 This is called integer overflow
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Machine words
 Word = group of 2, 3, 4, ... bytes
 In the 1990s, computers used 32-bit
words: address space limited to 4GB
Few for demanding calculations
 Modern general purpose computers and
high-end systems use 64-bit words (8B)
address space ~ 1,8 X 1019B
x86-64 machines support 48B address
space: 256 TB
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The memory subsystem

32B 64B
words words bytes address

 Addresses specify Addr

0000
0001
byte location =
0000
?? 0002
Addr
 Address of first byte = 0003
is word Addr
0000
?? 0004
= 0005
 Addresses of 0004
?? 0006
successive words 0007
differ by 4 (32-bit) or 0008
Addr
8 (64-bit) = 0009
0008
??
Addr
0010
= 0011
0008
?? 0012
Addr
= 0013
0012
?? 0014
0015
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Basic memory concepts (1)

 How to order bytes within a memory word?
 Conventions for byte ordering:
 Big Endian: Sun, PPC Mac, Internet
 In Big Endian, the most significant byte (MSB) is
stored in the smallest address
 Little Endian: x86
 In Little Endian, the least significant byte (LSB) is
stored in the smallest address
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Basic memory concepts (2)

 Big Endian
 The least significant byte has the biggest address
 Little Endian
 The least significant byte has the biggest address
 Example
 Variable x presented with 4 bytes: 0x01234567
 The address of &x is 0x100

Big Endian 0x100 0x101 0x102 0x103

01 23 45 67
Little Endian 0x100 0x101 0x102 0x103
67 45 23 01
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Data representations
 How much data types occupy in C (in bytes)?
 C Data type Typical 32-bit Intel IA32 x86-64
 char 1 1 1
 short 2 2 2
 int 4 4 4
 long 4 4 8
 long long 8 8 8
 float 4 4 4
 double 8 8 8
 long double 8 10/12 10/16
 char * 4 4 8
* Or any pointer
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Examining Data Representations

 Code to Print Byte Representation of Data

 Casting pointer to unsigned char * creates byte array

typedef unsigned char *pointer;

void show_bytes(pointer start, int len)

{
int i;
for (i = 0; i < len; i++)
printf("0x%p\t0x%.2x\n“, start+i, start[i]);
printf("\n");
}

Printf directives:
%p: Print pointer
%x: Print Hexadecimal
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show_bytes Execution example

int a = 15213;
printf("int a = 15213;\n");
show_bytes((pointer) &a, sizeof(int));

Result (Linux):
int a = 15213;
0x11ffffcb8 0x6d
0x11ffffcb9 0x3b
0x11ffffcba 0x00
0x11ffffcbb 0x00
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Representing integers
int A = 15213; Decimal: 15213
int B = -15213; Binary: 0011 1011 0110 1101
long int C = 15213;
Hex: 3 B 6 D
IA32, x86-64 A Sun A IA32 C x86-64 C Sun C
6D 00 6D 6D 00
3B 00 3B 3B 00
00 3B 00 00 3B
00 6D 00 00 6D
00
IA32, x86-64 B Sun B 00
00
93 FF
00
C4 FF
FF C4
FF 93 Two’s complement representation
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Let’s subtract by adding

 1312 – 687 = ???
 1312 + 313 = 1 625
 So, 1312 – 678 = 625
 Do you agree?

 Let’s try again:

 2189 – 1932 = ???
 2189 + 8068 = 1 0257
 2189 – 1932 = 257
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How did we do it?

 1312 – 687 = 1312 – (1000 - 313) =
1312 + 313 – 1000 = 1625 - 1000 = 625
 2189 – 1932 = 2189 – (10000 - 8068) =
2189 + 8068 – 10000 = 10257 – 10000

 313 is a ten’s (decimal) complement of 687

 8068 is a ten’s (decimal) complement of 1932
 312 is a nine’s complement of 687
 8067 is a nine’s complement of 1932
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Two’s complement
 Two’s complement (of a binary number):
 Invertsthe digits. 0 becomes 1, 1 becomes 0 (one’s
complement).
 Adds 1 (two’s complement)

 If the first (leftmost) bit is 0, the number is 0 or

positive
 If the first (leftmost) bit is 1, the number is
negative
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Examples:
 Negative numbers are represented with
their two’s complement (without the sign of
the number)

x  510 x  0  x e  x  00101  510

x  510 x  0  two's complement x e  00101  1  11011
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Working with binary data

 Binary variables take only two possible values,
traditionally termed 0 and 1
 Logical operators work with binary data and binary
variables
 Basic logic operations (bitwise operations):
 AND, OR, NOT
 Logic gates implement logic functions
 Boolean algebra is mathematical basis that encodes
logical functions
 Boolean algebra is the foundation for the design and
analysis of digital systems
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Boolean algebra
 Basic logical operators:
 AND . or &
 OR + or |
 NOT ¯ , ‘ , or (~)
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In C
 AND &&
 OR ||
 NOT !
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Truth tables
 Example: Truth table for basic logical
operators:

AND OR NOT
X Y Z = X·Y X Y Z = X+Y X ZX
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1
0 1 0 0 1 1 1 0
1 0 0 1 0 1
1 1 1 1 1 1
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Implementation of logical functions

Parallel switches => OR
 Switches
 Inputs:
 logical 1: closed
 logical 0: open
 Outputs: Serial switches => AND
 logical 1: light is energized
 logical 0: light is not energized
 NOT input:
 logical 1: open
Closed switch => NOT
 logical 0: closed
C
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Logic gates
 In first computers, to build logic systems,
switches were opened and closed using
magnetic field and electric coils in relays
 Afterwards, vacuum tubes replaced relays
 Today, logic gating function and the
amplifying function are performed by
transistors
 The logic is called transistor - transistor
logic (TTL)
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Symbols of logic gates

 Logic gates utilize special symbols
X X
Z = X ·Y Z= X+ Y X Z= X
Y Y
AND gate OR gate NOT gate or inverter

 Performance:
X 0 0 1 1

Y 0 1 0 1

(AND) X ·Y 0 0 0 1

(OR) X+ Y 0 1 1 1

(NOT) X 1 1 0 0
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Gate latency
 A standard logic gate does not respond to a change of one of its
inputs instantaneously
 There is, instead, a finite delay between a change on the input and a
change on the output
 The propagation delay of a standard logic gate is tG

Input
1
0 tG tG tG = 0.3 ns

Output 1
0
0 0.5 1 1.5 Time (ns)
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Boolean algebra
 Created by George Boole in 1854
 Algebraic structure defined over set B = {0, 1},
two binary operators (+ and ·) and one unary operation ( )

1. X + 0= X 2. X .1=X Identity for AND

3. X+ 1=1 4. X .0=0 Identity for OR
5. X+X=X 6. X .X = X Idempotent
7. X+X=1 8. X .X = 0 Complement
9. X=X Involution
10. X +Y =Y+ X 11. XY = YX Commutativity
12. (X + Y) + Z = X + (Y + Z) 13. (XY) Z = X(Y Z) Associativity
14. X(Y + Z) = XY + XZ 15. X + YZ = (X + Y) (X + Z) Distributivity
16. X + Y = X . Y 17. X .Y = X + Y De Morgan
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Summary
 Data and information
 Bits
 Bytes
 Binary arithmetic
 Working with binary data
 Implementation of binary data