Power Systems Microgrids Resilience

Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 207 (2025) 114953
Contents lists available at ScienceDirect
Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/rser
Power systems and microgrids resilience enhancement strategies: A review

Tekai Eddine Khalil Zidane a,** , Zarina Ab Muis b,c , Wai Shin Ho b,c,* , Younes Zahraoui d ,
Ali Saleh Aziz e , Chun-Lien Su f, Saad Mekhilef g , Pietro Elia Campana a
a
Department of Sustainable Energy Systems, Mälardalen University, 72123, Västerås, Sweden
b
Faculty of Chemical and Energy Engineering, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, Johor Bahru, 81310, Johor, Malaysia
c
Process Systems Engineering Centre (PROSPECT), Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, Johor Bahru, 81310, Johor, Malaysia
d
Department of Engineering Cybernetics, Norwegian University of Science and Technology, Trondheim, Norway
e
Department of Electrical Power Techniques Engineering, Al-Hussain University College, 56001, Karbala, Iraq
f
Department of Electrical Engineering, National Kaohsiung University of Science and Technology, Kaohsiung City, 807618, Taiwan
g
School of Science, Computing and Engineering Technologies, Swinburne University of Technology, Haw-thorn, VIC, 3122, Australia
A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T
Keywords: In recent years, power systems have been experiencing shutdowns triggered by high-impact, low-probability
Grid resilience events resulting from climate change. These incidents have a negative impact on system infrastructure and lead
Resilience enhancement strategies to significant economic losses. Thus, the power community has accelerated research on mitigating these impacts
Grid-restoration
on power systems. This paper presents an extensive review of recent literature on the evaluation, metrics, and
Self-healing capability
Microgrids
enhancement of power system resilience. To improve power system resilience, this paper discusses hardening
and operational strategies for various groups, addressing the main challenges. Hardening strategies focus on the
physical hardiness of the power grid and aim to reduce the magnitude of high-impact, low-probability events,
while operational strategies aim to minimize restoration time. Additionally, the paper examines microgrid
strategies for enhancing power system resilience, classifying them based on local and global resilience and
providing a detailed comparison of microgrids for global resilience-based restoration and microgrids for local
resilience-based self-healing strategies. This paper presents the different objective functions, constraints, and
optimization methods used in the modelling process. Moreover, the evaluation metrics to assess resilience are
examined. The research shows that microgrid technology has a high potential to improve power system resil-
iency against major events.
1. Introduction decreasing the strength of components [5].

These challenges reinforce the importance of resilient power systems
Power systems such as electric substations and distribution and [6]. Therefore, grid resilience has become a significant area of focus and
transmission grids play a vital role in the operation of modern societies. has gained much attention from scientists and power system utilities.
The stability of power systems is a requirement for the proper operation Grid resilience involves a variety of aspects. The technical aspect of the
of other essential sectors like transport, water supply, and communica- power grid system includes designing and building the infrastructure
tion infrastructures [1]. However, extreme weather events can have a and ensuring its proper maintenance. The economic aspect of the power
major impact on power systems and can cause significant disruptions. grid includes the cost and the feasibility study for the implementation of
Power outages around the world are primarily caused by equipment the necessary measures to enhance grid resilience. The social aspect
failure and natural disasters [2]. Over the past 20 years, the economic relates to the effect of power outages on societies and individuals.
losses due to extreme weather events have been approximately US $2.97 Finally, the policy aspect addresses the rules and regulations that govern
trillion globally [3]. In the next years, extreme weather events are pre- the grid and its management [7].
dicted to be more frequent and intense due to climate change [4]. The recent advanced technologies of smart grids have contributed to
Moreover, the aging process also challenges power systems by enhancing grid resilience. Microgrids are a crucial part of smart grids.
* Corresponding author. Faculty of Chemical and Energy Engineering, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, Johor Bahru, 81310, Johor, Malaysia.
** Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: [email protected] (T.E.K. Zidane), [email protected] (W.S. Ho).
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2024.114953
Received 14 April 2023; Received in revised form 20 August 2024; Accepted 20 September 2024
Available online 2 October 2024
1364-0321/© 2024 Elsevier Ltd. All rights are reserved, including those for text and data mining, AI training, and similar technologies.
T.E.K. Zidane et al. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 207 (2025) 114953
They are small-sized power systems that can be linked to a low or weather events have caused significant loss of power supply and major
medium-voltage power system and are able to integrate distributed damage to power grids, leading to economic losses and, more signifi-
energy resources and storage devices. Microgrids can operate in grid- cantly, extended periods of outage [11]. Several notable blackouts have
connected or isolated modes. Having all these features, microgrids occurred due to extreme weather events in different locations across the
have demonstrated the ability to enhance power system resilience [8]. globe. This includes an ice storm in China in 2008, with the direct cost of
Microgrids have gained a lot of attention from the power system com- the event estimated at over $2.2 billion. Hurricane Sandy in 2012 led to
munity due to their significant contribution to enhancing grid resilience. more than 8 million customers losing power in the United States, and the
Strategies for improving grid resilience can be divided into two main Japan Earthquake in 2011 caused the loss of power supply of 8.5 million
categories: Hardening strategies and operational strategies. The first customers. A blackout affecting more than 2 million households
category involves the management of vegetation, undergrounding spe- occurred as a result of Hurricane Harvey in 2017. In 2006, a severe
cific lines, implementation of advanced components, elevation of sub- storm in Australia resulted in a loss of power supply to 1.7 million
stations and physical barriers, substation relocation, and line diversion. customers. In 2015, a windstorm in Canada led to a loss of power supply
The second category comprises islanding schemes, emergency mobile to over 710,000 households. The European windstorm known as
power sources, management of spare parts, management of repair crew, Cyclone Dagmar resulted in a loss of power supply of 570,000 people,
advanced monitoring infrastructure, and design criteria improvement the European windstorm known as Cyclone Dagmar resulted in a loss of
[9]. However, a well-considered decision about which improvement power supply of 570,000 people, and in 2016, a tornado in China’s
strategy to implement is necessary to prioritize specific characteristics of Jiangsu Province resulted in a loss of power supply of 135,000 cus-
the power grid and ensure the balance between different types of stra- tomers [12]. Extreme weather events can have negative consequences
tegies [10]. on the power grid, and it is anticipated that weather-related events will
Fig. 1 illustrates the paper structure as follows. Section 2 extensively become more frequent and severe, primarily due to global warming and
reviews the recent literature on power system resilience and presents the climate change.
contribution of the paper. An overview of microgrids is provided in
Section 3, including the different layers, architecture, and networked
2.2. Related work and contribution
microgrids. Section 4 explains the resilience of power systems and the
different stages for responding to high-impact events. Section 5 presents
The study presented in Ref. [13] examined the ways in which
hardening and operational strategies for enhancing grid resilience, and
weather and climate change can impact the reliability and operation of
in Section 6, a more detailed analysis of the microgrid strategies used to
power system components. Given that it is difficult to forecast the
enhance grid resilience is provided. Section 7 discusses resilience
impact of weather due to its unpredictable nature, the paper included a
modelling and evaluation, and Section 8 includes a summary of the
review of available methods to understand the primary techniques,
conclusion and future directions.
challenges, and requirements for evaluating the impact of severe
weather on the frequency and duration of power outages. The paper
2. Background
examined the emerging idea of resilience in relation to power systems as
essential infrastructure and covered various methods for enhancing the
2.1. Impacts of extreme natural events on power system resilience
power systems ability to withstand severe weather events. It presented a
detailed research framework for modeling the effect of severe weather
The occurrence of extreme weather events such as hurricanes,
on power systems and for finding ways to prevent or mitigate these
earthquakes, and floods has been rapidly increasing recently. Extreme
impacts in the future. However, microgrid strategies for improving the
Fig. 1. The overarching structure of the article.
2
power grid resilience have not been discussed in the paper. The research weather events on power systems. The paper then introduced a frame-
in Ref. [14] aimed to define resilience for the power grid and review work for understanding the various aspects of grid resilience. In addi-
relevant concepts related to the system’s resilience. It added tion, the authors discussed various methods and indices used to assess
cyber-physical resilience to the terminology of power systems. It offered grid resilience and concluded by exploring different strategies for
a new perspective on handling unpredicted extreme events and risks enhancing grid resilience. However, the global resilience-based resto-
during grid operation and how to utilize distributed energy resources ration strategy and microgrids for local resilience-based self-healing
effectively. It can also assist the power system community in developing strategy were not discussed.
resilience standards and metrics appropriately. The paper lacks a dis- The review in Ref. [20] proposed a conceptual framework for iden-
cussion of the different strategies to improve the power system tifying and defining the key variables, factors, and concepts related to
resilience. resilience metrics in power systems and understanding the relationships
The study in Ref. [11] presented a thorough examination of resil- between them. The suggested framework is compared to the previously
ience in power systems from a fundamental perspective, including an established ones, and current power system resilience metrics are placed
analysis of its practical implications. It identified and categorized within its categories. The authors demonstrated the value and practi-
various low-probability events that have a high-impact and explored the cality of the proposed framework as a tool for researchers in academia
connections between resilience and other well-known concepts, and industry to select the most suitable resilience metrics for various
including security and reliability. A discussion of strategies for power system challenges and identify any potential future needs for
enhancing power system resilience was provided, and detailed models metrics. The different strategies used to enhance the power system
and categories were included to understand the various aspects of resilience were not discussed. The research in Ref. [21] provided a
resilience effectively. However, the discussed strategies to improve the comprehensive review and comparison of qualitative frameworks and
power system resilience were limited to planning and operating mea- quantitative metrics for examining resilience. The authors outlined the
sures without focusing on microgrids aspect. The research in Ref. [15] appropriate features of a resilience metric and examined the difficulties
investigated the contribution of microgrids to enhancing the resilience of formulating, developing, and calculating such a metric in practical
of power systems. The study discussed and evaluated the frameworks situations. Additionally, they presented future research directions in
and metrics used to assess and improve the resilience of power systems. developing a comprehensive framework to quantify resilience, with an
However, the microgrid solutions to improve the power system resil- emphasis on challenges associated with cyber/physical risks and big
ience were briefly discussed and limited to a few strategies. The study in data concerns. However, the paper did not focus on the power grid
Ref. [16] introduced the most commonly studied problems and corre- resilience enhancement strategies [9]. Suggested three types of mea-
sponding solutions based on their implementation phase. In the sures that can be taken to improve the resilience of a power system:
pre-event phase, innovative planning strategies that considered poten- “resilience-based planning,” “resilience-based response,” and “resil-
tial disaster situations were examined. After the event has occurred, the ience-based restoration.” These categories refer to the timing of the
system can change how it is structured and redistribute resources to measures, with planning measures taken before an event, response
minimize the need for load shedding. The properties and features of measures taken during an event, and restoration measures taken after an
various disasters are studied to improve resilience. This review sum- event. This study provided the commonly used approaches, methods,
marizes the approaches used to increase resilience in power systems and and techniques for improving power system resilience, as well as future
provides insight for future research and implementation. However, only trends in this area. It also discussed the challenges of maintaining power
an overview of the operational and planning strategies to improve power system resilience in systems with high levels of renewable energy. The
grid resilience was provided. The review presented in Ref. [17] exam- paper lacks the aspect of resilience modeling such as the objective
ined the ways in which recent efforts addressed the challenges related to functions, constraints, and optimization techniques as well as the resil-
severe events and their effect on the resilience of power systems and ience evaluation. The research in Ref. [12] presented a comprehensive
explored the use of smart grid technologies to improve power system review and evaluation of the recent methods and metrics used to assess
restoration processes and increase resilience. Moreover, it provided an the resilience of power systems. The authors focused on discussing po-
overview of the state of research on the resilience of smart grids to tential future developments and offering recommendations that can
cyber-physical-human threats. The paper lacks a discussion of the contribute to establishing universally standardized definitions,
different techniques used to enhance power system resilience. including metrics, assessing techniques, and improvement strategies.
