97.

5 minutes

• An orbit is a regular, repeating path that one object in space takes around
another one. Types
Characteristic of a Satellite

Orbital Period:

• The time taken by a satellite to complete one revolution around

the Earth.
• Ranges from about 100 minutes for near-polar earth-observing
satellites to 24 hours for geostationary satellites.

Altitude:

• The height of the satellite above the Earth's surface.

• Can be low (160-2000 km), moderate, or high (around 36,000 km)
depending on the satellite's purpose.

Apogee and Perigee:

• Apogee: The point in the orbit where the satellite is farthest from
the Earth.
• Perigee: The point in the orbit where the satellite is closest to the
Earth.
 Inclination:

• The angle of the satellite's orbital plane measured clockwise from

the equator.
• Typically 99 degrees for remote sensing satellites.
• Nearly 180 degrees for satellites on the equatorial plane.

Swath:

• The width of the area on the Earth's surface imaged by the

satellite's sensor during a single pass.

Satellite Types By Their Functions

1. Earth Observation Satellites

• Purpose: Monitor the Earth from space and report changes.

• Uses: Environmental monitoring, rapid analysis during emergencies (e.g.,
natural disasters, armed conflicts).
• Examples: Terra

2. Navigation Satellites

• Purpose: Determine the ground position of objects.

• Uses: Geographic location of ships, aircraft, and other objects; crucial for
military forces.

Examples include Galileo (Europe), GPS (USA

• Types:
o Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS): Provides global coverage.
o Regional Navigation Satellite System (RNSS): Provides regional
coverage.
3. Communications Satellites

• Purpose: Transmit signals (e.g., telephone, television, radio, internet) over

long distances.
• Uses: Ensure communication over vast distances.
• Example: EchoStar

4. Astronomical Satellites

• Purpose: Investigate celestial bodies and phenomena in space.

• Uses: Create star and planetary surface maps, take images of planets, study
black holes.

Example :Hubble space telescope

Advantages of Satellites

• Wide Coverage: Satellites can cover a much larger area than ground-based
systems.
• Same Cost for Any Distance: The cost to send signals is the same no matter
how far they go.
• Precise Communication: Communication between satellites is very accurate.
• High Bandwidth: Satellites can offer a lot of data capacity.
 • Reliable in Remote Areas: Satellites provide communication in areas where
other forms of communication are not possible, such as remote regions and
oceans.

Disadvantages of Satellites

• High Launch Costs: Sending satellites into space is very expensive.

• Bandwidth Limitations: The available satellite bandwidth is getting used up.
• Propagation Delay: Signals take longer to travel between satellites and the
ground compared to ground-based systems.
• Vulnerable to Space Debris: Satellites can be damaged by space debris and
micrometeoroids, which can affect their operation.

Photogrammetry is the science and technology of obtaining reliable information

about physical objects and the environment through the process of recording,
measuring, and interpreting photographic images.

Types of Photogrammetry

1. Aerial Photogrammetry
o This involves taking photographs from an aircraft or drone to capture
large areas of the Earth's surface.
o Applications:
o Creating topographic maps,
o environmental studies,
o and urban planning.
2. Terrestrial (or Close-Range) Photogrammetry
o : This involves taking photographs from a camera mounted on the
ground to measure and model objects
o Applications:
 o Architectural restoration,
o accident scene reconstruction
3. Satellite Photogrammetry
o This involves using satellite images to obtain measurements and map
large-scale geographical areas.
o Applications:
o Land use and land cover mapping,
o natural resource management,
o and global climate studies.
4. Underwater Photogrammetry
o Definition: This involves taking photographs underwater to map and
measure underwater features.
o Applications:
o Marine archaeology,
o underwater inspections, and
o coral reef studies.

Applications of Photogrammetry

1. Cartography and Topographic Mapping

o : Creating detailed maps and topographical surveys for geographical
information systems (GIS), urban planning, and resource
management.
o Example: Generating digital elevation models (DEMs) for flood risk
assessment.
2. Architecture and Construction
o : Documenting and analyzing buildings, structures, and construction
sites for planning, restoration, and monitoring purposes.
o Example: Creating 3D models of historical buildings for preservation
and restoration projects.
3. Agriculture and Forestry
o Monitoring crop health, estimating yields, and managing forests by
analyzing changes in vegetation over time.
 o Example: Using aerial images to assess the impact of diseases on
crops.
4. Environmental Monitoring and Management
o : Studying and managing natural resources, tracking changes in
ecosystems, and assessing environmental impacts.
o Example: Monitoring deforestation, land degradation, and coastal
erosion through satellite imagery.