The research in Ref. [18] discussed the general context for under- They included a detailed examination of the concept of power system
standing resilience in power systems. It included information about how resilience as understood by various organizations and researchers, as
disasters are modeled, the techniques used to analyze resilience, and the well as the strategies implemented to improve resilience. However, the
efforts made by various regions to improve resilience in power systems. hardening and planning strategies were briefly discussed and the
The potential of microgrids as a solution for increasing resilience was microgrid strategies to improve the power system resilience were
examined, and the techniques by which microgrids can improve their neglected. The research in Ref. [10] provided a detailed review of power
resilience during major power outages were studied. The resilience system resilience, considering several viewpoints. It discussed and
modeling including the objective functions, constraints, and optimiza- analyzed existing power system safety concepts in the context of power
tion techniques as well as the resilience evaluation were not discussed. system outages. This is followed by an examination of the different
The concept of resilience in power systems is thoroughly examined and definitions and challenging aspects of resilience in the power system
analyzed in Ref. [19] through an in-depth study that included a detailed sector. An investigation of the various frameworks, metrics, and resil-
discussion of the characteristics, frameworks, and metrics used to assess ience curves, which have been suggested for power system resilience,
resilience in these systems. The study covered the topic of resilience in along with hardening strategies. A case study is presented to demon-
detail. In addition, a comprehensive review of the literature is conducted strate how the resilience of a 69-bus power grid is evaluated in the event
to explore how microgrids contribute to enhancing the resilience of of a hurricane. The paper lacks investigation into the different strategies
power systems. However, the hardening and planning strategies as well to improve the resilience of the power system. The goal of the research
as the modeling and evaluation of resilience were not investigated. The proposed in Ref. [22] was to examine distribution system resilience in
review in Ref. [7] provided a comprehensive overview of research on detail, including how resilience can be classified and assessed, metrics
grid resilience from the perspective of power system engineering in the for measuring resilience, strategies to improve resilience, and any
context of severe weather conditions. The paper examined the various challenges that may be present. These authors introduced a framework
terms and concepts used in the study of grid resilience, including defi- for assessing the resilience of distribution power systems in
nitions, the relationship with grid reliability, and the impact of extreme multi-dimensional and multi-temporal frames. They outlined a research
3
agenda to advance the field of resilience in this context and identify the recent literature on the analytical, technical, and mathematical
research challenges in the field of cyber-physical resilience. However, considerations from the point of view of power systems coping with
the resilience modeling and evaluation were not discussed. unexpected events. The authors discussed the concept of energy resil-
The research in Ref. [23] presented a discussion of the potential ience, its characters, states, formulation and indicators, modeling fea-
opportunities and challenges of utilizing networked microgrids to tures and techniques, and solving approaches in depth. The paper did
enhance the resilience, robustness, and efficiency of the power grid. This not examine the strategies used by microgrids to improve power system
study provided an overview of the most advanced techniques for oper- resilience as well as the resilience modeling and evaluation were not
ating and controlling networked microgrids. The discussion included a discussed. The research in Ref. [31] presented a comprehensive review
focus on dynamic limits in modern microgrid technology. However, the of the literature to distinguish between reliability and resiliency and
research focused primarily on the networked microgrids methodologies introduced the resulting concepts. The review included major power
for operation and control to enhance the power system resilience. The outages, hardening methods, weather events, classifications, and
research in Ref. [24] examined the various metrics employed to evaluate corrective measures. A case study was also carried out to assess the
the resilience of power systems and considered the benefits and draw- reliability and resilience of the active distribution system as perfor-
backs of these measures. According to the authors, this study may pro- mance indicators with and without the use of photovoltaic systems. The
vide a basis for the power resilience community to establish a standard research emphasized the significance of distributed power generators,
metric for assessing the resilience of power grids. They recommended such as photovoltaic systems, in terms of resilience, including various
following some steps for future research to establish a reliable metric for faults. However, the resilience modelling and implementation at the
measuring resilience in the power grid, according to several studies on local and global levels were not discussed. The review in Ref. [32]
the topic. The paper did not examine the various strategies to enhance presented a detailed examination of grid resilience and reliability,
the power system resilience. The research in Ref. [25] reviewed power including the metrics used to quantify them and the techniques used to
system resilience metrics and assessed them using different categories. improve them. The focus of the research was on evaluating the resilience
The Axiomatic Design Process, which includes the use of the axiomatic and reliability of the US power network infrastructure, and it presented a
design theory and a design structure matrix, is employed in the review map that shows the differences in these indices among the states. This
process to transform the functional requirements of a resilient power work introduced two new terms, resilience risk factor, and grid infra-
system into design parameters that can be measured. The paper pro- structure density, which will be important in assessing grid resilience.
vided a statistical examination of the studied metrics and requirements The paper lacks an examination of the strategies used by microgrids to
that are commonly used for quantifying resilience. The paper did not improve power system resilience. The review in Ref. [33] covered the
discuss the strategies used by microgrids to improve power system concept of energy system resilience and used a proposed framework to
resilience. The study presented in Ref. [26] aimed to provide a summary assess a wide range of threats. Two main threats were discussed in more
of the current state of research on climate resilience in energy systems detail: severe weather, which is the main cause of power outages, and
and to suggest ways to incorporate climate resilience into the design and cyber-attacks, which are currently a minor but quickly growing concern.
assessment of energy systems in cities. The transition of urban energy The framework presented a comprehensive approach to understanding
systems was covered, along with the effect of climate change on various energy system threats by highlighting the connections between the en-
proprieties for both power systems and energy systems and the energy ergy system and its surroundings. The different strategies used to
situation in urban areas. The research provided a review of the meaning enhance the power system resilience were not discussed and the resil-
of resilience and its relevance to energy studies. It assessed the most ience evaluation at the local and global levels were not discussed.
significant computational challenges in predicting the behavior of The research in Ref. [34] aimed to present a comprehensive over-
power systems under future climate scenarios. However, the mathe- view of the literature on methods for enhancing the resilience of dis-
matical formulation, constraints, algorithms, and their implementation tribution systems through microgrids, covering two main categories:
at the local and global levels were not discussed. The research in optimal microgrid formation and optimal microgrid scheduling and
Ref. [27] carried out a comprehensive assessment of the power system’s energy management. The authors also included a comprehensive over-
resilience against different types of catastrophic events and defined the view of power system resilience and evaluation techniques. The resil-
major distinctions between the concept of resiliency and other concepts, ience modeling including the objective functions, constraints, and
such as reliability and vulnerability. Moreover, it reviewed several optimization techniques as well as the resilience evaluation were not
resiliency indices and various strategies to enhance power system discussed. The study in Ref. [35] discussed the use of microgrids for
resilience against severe weather events. The paper did not examine the resilience enhancement, including both strategies for planning and
strategies used by microgrids to improve power system resilience as well operational microgrids and measures to be taken in case of emergencies.
as the resilience modeling and evaluation were not discussed. The study The authors classified the literature based on the type of system being
in Ref. [28] presented an overview of the main features of synchro- targeted for resilience enhancement, including transmission, distribu-
phasor technology as a method for improving distribution system tion, and individual microgrids. Planning and operating strategies to
resilience and provided a basis for further study in this field. An exten- improve the power resilience and the mathematical formulation, con-
sive evaluation of synchrophasor-based resilience features is conducted, straints, and algorithms were not considered. The research in Ref. [36]
taking into account their efficiency, accuracy, and advantages and dis- examined the ways in which the resilience of the power system can be
advantages. Moreover, the potential for utilizing synchrophasor tech- assessed and enhanced. The research discussed short and long-term
nology in the distribution power system for resilience evaluation is strategies for improving the advanced power system’s resilience,
examined with a view toward future developments. The paper focused including a detailed analysis of the challenges. Additionally, the effec-
only on the synchrophasor-based resilience approach and its applica- tiveness of different metrics for measuring both long-term and
tions. The research presented in Ref. [29] aimed to provide a compre- short-term resilience was evaluated. The authors indicated that micro-
hensive examination of power system resilience, taking into account grids have the ability to enhance the resilience of the power system by
several studies. The authors introduced a new definition that is devel- placing energy generation closer to areas where they are needed and
oped from a comparison of definitions in the available literature. In reducing reliance on transmission lines, which are prone to damage
addition, a new classification is also suggested, which will be utilized to during natural disasters. However, the different planning and opera-
validate the definition and can help in directing more studies on modern tional strategies to enhance power system resilience were not discussed.
microgrid resilience and its metrics. However, The paper did not provide Taken together with the studies discussed earlier, this article makes
a discussion on the different techniques used to improve power system essential improvements in the contributions and novelties of the previ-
resilience. The study in Ref. [30] presented a comprehensive review of ous works, the main contributions of this paper can be summarized as
4
follows: The smart grid, as described in Ref. [42], is a type of electrical system
that employs two-way flows of power and information, ensures
• An extensive review of the recent literature on power system resil- cyber-secure communication technology, and provides computational
ience is presented. intelligence from production to consumption to create an advanced
• The classification of microgrid strategies to enhance system resil- energy system. A microgrid is composed of five layers, including
ience is based on 1) the resilience of the power grid via microgrids component, communication, information, function, and business layers
and 2) the resilience of a microgrid itself via islanding modes, along [41]. Microgrids are segmented based on layers to facilitate analysis,
with various hardening and operational strategies. research, and comparison. The layers structure can be used as a model to
• A detailed comparison between microgrids for global resilience- organize and assess the information, as well as to categorize the different
based restoration strategy and microgrids for local resilience-based study topics. Furthermore, this classification can provide a solid foun-
self-healing strategy is provided. dation for future research projects or models. A layer is associated with a
• The presentation of the mathematical formulation, constraints, al- subject that can be researched concerning a microgrid, such as the
gorithms, and their implementation at the local and global levels is business aspect, among others. The component layer contains the power
discussed. grid physical components in the microgrid, including distributed gen-
• Different metrics formulations to evaluate the power system’s resil- erators, storage devices, loads, and power electronic systems. The
ience are presented. communication layer is responsible for sending all the data and infor-
• The challenges and possible solutions to improve the power system mation about the state of the component layer to the information layer
resiliency are provided. to carry out its tasks effectively. The intelligence layer combines infor-
mation and function layers, which includes the use and exchange of
3. Microgrids information between the components layer and the system. The business
layer manages the business view, which includes economic structure
The concept of microgrid was initially presented in the technical and policies, business models, and regulatory framework [43]. The
literature by Lasseter in Refs. [37,38] as a solution to integrate distrib- microgrid layers model is shown in Fig. 3.
uted energy resources, including Energy Storage Systems (ESSs) and The subsequent sections that follow provide explanations of each
controlled loads reliably. There are various definitions of microgrids in layer’s purpose. The functions of the component layer are described in
the scientific literature [39], among which is given by the US Depart- Section 3.1, the communication layer is discussed in Section 3.2, the
ment of Energy [40], where a microgrid is: “A group of interconnected information layer and the function layer are discussed in Section 3.3,
loads and Distributed Energy Resources (DERs) within clearly defined elec- and the business layer is discussed in Section 3.4.
trical boundaries that acts as a single controllable entity concerning the grid.
A microgrid can connect and disconnect from the larger utility grid to operate 3.1. Component layer
in either grid-connected or island mode.” Contrary to conventional
centralized grids, microgrids are primarily developed to handle and The physical components of microgrids, such as loads, distributed
integrate distributed energy resources, allowing them to serve their generators, energy storage systems, and power electronics equipment,
loads locally without the need for costly transmission infrastructure. are included in this layer. The technologies that have been created for
Fig. 2 illustrates the general model of microgrids. A microgrid must meet microgrids are covered in this section. The following are the main
the following requirements: (i) distinct from the main grid, (ii) control of microgrid elements.
energy resources locally rather than remotely, and (iii) operate in both
modes grid-connected or islanded [41].
Fig. 2. A general structure of a microgrid.
5
3.1.2. Loads
Under normal and emergency states, critical loads must be main-
tained and cannot be shed for any reason. Critical loads are a very
sensible and high priority; some of these loads include nursing facilities,
hospitals, data stations, and police centers. Therefore, these types of
loads always have to be supplied. Taking into account market prices and
necessary management measures, microgrid operators can decrease
electricity usage. Non-critical loads can be time-shifted or temporarily
shed to minimize load peaks. To maintain the stability of the electrical
system, these loads should be capable of disconnecting in emergencies
[47,49].
3.1.3. Energy storage devices

ESSs are crucial in modern electrical networks since they support the
development of power systems and facilitate the transition to a zero-
carbon grid with an increased integration of clean energy. In micro-
grids, renewable energy sources are intermittent, and flexible auxiliary
services are required to reduce the variability in power output and solve
mismatch problems. ESSs could have the ability to satisfy these re-
Fig. 3. Microgrid layers model [41,43]. quirements. The study in Ref. [50] investigated the integration of bat-
tery energy storage systems and renewable sources in the power system
3.1.1. Distributed generators with a focus on resilience metrics considering the battery capacity and
The Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers Inc. (IEEE) de- system cost ESSs enhance the resilience, reliability, and energy quality
fines the distributed generator as: ‘‘The generation of electricity by fa- of the grid and provide frequency regulation, peak demand reduction,
cilities sufficiently smaller than central generating plants as to allow energy arbitrage services, voltage control support, and backup power.
interconnection at nearly any point in a power system. A subset of The work presented in Ref. [51], examined the utilization of ESSs for
distributed resources [44]’’ According to the International Council on voltage regulation in power systems with a focus on the active power
Large Electric Systems, the production capacity of distributed generators control using a model adaptive control technique.
ranges from a few kW up to 50 MW [45]. Distribution generators have Microgrids may use renewable energy sources extensively to
several positive impacts on distribution power system planning and generate electricity since they are eco-friendly. Renewable energy
operation. The distributed generation changes the classic grid structure sources are intermittent, and often, their power output does not match
in a significant way and confronts the system with many new challenges the load demand. In this case, ESSs must have the ability to respond to
related to voltage and frequency stability and control engineering. sudden changes in power always to maintain power balance [52–54].
Recent power systems use decentralized generation instead of central- When there is a power imbalance, the ESS must respond fast by either
ized generation. Distribution generators in microgrids could be dis- absorbing excess renewable energy or providing the necessary power for
patchable, such as conventional generators and microturbines, or the load. ESSs can be classified based on the technology, including
non-dispatchable units in the main consisting of renewable energy re- mechanical technologies (flywheels, compressed air, and
sources installed close to the load, including photovoltaic systems and pumped-hydro) [55–57], Electrical and electromagnetic technologies
wind turbines. The main difference between dispatchable and (Supercapacitors and superconducting magnets) [58,59], chemical
non-dispatchable units in microgrids is the control of resources by the technologies (hydrogen) [60] and electrochemical technologies (batte-
operator. In the case of dispatchable units, the control of the resource by ries) [61]. Batteries based on electrochemical technology seem to be
the microgrid is possible in a centralized way to satisfy the load demand. more adapted to address the storage requirements of microgrids. Bat-
Microgrid controller dispatches all units subject to different technical teries are efficient and commercially available, with a suitable level of
constraints, depends on the type and size of the unit, emission limits, cost-effectiveness and different energy densities [62]. However, the
fuel and ramping limits, and minimum on/off time limits [46]. The adoption of batteries may be impacted by three different categories of
control of non-dispatchable units by the operator is not possible since barriers: market, regulatory, and data and analysis capabilities [63].
the input source of the distributed generator is uncontrollable. Renew- The work in Ref. [64] combined hybrid energy storage into micro-
able resources are the major source of non-dispatchable units, which grids and employed flywheel storage to enable the system to use two
provide variable, volatile, and intermittent output power. The genera- techniques. The research conducted in Ref. [65] employed hydrogen for
tion is intermittent, meaning it is not always available, and volatile, generation and storage, assuming that the electricity provided by
meaning it fluctuates across various timescales. These qualities have a renewable energy sources would exceed the load demand. To ensure the
detrimental influence on the generation of non-dispatchable units and effective functioning of microgrids in rural regions, and the work in
increase prediction inaccuracy. As a result, these units are frequently Ref. [66] presented a unique design for storing extra energy utilizing a
strengthened with energy storage devices. Energy storage devices are hydro pump. The study in Ref. [67] employed ultracapacitor storage to
mostly used in conjunction with generation resources to ensure the reduce overall expenses and managed energy storage using the char-
microgrid’s adequate generation [47]. Distributed generation includes ging/discharging technique. The study in Ref. [68] proposed using
both conventional and renewable generators which can offer many ad- lead-acid batteries in an off-grid microgrid by considering two con-
vantages. Technical benefits include the improvement of voltage profile, flicting objectives including the overall costs and greenhouse gas
decrease in grid losses, improvement in power grid resilience and reli- emissions.
ability, and improving electricity generation autonomy in rural or iso-
lated regions. Economic benefits include the deferment of investment 3.2. Communication layer
costs for the upgrade of the power grid such as lines. Environmental
benefits are limited to distributed generation uses of renewable energy The communication layer serves as the brain of the system by
sources including the reduction of CO2 emissions and reducing global creating links between all of the system and the different equipment. The
warming [48]. communication layer is responsible for sending the information layer all
the data and information about the state of the component layer to carry
6
out its tasks [43] effectively. The communication layer contributes to and decentralized control. Fig. 4 illustrates the control structures of
the enhancement of the system’s energy management and stability [69]. microgrids where the distributed controls are referring to local control
By allowing connections between all systems and devices, it serves as the for distributed sources.
brain of the whole system. Telecommunication technology is used at the
communication layer. Three main forms of area networks are covered in 3.3.1. Centralized control
the literature discussing the communication protocols used in micro- A centralized control strategy consists of collecting and transmitting
grids [43,70], including the Wide-Area Network (WAN) transmission all the data and information to the microgrid components. The received
category facilitating the flow of information between the power grid and information can be used in the control and management processes by the
the different substations. WAN has to include all the substations, controller to perform the optimal and efficient operation. Effective
distributed energy generators, ESSs, and distribution facilities, such as processing of all the data and information collected from the microgrid
power transformers, to be sufficiently scaled and totally effective. WAN components calls for using a central controller with sufficient capacity to
offers a two-way information and data flow to communicate, automate, avoid any failure. A centralized control strategy can ensure an optimal
and monitor smart grid applications. The second transmission category solution to different operational optimization issues. It has advantages,
is Field Area Network (FAN), and it can be characterized as the including the excellent ability to observe and control the entire system,
communication system for the regions where electricity is distributed, and its installation is simple. However, single-point failures mean that
with equipment for distribution automation and control interacting all operations would be lost if the centralized controller fails to operate.
across networks between particular service connections and backhaul Other disadvantages are reduced robustness [37,39,76–78], lower
points to the energy providers. Between consumer sites and substations, flexibility and expandability in the case of adding new components, and
FAN operates as a bridge. A FAN is a widely available, high-speed the necessitating of a significant capacity for computation [47]. There-
wireless resource that satisfies the reliability and resilience standards fore, it is more suitable and recommended to use centralized control for
set by utilities. Rural and urban regions are included within the coverage localized and small-capacity microgrids due to the limitation of the
area. The development of advanced metering equipment greatly sup- collected data and information. In this condition, centralized optimiza-
ports a FAN, and it is quickly extending the scope of its application areas, tion may be achieved with minimum communication and computing
such as enhanced distribution automation. The third transmission costs [79–82].
category is Home Area Network (HAN) and the smart meters will be able
to connect to the HAN, giving consumers the ability to control smart 3.3.2. Decentralized control
home devices, analyze power usage costs, and change their consumption The centralized control strategy is not suitable for protecting the
behavior. Customers are informed about their consumption behavior via privacy and security of each microgrid and improving the calculation
in-home devices or a web interface [41,70]. speed of massive data. Moreover, the centralized control strategy is
subject to some performance limitations, such as the scalability and
3.3. Intelligence layer limited flexibility to manage microgrids. Therefore, microgrids can
share specific information to achieve the decentralized control approach
The intelligence layer is formed by the combination of the infor- [83]. A decentralized strategy does not need a central controller, and
mation and function layers, and it encompasses all control and decision- according to Ref. [75], it executes regulation using local data [84], and it
making processes. It is used to monitor and control all the equipment is used to control the relevant unit using only local data. The term
and elements in the component layer. References [71–74] give “decentralized control” in the context of microgrids relates to control
comprehensive analyses of the literature on microgrid control strategies strategies that do not rely on data from other components of the system.
with an emphasis on their technical characteristics. Generally, there are Decentralized approaches consider each microgrid as an agent with its
three strategies being utilized to manage and control microgrids effec- capacity for decision-making. In this strategy, each local controller aims
tively and distributed energy resources: 1) centralized, 2) decentralized, to achieve its objectives within its boundaries by sharing information
and 3) distributed. Under the centralized control approach, a single continuously [47,85]. Despite the fact that the absence of coordination
central controller unit within the microgrid gathers all relevant infor- between local regulators prevents the achievement of globally coordi-
mation and data to perform the required calculations and determine the nated behaviors, decentralized methods offer the benefit of not needing
control actions. For this technique to be effective, it is crucial for the real-time communication. A common application of decentralized con-
microgrid central controller unit and other system components to have trol techniques is droop control. Without communication, it is able to
effective communication with each other [75]. In contrast, decentral- share power across distributed generators, but the precision is limited by
ized control utilizes local controllers to operate each unit. Meanwhile, the system architecture along with control and electrical characteristics.
the distributed control approach combines elements of both centralized The relatively less computation complexity of decentralized control is an
Fig. 4. Control structure of a microgrid [72].
7
advantage. Additionally, the decentralized method offers plug-and-play characteristics. The suggested classification includes 1) AC, 2) DC, and
operation, allowing for the simple integration of additional distributed 3) Hybrid AC/DC microgrids. Additionally, microgrids can have other
energy resources into the microgrid without having to change the classifications based on the field of application, including utility, insti-
structure of the control scheme [86]. Multi-agent systems are another tutional, commercial and industrial, transportation, and remote-area
application of decentralized control in microgrids, in which agents act microgrids [71].
together to control the system cooperatively.
3.5.1. AC microgrids
3.3.3. Distributed control AC microgrids connected AC and DC loads, distributed energy re-
In the microgrid, distributed control is implemented to overcome a sources, and ESSs using a common AC bus. AC microgrids are flexible
few weaknesses in centralized and decentralized strategies. The control and reliable, and they are the most used type due to their easy and direct
center is not necessary because the control effort is distributed along connection to the existing AC power grid at a point where they are
with the microgrids, with autonomous ‘‘agents’’ operating in a cooper- commonly coupled under normal operating conditions. AC microgrids
ative way to obtain global objectives [72]. In the distributed control can be integrated into both medium and low-voltage distribution grids,
strategy, microgrids agents established communication links between which could reduce power losses of transmission lines and improve
the network and other microgrids. Several tasks can be executed by the power flow in distribution grids. Hence, integrating AC microgrids faces
distributed control of each microgrid, including the decision that should new challenges, including distributed energy resources synchronization,
be taken for the power flow to the final customer, taking into account the system stability, reactive power shortage, and power quality. These
energy generation of the same microgrid, available energy from the challenges could be resolved using advanced control strategies [93].
interconnected microgrids, and energy taken from the network. The Hence, the synchronization of DC microgrids with the main power
main aim of a completely distributed control structure in the system is to networks is easy compared to AC microgrids [94]. Furthermore, DC/AC
coordinate between distributed units to achieve the control or optimi- converters are used to connect DC-distributed resources and ESSs to the
zation goals, which relies on the adoption of efficient data sharing and AC bus, which reduces the system efficiency [86].
communication [75]. A detailed comparison between distributed,
centralized, and decentralized control strategies is discussed in 3.5.2. DC microgrids
Ref. [87]. The centralized control center is expensive compared to DC microgrids are becoming more popular due to the high pene-
decentralized control. Centralized control has low reliability and sta- tration of DC loads (e.g., LED lamps, electric vehicles, and appliances)
bility. The decentralized control strategy cannot be stable and reliable as and distributed energy resources (e.g., PV systems energy storage de-
a result of the absence of communication lines and data exchange. A vices). The conventional main network and DC microgrid are connected
distributed control strategy improves the microgrid scalability and en- through the point of common coupling. Only an AC/DC converter is
hances the system’s robustness [77,88]. A distributed control strategy is required to connect the DC microgrid to the main network. DC microgrid
suggested in Ref. [89] and aims to decrease the peak demand, power connection and disconnection from the main network are similar to AC
losses, and dependency on the network for domestic consumers. microgrids. DC microgrid operations are not complicated and offer a
significant reduction in power losses. DC microgrids are more stable due
3.4. Business layer to the absence of reactive power circulation and frequency and har-
monic distortions issues, as well as a limited number of energy conver-
The business layer determines the business view concerning the data sion steps [95,96]. The only requirement to synchronize DC microgrids
sharing within the smart grid. This view mostly includes economic with the AC main network is voltage magnitude, whereas the synchro-
structures and policies, rules, mechanisms, energy market regulators, nization of AC microgrids requires matching frequency, phase angle,
algorithms to trade electricity, portfolios, and capabilities. Additionally, and voltage magnitude for both networks [97,98]. However, DC
it includes business procedures for modeling specified business projects microgrids require relatively high capital costs.
and business models to identify and maybe create new models and
projects, such as single corporate objectives like decreasing energy 3.5.3. Hybrid AC/DC microgrids
usage [90]. For instance, different business models can be developed in a The AC and DC microgrids are merged in the same system to form the
business layer to support the peer-to-peer (P2P) concept for electricity AC/DC hybrid microgrid, enabling the direct connection of AC and DC
trading. The business layer is characterized by its close connections to distributed generation resources, energy storage devices, and loads [99].
the policies that control electricity markets [91]. The business layer also This configuration offers the advantage of both AC and DC microgrids,
addresses the type of business model that may be used in the future to such as reduction of power losses due to the use of limited power con-
deal with a more decentralized structure of energy systems [43]. verters, improved reliability, cost reduction, and better integration of
Microgrids can enable both external and internal business model different distributed energy resources [99].
abilities. External business models involve electricity export with grid
utilities and ancillary services such as frequency and voltage control. 3.6. Networked microgrids
The internal business model includes demand response (DR), local en-
ergy market (LEM) and outage resilience [92]. DR is the variations in From the viewpoint of the power network, the islanded microgrids
energy usage by end-use consumers from their normal consumption that are geographically close to each other have the ability to inter-
patterns in response to energy price fluctuations. LEM is the amount of connect and form a single entity as aggregated islands. Networked
energy exchanged between the microgrid members, and it can be microgrids is the term used to describe the microgrid’s interconnection.
implemented with a range of tariffs and contract structures. Finally, Sharing reserves in emergency cases is the first and most important
outage resilience which employs local power generators and energy advantage of networked microgrids to improve the system’s stability,
storage devices to offer redundancy and back-up in the event of a power reliability, and resiliency. The economic dispatch is the second advan-
outage due to severe weather conditions is to be detailed in section 6.2.1 tage of networked microgrids. For instance, a microgrid with surplus
as it aligns with the scope of this research. power output may support a nearby microgrid with insufficient power
generation, which would be beneficial economically for both micro-
3.5. Microgrids architecture grids. The third advantage of networked microgrids is the share of
storage and ancillary services. For instance, large ESSs in a microgrid
Microgrids can be mainly divided into three categories based on may deliver power to several networked microgrids having critical loads
system configuration, type of the common bus, and voltage faster than the thermal production stations of individual microgrids.