An aerial survey is a technique used to gather detailed information

about the Earth's surface from an elevated position, typically using
aircraft such as planes, drones, or helicopters. This method involves
capturing high-resolution images or other types of data, such as lidar
or infrared scans, from above. The collected data is then processed and
analysed to create accurate maps, models, and detailed reports

Types of Aerial Photographs

1. Vertical Aerial Photographs

o Description: Taken with the camera's axis pointing directly
downward, perpendicular to the ground.
o Applications: Mapping, land-use planning
o

2. Oblique Aerial Photographs

o Description: Taken with the camera at an angle to the
ground.
o Types:
▪ Low Oblique: Horizon is not visible.
▪ High Oblique: Horizon is visible.
 o Applications: Urban planning, architectural studies
3. Orthophotographs
o Description: Aerial photographs that have been
geometrically corrected ("orthorectified") to have a uniform
scale.
o Applications: land surveying, and cadastral mapping.
4. Panoramic Aerial Photographs
o Description: Wide-angle images that cover a large area,
typically taken with specialized panoramic cameras.
o Applications: environmental studies, and landscape analysis.
5. Infrared Aerial Photographs
o Description: Capture images using infrared wavelengths,
which are invisible to the naked eye.
o Applications: Vegetation analysis, and thermal studies.

Applications of Aerial Surveying

1. Topographic Mapping
o Creating detailed maps that show natural and man-made
features of the landscape.
o Uses: Engineering projects, construction, and environmental
management.
2. Urban Planning and Development
o Description: Assisting in the planning, design, and
development of urban areas.
 o Uses: Infrastructure development, zoning, and land-use
planning.
3. Environmental Monitoring
o Description: Observing and analyzing environmental
changes and patterns.
o Uses: Tracking deforestation, monitoring water quality, and
studying wildlife habitats.
4. Agriculture
o Description: Enhancing precision farming through detailed
analysis of crop health and land conditions.
o Uses: Crop monitoring, soil analysis, and irrigation planning.
5. Disaster Management
o Description: Assessing damage and planning response
strategies for natural and man-made disasters.
o Uses: Flood assessment, earthquake damage evaluation

Applications of GPS in Various Civil Sectors:

1. High-Precision Positioning: GPS technology is crucial for applications

requiring millimeter-to-centimeter level accuracy.

Examples include:

o Geological Activities:
▪ Plate Motion and Crustal Deformation: GPS is used to monitor
tectonic plate movements and crustal deformation. This data
helps predicting earthquakes.
 ▪ Volcanic Processes: By measuring ground deformation around
volcanoes, scientists can predict eruptions.
▪ Ice Sheet Processes: GPS tracks the movement and melting of
ice sheets, providing data on climate change.
o Civil Engineering:
▪ Monitoring Deformation: Engineers use GPS to monitor the
deformation of large structures such as bridges and towers
under various loads and conditions, ensuring structural
integrity and safety.
▪ Precise Structural Placement: GPS assists in the precise
placement of prefabricated bridge sections, coastal structures,
and during pipeline construction surveys.
▪ Conveyor Belt Installation and Monitoring: Ensures accurate
placement and alignment in industries such as mining and
logistics.
▪ Ship Loading and Unloading: GPS ensures precise docking and
cargo handling in ports, increasing efficiency and safety.
2. Aviation and Space Navigation:
o Aviation:
▪ Landing and Takeoff: GPS provides accurate positioning for
landing and takeoff, especially in airports without expensive
ground-based radio navigation aids.
▪ En Route Navigation: Pilots use GPS for precise navigation
during flight, reducing the need for traditional navigation aids
and enhancing route efficiency and safety.
o Space Navigation:
▪ Satellite Positioning: GPS is used for positioning and navigating
satellites in space, enabling accurate orbital maneuvers and
space missions.
3. Timing Synchronization: GPS provides a highly accurate and precise time
and frequency resource worldwide. Examples include:
o Time Standards Comparison: National and international laboratories
use GPS to synchronize and compare their time standards, ensuring
uniformity across the globe.
 o Telecommunication Networks: GPS synchronizes elements within
telecom networks, ensuring efficient and accurate data transmission.
o Internet Nodes: Major internet nodes use GPS for clock setting,
ensuring consistent and synchronized operations across the network.
o Voltage Phasor Measurement: GPS time signals are used for precise
synchronization in the measurement of electrical phases in power
grids.
4. Land and Maritime Navigation:
o Navigation and Route-Guidance Systems: GPS-based systems are
widely used in vehicles for navigation and route planning, providing
real-time directions and traffic updates.
o Oil Tanker Monitoring: Active monitoring of oil tankers via GPS
enhances safety and efficiency by providing real-time location data
and tracking their movements.
o Defining Fishing Boundaries: GPS helps in enforcing legal fishing
boundaries, preventing illegal fishing activities and managing marine
resources.
5. Consumer Market Applications:
o Telematics:
▪ Emergency Roadside Services: GPS-enabled telematics provide
accurate location data for emergency services, ensuring timely
assistance.
▪ Fleet Management: Companies use GPS to track and manage
their vehicle fleets, optimizing routes and reducing operational
costs.
o Location-Based Services:
▪ Navigation Apps: Applications like Google Maps and Waze use
GPS to provide real-time navigation, traffic updates, and
location-based search services.
▪ Fitness Trackers and Smartwatches: Devices use GPS to track
outdoor activities such as running, cycling, and hiking,
providing accurate data on distance, speed, and location.