8
Enhancing the system’s resilience is the fourth advantage. Microgrids the event into four stages: prevention, degradation, restoration, and
that are well-planned and strategically networked may reduce the ef- adaptation. Before an extreme weather event, the power grid is oper-
fects of severe weather conditions [100]. Generally, the distributed ating normally QN. When the event occurs at time tE, the grid’s func-
system operator manages the networked microgrids to ensure the tionality begins to deteriorate until it reaches its worst condition Q(tD) at
interconnection supervision and optimal power flow exchange through time tD. If no restoration efforts are made, the grid will remain in this
the collection and integration of relevant data [97]. degraded state, as shown in Fig. 6. However, if restoration actions are
taken, the grid’s functionality will gradually improve. The restoration
4. Resilience overview in power system process will continue until the power grid returns to its pre-event con-
dition (Q(tD) = QN) at time tR. Ultimately, it is important to continuously
This section discusses an overview of power system resilience during improve the grid’s resilience to be better prepared for future events.
major events, including the definition, assessment, and impact of severe
weather events on power systems. An analysis of the performance of a 4.2.1. Prevention stage
power grid during extreme weather events is examined considering four The power grid is operating normally and is able to provide all of its
stages: prevention, degradation, restoration, and adaptation. intended functions in the prevention phase. This phase involves short-
term preparations to reduce the impact of upcoming major climate
4.1. Resilience definition conditions. Monitoring the grid’s conditions is crucial for enhancing its
resilience during this phase [107]. The prevention phase involves pre-
Although it is clear that power system resilience is closely tied to dicting the potential conditions of the power grid in different scenarios.
high-impact, low-probability events, there is a lack of consensus in the This can be done by using historical data to estimate the possible
power system literature regarding defining resilience. It is challenging to damage, including the number of element failures, the number of
develop a comprehensive and practical definition of resilience in power impacted clients, and the duration of the disruption [108]. This esti-
systems. Many different definitions have been proposed, some of which mation can be used to implement certain strategies to either prevent or
are unclear or conflicting. To the authors’ knowledge, there is not yet a reduce the impact of major climate conditions. For example, suppose
definition of resilience that has been widely accepted by the power there is a forecast for heavy rain in the near future; measures such as
system community. The most commonly used definitions can be found installing flood protection barriers, enclosing grid elements in a water-
in various sources, including [2,11,14,29,97,101–104]. Despite this lack proof structure, or having a mobile emergency generator, storage bat-
of a universally accepted definition, it is clear that resilience is an teries, or transformer to prepare may be implemented to mitigate
important concept in the field of power systems, as it relates to the potential damage [109].
ability of the system to withstand and recover from disruptive events.
Resilience is a comprehensive term that encompasses many aspects. 4.2.2. Degradation stage
A general scope of the term is very well established and defined e.g., by The degradation state refers to the process by which the functionality
the IEEE. Their definition of the word includes more aspects and reads: of the grid changes from normal to damaged due to an extreme weather
“The ability to withstand and reduce the magnitude and/or duration of event. This process starts at time tE, when the severe weather condition
disruptive events, which includes the capability to anticipate, absorb, occurs, and terminates at time tD, when the grid is at its most critical
adapt to, and/or rapidly recover from such an event” [105]. The situation, as illustrated in Fig. 5. The degradation state represents the
research in Ref. [106] proposed two types of resilience: (1) infrastruc- severity of the impact caused by the extreme weather conditions, as well
ture resilience, which refers to the ability of the physical components of as the physical resilience of the grid, which affects the overall loss of
the power system to withstand and recover from disruptions, and (2) functionality. If maintenance efforts are not taken promptly after or
operational resilience, which involves maintaining uninterrupted supply during the catastrophe, the grid will remain in a degraded phase. The
or generation despite major events. impact of the degradation process can be measured through the exam-
ination of the loss of the grid during a disaster. The malfunction status of
4.2. Grid resilience analysis the grid components is determined by physical damage or a cascading
failure. Physical failure of a grid component occurs when the intensity of
Examining how a power grid responds to high-impact events allows the severe weather event exceeds its ability to withstand it. This damage
us to understand the stages of power grid resilience as a function of time. can lead to a cascading failure, as other parts of the grid may be sub-
Fig. 5 shows an example of a power grid’s performance as it progresses jected to additional loads beyond their maximum capacity [110,111].
through different phases following a disturbance. The performance of a
power grid during extreme weather events can be analyzed by dividing
Fig. 6. Grid performance associated with a severe weather event in degraded

Fig. 5. Grid performance during a severe weather event [7]. state [7].
9
4.2.3. Restoration stage and poles, vegetation management has to be considered. Consequently,
The restoration state refers to the process of returning the grid to its an optimal application of vegetation management will lead to enhanced
pre-event condition from its damaged state. This process begins when grid resilience to weather-related power outages [114]. The distance
restoration efforts are initiated at time tD and terminates when the grid from lines to trees has to consider the voltage level of the power grid. In
returns to its pre-event state, as depicted in Fig. 5. The restoration state comparison to transmission lines, distribution lines necessitate less
continues until this condition is achieved and reflects both the duration distance [115]. Strong wind may cause debris, and to overcome this
of the impacts caused by the severe weather event and the dynamic issue, some tools can be involved to enhance grid resilience, such as
nature of the grid. It is possible that the restoration efforts will bring the Geographic Information System (GIS), sonic scanning, and Light Imag-
grid back to full functionality or only partially restore it. For example, a ing, Detection, and Ranging (LIDAR) [116].
malfunction at a substation can cause power outages for customers Research given in Ref. [117] intends to suggest an effective vegeta-
connected to it, and a mobile substation may be unable to fully tion management strategy for overhead line distribution systems uti-
compensate for this loss of power. Therefore, the operational capability lizing a scheduling technique. The Edison Electric Institute provided an
of the grid is determined by two features: restoration time and the in-depth explanation of how vegetation management may be used to
restoration factor. The restoration time is the period of time required for increase grid resilience [118]. The study presented in Ref. [119] intends
restoration efforts, and the restoration factor is the percentage of grid to provide methods for analyzing the effects of enhanced tree trimming
functionality that can be restored through these efforts. These two fac- on the resilience of the distribution grid. Specifically, it uses two tech-
tors are influenced by the resources available for grid restoration, such niques to evaluate how enhanced tree trimming affects the rate of out-
as the quality of the repair crew, replacement parts, emergency gener- ages in the distribution grid. Based on these strategies, analysis reveals a
ators, mobile substations, and mobile battery storage devices. Therefore, considerable decrease in the number of outages after tree trimming.
the goal of enhancing grid resilience during the restoration stage is to
enhance the restoration time and operational agility. 5.1.2. Undergrounding specific lines
Undergrounding power lines for transmission and distribution levels
4.2.4. Adaptation stage is a well-known strategy to enhance power grid resilience by minimizing
The recovery phase is a period of full restoration that lasts until the the exposure of lines and poles to extreme weather incidents [120].
next severe weather event occurs. Examining the adaptation state in Undergrounding lines is an effective strategy if it is optimally selected.
addition to the restoration state distinguishes the study of grid resilience Undergrounding lines are an appropriate strategy against certain natural
from the study of grid reliability, as well as the grid stability analysis disasters like extreme weather events such as hurricanes, typhoons,
from the efficiency of the grid. The grid analysis begins directly after the tornadoes, wildfires [121], and ice storms [122]. The efficacy of un-
grid has been restored to its normal state following a period of damage derground lines against hurricanes has been shown in real projects,
and continues until the next severe weather event is imminent. The mainly in power distribution grids [123]. By contrast, it is not an
adaptation state is a long-term prevention state that involves evaluating appropriate option against earthquakes [124] and floods [125].
recent events, identifying vulnerabilities in the grid, and implementing However, the undergrounding lines strategy is constrained by the
strategies to improve the grid’s resilience. This state should be taken into budget limit and the high cost of undergrounding lines. A deep study has
account when examining the resilience of the grid, as it involves the to be carried out in each power grid to decide if the hardening is
grid’s capacity to handle similar events or even more severe weather appropriate or not [126–129]. Selective undergrounding of the power
events in the future. system lines is more realistic rather than complete undergrounding,
according to many reports [127–133]. A recent study reported in
5. Strategies for enhancing grid resilience Ref. [134] proposes to select existing overhead lines that should be
converted to underground lines to decrease load shedding with the
Strategies to enhance grid resilience can be divided into two main lowest possible investment costs in the case of high wind speeds. A
categories: hardening and operational. The goal of these strategies research study in Ref. [135] proposed a methodology for assessing cable
during major events is to minimize the immediate effects of extreme design and aging, which can serve in the planning of selective
weather and quickly restore normal grid operation. Hardening measures undergrounding.
are implemented to decrease the amount of damage, while operational
procedures are optimized to speed restoration. 5.1.3. Advanced components implementation
The increasing development in equipment technology leads to
5.1. Hardening measures enhancing the resilience of the power grid through the replacement of
old equipment with new technologies available in the market. One way
Grid hardening measures can be considered as the first wall to absorb to upgrade is to use stronger materials for the transmission and distri-
the impact of severe weather events and aim to reduce the frequency of bution poles, use a new pole structure that can resist high wind speed
component failure in power systems. However, the hardening strategy is levels, and add more supports, including guy wires and arm guy [118,
characterized by its high cost of implementation. 136,137]. The condition of the components is a significant factor that
influences the level of weather effect. Compared to newer components,
5.1.1. Management of vegetation older components are predicted to be more vulnerable to severe weather
When managing the vegetation, plans for planting new trees, as well events [13]. In reality, over-aging or degrading transmission and dis-
as existing trees’ pruning and trimming near transmission and distri- tribution components decreases the power grid’s ability to withstand
bution lines, are taken into account [112]. Vegetation is one example of extreme weather events.
a natural phenomenon that might be hazardous to energy transmission The study presented in Ref. [138] investigated two strategies,
and distribution grids [14]. The most frequent fault type in power including vegetation management and physical upgrading of poles, to
transmission and distribution systems is a single line-to-ground fault, enhance the power distribution grid. The most effective scenario was
representing approximately 80 %–90 % of the total faults. The appear- found when combining the two strategies. A probabilistic approach was
ance of this type of fault in power systems is due mainly to the huge trees developed in Ref. [139] by Shafieezadeh and his collaborators to
collapsing during storms or severe winds. In the US, for example, it is analyze the age-dependent fragility and to enhance the physical strength
significant to highlight that about 90 % of all customer outages are of wood power distribution poles in the presence of hurricanes and high
caused by problems with the power distribution system [113]. To avoid wind speeds. In Ref. [136], a damage modeling methodology is sug-
short circuits and damage to power transmission and distribution lines gested to improve the grid resilience against strong wind by using the
10
fragility curves for the estimation of the power distribution pole’s failure 5.2.2. Emergency mobile power sources
probability. To enhance the physical strength of substations and to Investigators take into account technologies that are owned and
reduce the power grid component’s failure probability, operated by utility companies, such as mobile battery energy storage
earthquake-resistant construction can be used [140,141]. A four-stage systems, electric substations, and emergency generators. When com-
procedure presented in Ref. [142] to evaluate the effects of earth- bined, these technologies are known as mobile energy resources or
quakes on the power distribution grid and two methods to improve the mobile power sources. Through the implementation of local microgrids,
seismic resilience of the power system are suggested, namely hardening mobile energy resources can all offer emergency backup power during
substations and adding load transfer paths across substations. extreme weather conditions, and their mobility allows for flexible
resilience responses. The utilization of mobile energy sources for service
5.1.4. Elevating substations and physical barriers restoration and resilience enhancement for various goals has been the
Due to the loss of life and component damage, flooding has the subject of several researches including minimizing outage duration
costliest impact on the power grid in comparison to other natural di- [158], maximizing resilience [159–161], minimizing cost [162–168],
sasters [143–145]. Flooding damages many parts of the power grid, maximize restored load [169–177], minimize critical load loss [178],
especially electrical substations which are one of the most costly and minimize curtailed energy [179], maximize supplied load [180], mini-
important components. Electrical substation outages significantly mize fuel consumption [181] and maximize the value of supplied load
decrease the power grid resilience and lead to high cost of power outages [182].
[146]. Such incidents led to the idea that to lessen the effects of flooding, Mobile battery energy storage devices, unlike traditional emergency
preventative measures must be taken before the flood. Permanent response equipment such as diesel generators, may be employed in both
methods, such as building electrical substations on elevated foundation normal and emergency conditions. In addition, mobile diesel generators
blocks above the flood level and constructing long-term water barriers may have their fuel supply disrupted or limited by a disaster, but mobile
around the substation perimeter, are advised to protect the electrical battery energy storage devices do not depend on fuel. Furthermore,
substation [143,147]. A temporary but feasible way to protect sub- mobile battery energy storage systems may be used to achieve clean
stations is to place inflatable barriers known as “tiger dams” around energy goals since they do not emit greenhouse gases or pollute the
them before floods [148]. environment. Energy providers generally own and operate mobile bat-
tery energy storage systems, which provide benefits over alternative
5.1.5. Substation relocation and lines diversion mobile energy resources. Mobile battery energy storage systems may
Relocating electrical substations and rerouting transmission and also supply energy in emergency conditions, and their mobility enables
distribution lines to areas less prone to extreme weather events is rapid deployment at the most critical locations. Although there are
another physical hardiness strategy to improve power grid resilience, currently only limited commercial applications for mobile battery en-
considering its high cost. Based on historical data, relocation and ergy storage, it is expected that this will change due to the drop in utility-
rerouting are priorities when an electrical substation supplies many scale battery prices [183,184]. Mobile battery energy storage enhances
critical loads in areas affected by extreme weather events, and such power system resilience by reducing the time of power outages as they
strategies are considered preventive actions to enhance the power grid can be quickly dispatched after an event. This will decrease the outage
resilience [149]. This strategy is characterized by its high cost of duration and reduce the critical customer demand that cannot be
implementation, and a detailed economic analysis should be carried out satisfied during the outage. To enable emergency response during
before making the final decision. A research study in Ref. [150] focused extreme weather events, mobile battery energy storage systems may be
on power grid blackouts in coastal areas caused by extreme weather physically sent to selected areas and critical customers, providing
events reveals that the relocation of power grid infrastructures from backup power and black-start services.
coastal regions is the most cost-benefit strategy in comparison to other Mobile battery energy storage can be utilized to form a microgrid,
existing hardening strategies. The power flow can also be rerouted to collaborate with repair personnel to help in the restoration of the power
undamaged power grid lines once the power system detects an outage grid, transport energy from accessible generation sources to the affected
[109], a process that is often carried out remotely. location, leave the outage area to charge, and then return to provide
energy to a microgrid [66]. The mobile battery energy storage system is
5.2. Operational procedures a constrained energy source that, in the absence of an energy source or
local feeder, can only deliver backup power using the charge still in its
The grid operational procedures take into account the dynamic batteries. Customers risk losing energy if the batteries are depleted since
characteristics of the power grid, aim to ensure a stable state, and power outages caused by natural disasters may continue for days or even
maintain power supply to customers even in the presence of faults. It weeks. Therefore, mobile battery energy storage systems that cannot be
works in a timely manner which means a quick recovery of the system. recharged are a temporary measure of what might eventually become a
long-term issue. Furthermore, it is challenging to forecast the battery’s
5.2.1. Islanding schemes level of charge at the start of the outage. The batteries cannot be
Defensive islanding is a smart operational strategy that is used to completely charged if the disaster happens suddenly, or in the worst
prevent or reduce the spread of uncontrollable cascading outages. The scenario, batteries can be depleted, making the mobile battery energy
application of a defensive islanding solution is proposed to enhance storage systems less effective than planned. Studies in Refs. [2,169]
power grid resilience through the creation of stable and sustainable investigated the mobile battery energy storage system strategy to
islands to isolate fragile entities. Severe weather events could result in enhance the power system resilience during weather events occurrence.
more than five cascading faults in a single day, and this is the main cause
of large blackouts [151,152]. The study presented in Ref. [153] sug- 5.2.3. Management of spare parts
gested describing defensive islanding as a graph-cut problem. Before the Spare parts must be available in order to minimize power grid
incident occurs [154], suggests a defensive islanding solution in which a restoration time under extreme weather conditions [185]. During the
severity index is developed to assess the use of defensive islanding to engineering phase of spare parts, several aspects of the power grid must
prevent cascade events. Besides, several studies have examined the use be considered, including the size of the power grid. The elements of the
and benefit of defensive islanding strategies [155–157]. That is to be power grid must be repaired on a priority basis [32]. The study in
detailed in Section 6.2.1. Ref. [186] has shown that insufficient spare parts and restricted access
to the affected region have increased repair time and even increased
damage.
11
5.2.4. Management of repair crew condition monitoring may help enhance system resilience [201,202]. To
The restoration procedure aims to re-connect loads having power monitor the grid operation during severe weather conditions, a damage
outages quickly, at the same time, the power grid damaged elements are evaluation can also be carried out [108,203].
repaired. Consequently, the power grid returned to its initial operating
conditions [35]. Although the restoration procedure can improve the 5.2.6. Design criteria improvement
power grid performance, the power grid often does not return to its Appropriate rules and management during extreme weather condi-
normal operating conditions. The main reason is that significant tions are essential to enhance grid resilience, and such measures will
component damage occurs during natural disasters [11]. Management determine the expected time for restoration and cost [118,204]. Utility
for repair crews in power grids may increase system resilience against owners and other industries have a pre-event arrangement called the
natural disasters. Crew management takes into account several impor- mutual assistance agreement such as the United States and Canada.
tant aspects, including urgent crew actions, declining failure rates, and According to this agreement, the utility owners shall get priority in
particular preventive actions [31]. Managing power outages during assistance from other sectors during severe weather conditions. In the
natural catastrophes requires the immediate dispatch of repair crews. In case that the power grid needs assistance from other sectors, this will
the most effective order, they should replace the damaged parts [159]. reduce the restoration time. Due to the frequent occurrence of extreme
To dispatch the repair crew, detailed modeling of the power grid natural events, the existing engineering and design standards for oper-
maintenance process is required at the planning stage. The power grid is ation and maintenance must be altered and enhanced [205]. A recom-
divided into several sectors or control regions for maintenance, with a mendation on how to strengthen the design in order to deal with more
repair crew assigned to each [187]. The planning and dispatch of repair severe weather conditions in the future must come from an examination
crews in the power grid are covered in Refs. [188,189]. For the problem of the current power grid elements and the severity of the future extreme
of repairing and restoring the power grid [190], proposes a weather conditions occurrences. Therefore, the recommended design of
co-optimization technique. An integer program for planning mainte- the grid’s components may be used if the grid is expanded.
nance tasks is suggested in Ref. [191]. To pre-allocate repair crews The capability of the power grid will be increased through the
[192], proposed a pre-hurricane restoration approach. The restoration adoption of grid resilience improvement methods, although this de-
process and the duration of recovery after natural disasters rely on mands significant investments. A non-resilient power grid may result in
several factors, including the severity and location of the event, the significant financial loss during natural disaster events as a result of grid
mobility and accessibility of repair crews to the affected regions, and the functional failures. Hence, careful consideration of the costs and benefits
availability of spare parts to replace the damaged components [13]. should go into choosing the optimal upgrade options. When long-term
Various perspectives have been taken on this problem in the literature objectives are taken into account, investing in resilience improvement
[193,194]. assume that no maintenance can be completed during measures via an upgrade of design standards is definitely more practical
extreme weather conditions since it is considered to be too dangerous to than acting after the damage has already been done.
dispatch repair crews. However, an effective repair crew dispatch to
restore damaged components will enable a fast restoration and prevent 6. Microgrids strategies to enhance power system resilience
the spread of electric outages [195]. A recent study in Ref. [12] dis-
cussed the planning of repair crews to enhance the power grid compo- The latest developments in smart grid technology have improved
nents restoration. grid resilience. Microgrids can work in grid-connected or standalone
modes, using AC, DC, or hybrid systems, and have shown their potential
5.2.5. Advanced monitoring infrastructure to enhance power system resilience. Strategies for enhancing power
Monitoring is a strategy for predicting faults or observing the oper- system resilience using microgrids can be divided into two categories:
ation of the electrical grid in real time [196]. Fault localization and global resilience, or resilience of the power grid via microgrids, and local
detection are also essential for power grid restoration and for enhancing resilience, or resilience of the microgrid itself via islanding mode. A
system resilience. Authors in Ref. [109] suggested a system for fault comparison between microgrids used for global resilience-based resto-
localization and detection to manage the power grid during faults. To ration strategies and those used for local resilience-based self-healing
identify cascade faults, a distributed computing approach is applied to strategies is provided. Fig. 7 illustrates strategies used by microgrids to
monitor grid robustness similarly to real-time [197]. To ensure the enhance power grid resilience.
monitoring of the power grid, Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition
(SCADA) systems are used [198]. A SCADA system measures and pro- 6.1. Resilience of power grid via microgrids
cesses power grid real-time information, it is composed of communica-
tion equipment, control, and process networks [199,200]. During severe In this subsection, microgrids are viewed as a global resource for
weather events, real-time data is crucial for quick and effective planning enhancing power system resilience due to their ability to supply critical
and execution of restoration measures. Nonetheless, due to the severe loads and their flexible design. They help to quickly restore power after
weather conditions, the communication link used to share data may not outages and can play a role in grid topology reconfiguration and resto-
be operational. Therefore, other options to receive and broadcast data ration management strategies.
must be used. Among these options, unmanned aerial vehicles enable
airborne damage assessment module to minimize the cost and time. 6.1.1. Traditional grid reconfiguration
Airborne damage assessment module will assist the power grid manage The first category is the reconfiguration of the power grid during
outages, geographical information and manage asset [197]. outages using distributed energy resources and switches. Using a
The Electric Power Research Institute (EPRI) is forming a data network reconfiguration strategy can effectively enhance the resilience
visualization solution for the sector of operations and engineering. By of the conventional power grid. It uses distributed generators and
just pointing the camera toward the equipment (power poles and decentralized systems to offer a reliable way to recover critical loads in
overhead lines) that has to be examined, it will be possible for the op- the power grid during disruptions. To create a resilient power grid,
erators to get real-time information through a computer, tablet, or microgrids can be formed by sectionalizing switches into different
smartphone. Using the data collected by the drone, the disaster region network cells. The summary of grid topology reconfiguration methods is
can be examined, and the potential fastest road to dispatch repair crews presented in Table 1.
can be identified. Another benefit of this approach is that the drone can The study in Ref. [206] investigated the optimal placement and
access places that regular vehicles cannot, particularly when routes are production capacity of microgrids with the intent to enhance the resil-
obstructed. In addition to increasing situational awareness, power grid iency of power grids against catastrophic events. The microgrid consists
12
Fig. 7. Microgrid strategies to enhance the system resilience.
of renewable energy sources, storage devices, and loads. Three algo- operation. If the main grid experiences a power disruption, a microgrid
rithms were proposed to ensure power balance between microgrids and can operate independently by utilizing its own distributed energy re-
the power grid, considering both topological and operational con- sources. In Ref. [213], a deep reinforcement learning model was sug-
straints. The paper in Ref. [207] presented an evaluation of the resil- gested to determine the scheduling of distributed energy resources as a
ience of an interdependent multi-energy system incorporating way of restoring services in islanded microgrids and enhancing the
microgrids. Various addition scenarios of microgrids to the main grid distribution grid resilience. The objective of the restoration problem was
were assessed using graph and network theories. The resilience evalu- to maximize restored loads while minimizing operating costs. The
ation showed that microgrids could be a good alternative to quickly research in Ref. [214] discussed the use of dynamic microgrids in the
recovering from power outages. This paper in Ref. [208] introduced a restoration of blackout distribution grids and the improvement of power
technique for enhancing the resilience of power grids using locally system resiliency. Smart switches were used as automatic sectionalizers
distributed energy generators. The approach combines the physical and to set the limits of microgrids during natural disasters. A two-step
communication layers of power grids using a self-organization method restoration process was suggested: the bottom-up restoration of a full
that changes the grid configuration and forms local energy units to blackout system was possible in a dynamic microgrid environment, even
reduce the impact of widespread outages. This method enhanced the without receiving any energization from the main power source. In
resilience of the impacted power grid. The work in Ref. [209] suggested Ref. [215], a deep reinforcement learning method was presented to
a two-layer technique for improving the power grid resiliency through restore critical loads during extreme events and multiple power line
microgrids. Detection of outages and identification of isolated nodes failures in active distribution grids. Switches were used as automatic
were included in the first layer. Once isolated nodes are identified, the sectionalizers to create microgrids using distributed energy resources,
second layer involves forming distributed energy resources-based which helped reduce critical load curtailments and enhanced the sys-
microgrids to support critical loads for enhancing resilience. The tem’s resilience. In Ref. [216], a methodology was suggested to find the
developed two-layer technique was assessed using the IEEE 123-node optimal number and configuration of microgrids for improving the
feeder and showed its efficiency in improving the power grid resil- resiliency of the distribution grid. The study aimed to maximize the
iency. The study in Ref. [210] proposed a linear two-stage model that restored loads while considering the risk of interruption for microgrids.
incorporated attacker-defender methods to enhance the resilience of the The suggested approach resulted in larger microgrids when there are
transmission power grid against natural disasters using microgrids. The low interruption rates of feeders supplying critical loads, and smaller
attacker-defender resilient planning strategy included using a stochastic microgrids can be used to minimize the risk of disruption when there is a
method as part of the first stage to evaluate the vulnerability of power high probability of feeder failure.
grid components. Once the vulnerability analysis is examined, the sec- The study in Ref. [222] proposed an efficient method for restoring
ond stage involves enhancing the power system’s resilience, reinforcing services by forming microgrids and restoring critical loads while taking
vulnerable lines, and placing microgrids in optimal locations, taking into account the possibility of random contingencies during severe
budget constraints into account. The authors concluded that placing weather conditions. The authors suggested a framework with two phases
microgrids in optimal locations is a crucial step in enhancing the power to restore the distribution grid in the event of an outage. The first phase
system resilience during the operational recovery phase. involves the formation of microgrids, where mobile emergency re-
sources are optimally placed, and microgrids are proactively formed.
6.1.2. Restoration management The second phase is the service restoration phase, in which appropriate
The process of restoration can start once the system has made the switching actions are determined, and energy sources are allocated to
transition from emergency to recovery. As part of the restoration pro- restore critical loads in a specific order. The research in Ref. [217]
cess, various reconfigurations may be carried out to enhance the overall introduced a mixed-integer linear programming approach for finding
state of the system, including breakers operations, generator manage- the most effective way to restore active distribution systems, with a
ment, load shedding, mobile battery storage devices repair crew man- focus on network reconfiguration, the formation of microgrids, and the
agement, or other plans that contribute to enhancing the power system implementation of voltage control devices. The aim was to evaluate the
operations. The restoration strategy may require more time and effect the formation of microgrids had on the restoration problem. The
complexity compared to the self-healing strategy [211]. Table 2 illus- developed method considered both the black-start capability of gener-
trates the grid restoration management methods. ators and the interconnection of several generators to the same micro-
The model proposed in Ref. [212] evaluated the efficient operation grid. The research conducted in Ref. [218] proposed an adaptable
of microgrids under realistic conditions following extreme weather method for improving the resilience of combined electricity and gas
events to enhance the distribution grid’s resilience. The distribution grid networks. The system’s resilience was enhanced through the use of
was separated into multiple microgrids using distributed generators and microgrid formation and the optimal design of combined heat and
automatic switches to maximize load restoration and reduce operating power units to restore critical loads. In emergency situations, the power
costs. The first phase of the model identified the damaged lines and grid can be protected from load outages spreading by dividing the grid
buses, and the schedulable area for microgrid formation was determined into multiple microgrids. The microgrids that are created are able to
in the second stage. The third phase then suggested a restoration model, change their structure in response to single or multiple interruptions.
taking into account the constraints on microgrid formation and The developed model in Ref. [219] aimed to dynamically form
13
Table 1 Table 2
Resilience-based grid topology reconfiguration strategy. Resilience-based restoration management strategy.
Ref Year Application Method Contribution Ref Year Model Technique Contribution
[206] 2021 Distribution Heuristic multi- Solved the problem [212] 2022 Microgrid The ε-constraint A new model was
power system stage search of planning future formation approach was presented with the
algorithm, microgrids to Distributed energy applied, and the dual objectives of
exhaustive search improve the power resources fuzzy satisfying minimizing
algorithm, and grid resiliency which Demand response method was used operation costs
multi-objective enables for the to select the most while maximizing
mixed-integer placement of a optimal solution. network load
linear microgrid or many restoration. The
programming were microgrids at the proposed model
used to optimize optimal location in investigated the
the placement and terms of resilience operational
production and defining the efficiency of
capacity of production capacity microgrids in real-
microgrids. of the dispatchable world scenarios
generators … after the event. In
[207] 2021 Interdependent Graph and network Evaluated the addition, microgrids
multi-energy theories were used resilience of an formation and
system to model the multi- interdependent demand response
energy system. multi-energy system plans including
with the integration transferable,
of microgrids and curtailable, and
demonstrated that shiftable loads were
microgrids can be implemented to
considered a feasible improve the
solution for distribution system
immediate recovery resilience.
but not suitable for [213] 2022 Scheduling of The deep Introduced for the
extended periods. distributed energy reinforcement first time a deep
[208] 2021 Distribution Self-organization Increased the resources in learning method is reinforcement
power system approach that resilience of power islanding used to maximize learning from
automatically systems by microgrid the restored load demonstrations to
changes power grid suggesting an and minimize assist distribution
configuration. intervention in the operation costs. service restoration.
form of a The proposed
decentralized technique was
coordination significantly faster
mechanism that than the standard
relies on self- and conventional
organization without model-based
assuming the power algorithms.
system itself as [214] 2022 Dynamic A two-stage In the framework of
given. microgrids approach is dynamic microgrids
[209] 2022 Distribution Two-layer Solved the main applied to restore and without
power system technique was used issue of dynamic a full blackout energizing from the
to enhance the boundaries and distribution grid. main grid, a two-
power grid resiliency stage restoration
resiliency through improvement based technique is
microgrids, microgrids provided that allows
weighted average formation by the bottom-up
consensus method, determining the restoration of an
and mixed-integer energization entire blackout
linear sequence and system., resulting in
programming. dispatch of various an improved level of
distributed energy system resiliency.
resources over a time [215] 2022 Microgrid A deep The suggested
horizon. formation reinforcement model, can quickly
[210] 2022 Transmission Attacker-defender Introduced a model learning method is determine the
power system model was used to for transmission grid used to form a optimal, or near-
enhance the to assess microgrid with optimal, spanning
transmission grid vulnerabilities and distributed energy forest even when
resiliency through resilient planning resources. disruption scenarios
the optimal and a new change, in contrast
placement of vulnerability index is to existing analytical
microgrids. presented to and population-
determine the worst- based techniques
case scenario for an that require the
electrical component repetition of entire
failure. Additionally, analyses and
the optimal computation for
hardening of each outage scenario
vulnerable lines and to find the optimal
optimal placement of spanning forest. The
microgrids are suggested method
carried out while reduces critical load
considering the cost (continued on next page)
constraints.
14
Table 2 (continued ) Table 2 (continued )

Ref Year Model Technique Contribution Ref Year Model Technique Contribution
curtailment in most efficient use of

power systems by energy resources.
forming microgrids This limitation is
with distributed considered and load
energy resources control blocks are
when multiple lines thoroughly
in the system fail. modeled. Electric
[216] 2022 Microgrid A master/slave Developed a new vehicles and their
formation technique is used objective function to stochastic nature
to decrease the maximize the were considered to
calculation time of number of restored improve resiliency.
microgrid critical loads while [171] 2020 Networked Auxiliary induce Introduced the idea
formation. considering the microgrid function-based of soft open points-
failure risk of Repair crew algorithm for a based networked
microgrids units. dispatch maximum microgrids, in which
The objective is to Mobile battery weighted sum of soft open points
optimize the number energy storages restored loads. interconnect
of microgrids and microgrids. An
their configuration. optimization
[217] 2021 Microgrid Mixed-integer Proposed a novel approach was
formation linear model that tackles developed for
Network programming the optimum routing repair
reconfiguration model to minimize restoration of the crews, mobile
voltage control the out-of-service distribution system battery-carried
devices load. using grid vehicles, and soft
reconfiguration, open points-based
microgrids networked
formation, and microgrids,
voltage regulation producing a mixed-
simultaneously. The integer linear
approach can have program model,
the following where new
advantages: 1) constraints are
flexible application, proposed to
accurate findings, guarantee the grid
and realistic radiality under
considerations of several islands
power system caused by
structure; 2) contingencies.
effective [220] 2020 Networked Function-based Developed a
computational microgrid alternating distributed risk-
behavior; and 3) direction method limiting load
convergence to of multipliers restoration model
optimality. algorithm to solve for unbalanced
[218] 2021 Microgrid The mathematical A flexible model for the service distribution systems
formation optimization microgrid formation restoration with networked
Network model is applied to was proposed to problem. microgrids.
reconfiguration restore maximum achieve resilience Proposed a
loads. where the microgrid distributed strategy
structure may for the non-convex
change under load restoration
different scenarios issue taking into
considering the account the discrete
critical load operation of voltage
restoration regulators and load
following events as a pick-up.;.
resilience index. The [221] 2019 Multi-microgrid A mixed integer Suggested a novel
single outage and linear two-stage
consecutive outages programming restoration strategy
were modeled and algorithm is that addressed the
handled by the applied to restore issue of supplying
developed method. the maximum and restoring
[219] 2021 Dynamic A two-stage Proposed a novel disconnected disconnected loads
microgrid stochastic approach for loads. during failures. The
programming restoring loads in suggested
framework to the mesh network restoration strategy
maximize load rather than only the included both
restoration. radial network to emergency load
allow the use of shedding and
many resources in preemptive load
one microgrid. shifting. A new
Additionally, index was proposed
literature has not to reflect the
shown the capacity performance of the
to regulate the load proposed approach.
and, as a result, the
15
microgrids to restore critical loads, taking into account the use of electric a coordinated scheme would aim to maximize the restoration of critical
vehicles and load control to improve the power grid resiliency. The loads by employing microgrids as emergency sources. The main objec-
authors of this research used the Master-slave technique, which allows tive was to restore maximum out-of-service loads. A heuristic algorithm
for the use of multiple resources within a single microgrid. was introduced to simplify the power grid graph and decrease compu-
In [171], a multi-period restoration framework was proposed to tational complexity. In Ref. [221], a two-step process was developed for
improve distribution grid resilience, considering networked microgrid restoring the power grid using interconnected microgrids. The
formation, optimal routes for mobile battery energy storage, and repair multi-microgrid was designed to operate in islanded mode following
crew dispatch. The study aimed to maximize restoration loads using an outages, allowing it to assist in load restoration. The authors introduced
auxiliary induce function-based algorithm. During the outage occur- a success index to evaluate the performance of the restoration strategy.
rence, the power grid was divided to form networked microgrids. Then, The authors in Ref. [225] presented an approach that involved using
mobile battery energy storage and repair crews will directly repair the microgrids to solve the problem of load restoration. The microgrids were
damaged lines and supply lost loads. The coordination of the proposed employed to recover critical loads following natural disasters. Activating
strategies offers quick load restoration. The study in Ref. [220] intro- the connections between microgrids and critical loads led to the creation
duced a risk-limiting load restoration technique to improve the resil- of various islanded systems, each sustained by a microgrid. Microgrids
iency of unbalanced distribution grids using networked microgrids. The could provide excess power to the main grid to restore critical loads
microgrid can all act separately in restoring loads while respecting the outside the microgrid area, taking into account the dynamic constraints.
risk limitations of the overall system. The restoration process was
divided and handled in a distributed way. The suggested method can
6.2. Resilience of a microgrid itself via islanding mode
improve resilience against controller failures and decrease computation
burden compared to centralized methods. A strategy for restoring ser-
After a power system failure during major events, microgrids can
vices in three stages was presented in Ref. [223]. In the first stage, a
quickly disconnect from the main grid and function autonomously. They
restoration tree was created from microgrids to loads to maximize the
serve as a local resource to increase resilience through islanding mode
number of restored loads. Regarding the limited service capability of
and can supply power to local loads.
microgrids, a method was developed for the second stage that involved
using emergency power supply vehicles and microgrids to restore all
6.2.1. Outage planning
loads. A model for restoring non-critical loads, with the objective of
This strategy aims to enhance the conventional power grid by using
maximizing resilience, was established in the third stage. A solution that
microgrids to feed essential loads in crucial facilities during power
combined reconfiguration and the use of microgrids, based on a span-
outages. Customers looking for a more stable power supply have started
ning tree search algorithm, was introduced in Ref. [224] to improve the
using microgrids connected to the grid to keep essential operations
restoration capability of the power grid. In the absence of utility power,
powered during islanding events, resulting in the potential conversion of
Table 3
Resilience-based outage planning strategy.
Ref Year Type of MG DER Method Contribution
[226] 2020 Military base PV system XENDEE software was used to determine the Developed a statistical methodology to characterize
Battery energy optimal size of a military microgrid that microgrid survivability to continue providing full service to
storage minimizes on-grid operating costs. essential loads using Markov chains during islanding
Diesel generator operations. Proposed and optimized a dispatch control
strategy to improve the microgrid autonomy. In addition,
assessed and compared the resilience of a generator-only
microgrid setup and a hybrid microgrid.
[227] 2020 Hospital building PV system REopt® software was used to find the optimal Utilized the economic aspect to optimize the power supply for
Battery energy design of a hospital microgrid to minimize costs. critical loads based on maximizing the incomes for the excess
storage energy selling to the power system, while assessing the
Diesel generator resilience capacity taking into account both the outage
probability and duration in a modern power grid.
[228] 2020 Military base PV system Two-stage stochastic mixed-integer Suggested a method to capture the interaction among various
Battery energy programming was applied to find the optimal distributed energy resources and the interdependency of their
storage microgrid size considering economic and optimal sizes, and therefore can co-optimally size different
Diesel generator resilience aspects. distributed energy resources. A new formulation was
Fuel storage presented to solve the two-stage problem numerically which
can be utilized to identify distributed energy resources.
[229] 2022 Commercial, PV system Homer Grid software was used to simulate Developed a novel metric for evaluating power system
Hospital, and hotel Battery energy various microgrid configurations. resilience and investigated how load patterns and renewable
buildings storage energy sources affect resilience. Suggested a procedure to
Wind turbine determine the worst- and best-case scenarios for microgrids.
Diesel generator
[230] 2022 Hospital building PV system Mixed-integer linear programming and a Applied a novel probabilistic method to determine the
Battery energy probabilistic approach were applied optimize resilience performance of the hybrid system for the hospital
storage combined various energy resources. facility, which was missing in the literature. The method
heat power improved the microgrid resilience to withstand power
outages.
[231] 2022 Hospital building PV system The simulation tool REopt® was used to find the Addressed the issue of potential power outages that can
Battery energy optimal microgrid configuration. happen in critical facilities, particularly those associated with
storage the health sector during the COVID-19 pandemic, a period
Diesel generator when the energy needs of critical loads are significantly
higher.
[232] 2023 Health care center PV system REopt software is used to analyze the outage Analyzed the performance of a PV/battery system for the
Battery energy effect in the facility, and mixed-integer linear health care center in a refugee camp, assessed its resilience
storage programming is used to decrease the total cost. advantages, and simulated the behavior of the system during
outages caused by weather conditions.
16
the conventional power grid into microgrids and the ability to supply [233]. Self-healing capability in a power system can be refined to
electricity to local loads during disruptions. This category consists of quickly detect problems, prevent or decrease power outages, reduce the
installing microgrids based on renewable energy in different facilities to time for restoration, and maximize the amount of power restored to
supply power to local loads and operating in islanded mode during ensure a reliable and available system. Although not always specified,
power grid outages to enhance the local resilience of the microgrid. The the self-healing process typically involves two distinct periods: the
summary of power grid outage planning methods is presented in emergency reaction phase and the restorative phase. In the first stage,
Table 3. when an event is detected, the system responds by minimizing it, usually
The study in Ref. [226] proposed a system that can withstand a by isolating it. Emergency measures, whether automatic or pre-
temporary loss of grid connection by maximizing its resilience to meet determined, can have the effect of placing the power system in safer
critical load demands. It determined the resilience of a microgrid by conditions [211]. The summary of power grid self-healing methods is
quantifying the transitions between different states using Markov tabulated in Table 4.
chains. It assessed the resilience of a microgrid that consists only of A method suggested in Ref. [234] utilized stochastic simulation to
diesel generators and compared it to a hybrid microgrid that includes assess the self-healing capabilities of hybrid AC/DC microgrids that
diesel generators, batteries, and PV modules. The findings revealed that include flexible distributed resources in various energy scenarios.
a hybrid microgrid may be more likely to withstand an islanding event Microgrids were set to function in islanded mode when faults in the main
than a microgrid consisting only of generators. The incorporation of PV grid occurred. The purpose of the simulations was to assess the capacity
modules and batteries in the hybrid microgrid reduced reliance on fuel, of microgrids to meet their power demand while functioning in island
increasing mission autonomy for longer islanding events compared to a mode, implementing self-healing techniques like incorporating renew-
microgrid with only diesel generators. The study in Ref. [227] aimed to able energy sources, reducing loads, and utilizing flexible resources such
determine the benefits of enhancing energy resilience through the as electric vehicles and storage devices. The work in Ref. [235] proposed
implementation of a microgrid powered by renewable energy sources in a two-stage optimization approach for optimizing day-ahead and
a hospital. An evaluation was conducted to determine the impact of the real-time operational scheduling of self-healing power grids, taking into
microgrid implant in enhancing the resilience of the power supply account the capacity withholding of non-utility-owned distributed
during power outages to feed the critical loads of the hospital. Both generators. The suggested optimization framework assessed the effects
economic income and minimum resilience were taken into account of external disturbances on grid conditions for the real-time horizon and
when determining the size of the microgrid. REopt® software was simulated the procedure of breaking down the power grid into
employed to analyze up to 12 scenarios, and the findings revealed that self-healing multiple microgrids, and rescheduled the distributed gen-
minimum resilience duration could exceed 24-h with positive savings. erators to minimize the effect of disturbances. Resiliency-oriented
The research in Ref. [228] proposed a stochastic process for meeting planning of the power grid using self-healing microgrids was investi-
resilience requirements and maximizing economic income, considering gated in Ref. [236]. The main purpose was to divide the power grid into
the optimal size of a microgrid. The analysis considered both small-scale areas that considered normal and emergency operation
grid-connected and island modes of microgrid operation required to states. When operating in an isolated mode, the focus was on reducing
meet a survivability standard against randomly occurring outages. The load shedding, while in normal conditions, the objective was to maxi-
findings indicated that the technique identified the optimal sizes of mize the power grid profitability. These goals were achieved through the
distributed energy systems to reach the required level of resilience while implementation of various self-healing measures, including reconfigur-
also maximizing net benefits. The work in Ref. [229] introduced a ing the grid, distributed generator rescheduling, and load shedding.
comprehensive analysis of the resilience of microgrids for commercial A networked self-healing control technique was introduced in
buildings, hotels, and hospitals with various load patterns and different Ref. [237] to improve networked microgrids’ resiliency in islanded
renewable resources. The influence of load patterns and renewable en- operation mode. A plan was developed to mitigate the effects of losing
ergy sources on resilience was discussed, and a methodology was pro- microgrid generation from neighboring areas during an islanding
posed to identify the worst- and best-case power outages for operation mode, as a result of past severe weather events. The approach
photovoltaic and battery storage system microgrids. The impact of consisted of two phases of optimization. The first phase refers to a sce-
outage frequency was included in the economic analysis of microgrids. nario before the fault occurs, where a solution is found for distributed
The research in Ref. [230] suggested a probabilistic method to examine generation in a networked microgrid as the starting point. The second
the resilience performance of grid-connected microgrids against power phase involves determining additional redistribution needs based on the
outages caused by extreme weather events. The microgrid consists of a deficiencies of individual microgrids using a solution index matrix. To
photovoltaic system, combined heat power, and battery storage devices maintain the system balance, a self-healing strategy was developed in
for the hospital building. The research found that the hybrid microgrid Ref. [238] to prioritize critical loads when a fault occurs in microgrids.
was able to withstand power outages. The goal of the study presented in The system was modeled to operate in normal and abnormal operation
Ref. [231] was to assess the economic impact of the energy resilience modes. In normal conditions, the system utilized economic power
supplied by a microgrid during a 24-h outage of the electricity grid. The dispatch to reduce costs and meet energy demands through the energy
microgrid consists of photovoltaic modules, battery storage devices, and management system. In abnormal conditions, the self-healing strategy is
a diesel generator for the hospital facility. It was found that the micro- activated to maximize the use of undamaged distributed generators to
grids have the capability to withstand a power outage of 72-h, and the meet essential energy needs. An optimization framework for the
analysis showed the economic benefits of 24-h of energy resilience for self-healing operation of the networked microgrids system was
the hospital. The work in Ref. [232] examined the resilience perfor- addressed in Ref. [244]. In the developed framework, self-healing is
mance of a renewable microgrid in for health care center. The impact of implemented in a distribution network with renewable energy resources
power failures caused by extreme weather events was evaluated by and energy storage devices divided into several microgrids. The net-
considering various scenarios, including base, resilient, and financial worked microgrid topology was radial and communicated between
systems. The microgrids consist of PV modules and battery storage de- them in a decentralized manner. During a fault occurrence, the healthy
vices and can withstand 24-h power outages. microgrids supply the necessary power on the downstream side of faults
to maintain continuity of service. A resilience evaluation model that
6.2.2. Self-healing capability assessed the resilience of a self-healing power grid under natural di-
Self-healing is a key feature of a power system and refers to auto- sasters was proposed in Ref. [239]. The optimization model aimed to
matic detection and isolation of faulty components in power systems and reduce the disruptive impact of natural disasters via time-varying
return to normal functioning without the need for human intervention self-healing operations, including the use of switches to isolate faulty
17
Table 4 Table 4 (continued )

Resilience-based self-healing strategy. Ref Year Operation Method Contribution
Ref Year Operation Method Contribution mode
mode
[238] 2021 Islanded Teaching-learning- Developed a
[234] 2023 Islanded Mixed-integer linear Considered various microgrid based optimization is comprehensive
microgrid programming was energy scenarios for used to minimize the framework for a
adopted to minimize evaluating the effect of operation cost. microgrid operation
operation costs. the increase in flexible that consists of optimal
energy resources on power dispatch and
self-healing capability. self-healing of a
Determined many distribution system
important resilience simultaneously to
measures to solve the problem
demonstrate the related to the system
degree to which behavior when faults
microgrids can provide occur in any of the
a reliable supply to distributed energy
their critical loads with resources during
the implemention a natural disasters.
stochastic technique. [239] 2019 Islanded A mixed-integer Proposed a novel
[235] 2022 Islanded and Mixed-integer linear Considered the microgrid linear optimization to approach for
grid- programming was capacity withholding minimize load evaluating resilience
connected applied to minimize process of private shedding. that measures a self-
microgrid the system’s costs. power production healing power
facilities in the optimal system’s ability to
scheduling of system withstand severe
resources using the weather conditions.
capacity-withholding [240] 2019 Islanded Fuzzy satisfying and Suggested a dynamic
metric. Proposed a microgrid Pareto optimality technique that
resilience measure to methods were used to considers both the
assess the vulnerability solve a multi- reliability and
level of the system in objective function resiliency of the power
the day-ahead and problem. system before and
real-time. The after the occurrence of
simulation in real-time the incident and the
under various power system. In
scenarios showed the addition, a multi-
efficiency of dividing objective approach
the power grid into was proposed to
self-healing multiple optimally split the
microgrids. power systems during
[236] 2021 Islanded and Mixed-integer linear Developed a flexible major incidents into
grid- programming was and effective design to multiple self-sufficient
connected applied to maximize divide the distribution microgrids.
microgrid the profit in normal system into a cluster of [241] 2019 Islanded Simulink and state Developed a novel
conditions and to supply-sufficient microgrid flow software were microgrid energy
minimize load resilient microgrids used to enhance the management system
shedding in islanded that can be managed dynamic with self-healing
mode. for both normal and performance of a capabilities during
self-healing microgrid. outages using a four-
operations. The model layer multiagent
can effectively predict framework including
the simultaneous the layer of the
expansion of various forecast and
renewable resources estimation of
and identify the renewable energy
borders of microgrids resources power
in terms of both production and loads,
geography and control and decision-
electricity. making layer, real-
[237] 2021 Islanded A two-stage Suggested a new two- time monitoring and
microgrid algorithm was stage grid recovery information layer, and
adopted to minimize decision system, that finally the fault
the unused capacity starts a quick control detection and action
of any microgrid in reference estimation in layer.
the system. case of islanded mode [242] 2018 Islanded Mixed-integer Proposed a
and then gives a microgrid quadratic comprehensive
solution considering programming is used microgrid self-healing
the optimal to minimize the costs strategy under various
computation in the of load shedding and scenarios accounting
overall system. generate energy with for renewable energy
Introduced an optimal switching resources availability
approach to solve the actions. to facilitate the
problem of microgrid operation of the
power production loss microgrid in
in the grid during autonomous mode to
islanding mode … support the transition
from grid-connected
(continued on next page)
18
Table 4 (continued ) Table 5

Ref Year Operation Method Contribution
Detailed comparison between restoration strategy and self-healing strategy.
mode N Factor Restoration strategy Self-healing strategy
mode to islanded 1 Human It requires human Takes automatic actions
mode. intervention involvement, such as a based on modern
[243] 2018 Smart grid Mixed-integer linear Proposed a linearized repair crew to replace monitoring and control
programming is algorithm, and damaged equipment or systems to detect and
adopted to minimize eliminated the perform maintenance. isolate faults in real-time.
costs and maximize requirement for piece- 2 Time to restore Takes a longer time due Takes less time as it uses
the number of wise linearization in power to the model complexity, modern technology to
supplied customers. the model to avoid as it includes isolated recover from power
excess integer faulty areas, power outages with minimal
variables and make the rerouting, then human involvement.
solution process quick. dispatching repair crews
and mobile battery
storage devices.
parts, sectionalizing the power grid into multiple self-sufficient micro- 3 Cyber security It can be utilized to It can be used to enhance
grids, and generation re-dispatch to increase profitability load shedding attacks restore the power system cyber security through the
due to a cyber-attack but detection and reparation
while preserving radial structures.
cannot be used to of weaknesses in real-time.
The research in Ref. [240] introduced a dynamic approach for enhance cyber security.
breaking down the power grid into several self-sufficient multiple 4 Reliability It is less reliable as it It is more reliable as it
microgrids to decrease load outages during natural disasters. The par- relies on human utilizes advanced
titioning of the power grid into multiple microgrids using involvement, which can technology.
be exposed to errors.
multi-objective function algorithms aimed to decrease the energy not 5 Scalability It is less scalable as it may It is more scalable as it can
served, power loss, and voltage deviations. In the proposed framework, not be able to manage manage one or multiple
the reliability and resiliency of the power grid were taken into account multiple faults or outages faults or outages at the
before and after severe faults occurred. The research in Ref. [241] at the same time. same time.
6 Maintaining During the repair High continuity of service
suggested a self-healing strategy to enhance the dynamic performance of
continuity of process, maintaining by redirecting power to
microgrids as part of an energy management system with a four-layer service continuity of service can safe areas of the network,
model and various types of agents. Each agent was used in one layer be affected. which guarantees that
to achieve specific tasks. After detecting a fault in the fourth layer of the loads are not affected by
proposed model, actions were taken to facilitate self-healing capabilities the fault.
7 Investment cost Less initial investment is High initial investment is
in the microgrid. The system’s performance was examined using fault required. required.
simulation at several parts of the microgrid. The study in Ref. [242] 8 System It is less complex to More complex to
presented a detailed strategy for microgrid self-healing in various con- complexity implement in a system. implement in a system.
ditions, taking into account the presence of renewable energy sources. 9 Life cycle Less life cycle of the It can extend the life cycle
power system. of a system, as faults are
The proposed self-healing strategy enabled microgrids to transition and
detected automatically
operate in islanded mode, regardless of whether they imported or before causing equipment
exported electricity before islanding. The self-healing strategy included damage.
re-dispatching distributed generators, network reconfiguration, and 10 Data collection Centralized collection of Decentralized collection of
load shedding. The work also examined the interaction of multiple data. data.
11 Integration and It is easier to integrate It is difficult to integrate
microgrids and how the transition from grid-connected mode to islanded adaptability into existing systems, into existing systems, as it
mode is greatly improved with the support of other microgrids. In including the reparation involves modern
Ref. [243], an advanced self-healing strategy for smart grids was or replacement of known technologies.
introduced. The strategy takes into account different factors, such as the components.
12 Economic impact Less cost-effective due to It is more cost-effective, as
available energy, grid configuration, and load management. The study
the reparation process it can detect and repair
also evaluated the proposed self-healing strategy in another grid, spe- that may require damages quickly.
cifically the loss minimization reconfiguration problem. In Ref. [245], a isolating the area.
two-layer optimization technique was suggested for the optimal opera- 13 Environmental It could impact the Less environmental
tion of smart grids in self-healing mode. Microgrid formation was impact environment due to the impact, as it detects faults
replacement and before causing significant
determined in the first layer, and then renewable energy sources and reparation of any damage to the system
energy storage devices were considered in the second layer. The damaged components. components.
self-healing strategy can be employed in a centralized way in the pres- 14 Social impact Potentially impacting the Less impact on social
ence of high penetration of renewable energy sources. social community due to community, it can
area isolation for repairs. maintain loads even in the
presence of damage.
6.3. Comparison between restoration strategy and self-healing strategy

research toward designing resilient models to address several challenges
A detailed comparison between restoration and self-healing strate- targeting resilience improvement. Modeling frameworks and evaluation
gies to enhance the power system resilience based on various factors is methods are designed to provide a visible way for using microgrids to
summarized as shown in Table 5. The proposed factors provide a enhance power systems resiliency so as to assess and facilitate
comprehensive comparison considering the technical, economic, envi- comprehensive understanding and accurate decision-making based on
ronmental, and social aspects based on both strategies used in the the properties of physical entities and systems. This section presents the
literature and actual power systems. different objective functions, constraints, and optimization methods
involved in the modelling of power systems. Moreover, the evaluation
7. Resilience modelling and evaluation metrics to assess resilience are examined.
Modern power systems have triggered a significant amount of
19
7.1. Resilience modelling Table 6

Objective functions to enhance the resilience of the power system.
Resilience models rely mainly on optimization programs and heu- Ref Objective function Formulation Description
ristic algorithms running over a specified time horizon, where different ∑ ∑
[206] The resiliency ωk μk,t PDk,t τ: number of pre-
solvers or techniques are used to search for an optimal value to minimize t∈T k∈V
τ
index of the defined time steps,
or maximize the objective function using a specific mathematical model. network wk :. Weight factor for
Accurate mathematical modeling to enhance resilience greatly impacts load at the k − th bus,
the final results. Also, operation and results are influenced by consid- μk,t : Binary variable
for the k − th bus
ering the different objective functions and physical constraints. Mathe-
status at t : 0 (de-
matical models are a particularly relevant discipline, combining energized), 1
concepts from computer science, mathematics, and economics. (energized). PDk,t : The
real power demand at
7.1.1. Objective functions the k − th bus status at
Resilience optimization in microgrids can have different objective t.
∑ ∑
[209] The total critical ωi ci,d Pi ωi : The priority weight
functions. These objective functions are selected based on equipment loads
t∈T k∈V
of a load at node i, ci,d :
installed in a microgrid, geographical area, user preferences, capacity of The variable to
the microgrid, policies and regulations of the government, and types of determine the relation
tariffs. The objective of the resilience mainly focuses on maximizing the between the nodes and
the lines in the
resiliency of the network [206], maximize the total critical loads [209,
microgrid, Pi : The
249], maximize the socio-economically-weighted expected demand power in each node i.
pick-up after a network failure [248], maximizing generation capacity [246] The operation cost
∑
cG .PGi,t + cG : Is the fuel cost, PGi,t :
from generators and battery stack [226], increase the operation cost ∑k∈V
cL .ΔPLi,t The power output at
during the period of power outage [246], maximize of system reliability k∈V
bus i, time t, cL : The
[227], or minimize load shedding [210], reduce of restoration time reward payment for
[212], minimize the load shedding [212], reduce resilience-oriented load reduction, ΔPLi,t :
The load reduction at
design investment cost and the product of the annual occurrence of
bus i, cR,s
i,j : Repair cost
extreme weather events and the expected cost [247], minimize total
for line (i, j) in
system losses [224], optimize fuel consumption [226], minimize the life scenario s.
cycle cost [227,230], decrease the net-cost [228], minimize switching [247] Resilience-
∑ ∑
cL γs PL,s Δt + cLi : Penalty cost ($) for
k∈L i i,t i,t
operation [214]. Table 6 summarizes a collection of objective functions oriented design ∑t∈T R,s shedding 1 kWh load
c
k∈V i,j
that have been applied to enhance the resilience of the power system. (ROD) investment at bus i. γsi,t : Load
cost shedding percentage
of load i at time t in
7.1.2. Constraints
scenario s. PL,s
i,t : Active
The most utilized convention constraints to guarantee the network’s
load at bus i in time
resilience include various physical constraints. There are two types of period t at scenario s.
constraints, equality constraints such as the limitation on generator [248] The socio-
∑
πω .
∑
wi .pisω πω : Probability if
i∈s
capacity [206,209], distributed energy generation scheduling con- economically scenario ω. wi :
straints [213,226,246], line current limits [210,228], voltage limits weighted criticality (socio-
economical) weight of
[210,246], and inequality constraints; for instance the limitations of
the load at node i. pisω :
output power [206], state-of-charge limits [206,228], operational con-
served active load at
straints [206,209], topological constraints [206,209,246], constraints node i under scenario
for sections to join microgrids [209,226], constraints for loads to join ω.
∑ ∑
microgrids [209,228], resiliency improving constraints [209,246]. In [212] Restoration cost ε
ψ ψ T
CostDER
t
εψ : The probability of
addition, a key aspect of successfully managing the physical constraints each scenario ψ ,
CostDER : Represents
of the decentralized power system is a close integration of the resilience t
the restoration cost of
objective models with radial network structure [213,226,246], power DER.
flow constraints [210,227,246], curtailable loads constraints [212], [223] Restoring outage
∑
C i P i Ti − G Ci : Is the weight of the
i=1
mobile battery-carried vehicles constraints [171], capacitor bank con- load i − th load
straints [220], frequency limit [225]. Moreover, some constraints have representing its
priority, Pi : The active
been presented for solving the optimization problem in such a way as to power of the i − th
consider the variation of the severity of the high-impact low probability load, Ti : The service
events across time [250]. time, G: is the
restoration cost of
emergency power
7.1.3. Optimization techniques
supply vehicles.
The optimization techniques are used at any point in the power [224] Switching ∑ (
NSw
)
NSw : Number of tie
system to achieve the best operating conditions and promote the sys- WS
operation Nm switches closed during
tem’s resilience while meeting all the necessary constraints. Due to the restoration, WS :
increased interoperability and complexity of the models, the real-time Weighting factor for
the number of
decision-making of the power grid is becoming a critical problem. switching operations,
Note that the amount of computation time and restored load have strong Nm : Number of total tie
correlations with the resilience of the decentralized power system. There switches in the
are a lot of mathematical models have been applied to model the resil- ( )
network.
[224] System total losses ∑ Ploss Ploss : Total active
ience of power grids. These optimization programs are identified with WL
Ptotal power losses, WL :
their mathematical properties, such as linear programming [246,247, Weighting factor for
249], non-linear programming, mixed integer linear programming [209, (continued on next page)
210,248], mixed integer non-linear programming [206,227,247],
20
Table 6 (continued ) Table 7

Ref Objective function Formulation Description
Mathematical formulation of the resilience metrics.
Ref Model Equation Description
total system losses,
Ptotal : Total active [252] Loss of load 1∑ LLOi : The probability of loss of
LLOi
power of the network. frequency N i=1 load occurrence, N: The
( )
[224] Total unrestored ∑ TUL WU : Weighting factor simulation years
WU
loads Ptotal for total unrestored [252] Loss of load 1∑ LLDi : The duration of each loss of
LLDi
loads, TUL: Total expectation N i=1 load.
unrestored load. [252] Expected energy 1∑ ENSi : The expected energy not
ENSi
not served N i=1 supplied.
∑
[253] Expected demand P C Pei : The probability of the power
i=1 ei ei
convex programming [251], quadratic programming [238], mixed not served grid experiencing extreme
integer quadratic programming [226], least square programming [240]. events, Cei : The load curtailment.
∑
[229] Surviving P (1 h) P: The surviving an outage of t
These optimization problems are selected based on features of the 1∈N
probability hours, N: The length of the outage
problem, such as the linearity of the problem or fracture existence. under consideration.
Several optimization techniques are used to decrease the complexity of [216] Probability of
∏m
(1 − FPl ) FPl : Describes the failure risk of
l=1
the power grid model using commercial solver tools like CPLEX [209, microgrid feeders.
210], IPOPT [246,247], and GUROBI [213]. These direct algorithms can survival
∫ td +T0
[223] Restoration F(t)dt − G F(t): The total power supplied to
be used for solving the optimization problem with various constraints performance
td
∫ td loads weighted by their priority.
when the problem is formulated as single objective function (see td F0 dt
G: The restoration cost of
Table 6.). The indirect methods and heuristic algorithms such as sto- emergency power supply
chastic programming [219], and alternating direction method of mul- vehicles.
tipliers [220], are used as the solvers in the optimization problem. It is
worth noting that the heuristic algorithms and indirect methods can be
system resilience. It covers the definition of power system resilience and
applied to solve the optimization problem regardless of their mathe- the different stages for responding to high-impact events, mathematical
matical complexity. However, these techniques do not guarantee the
modeling, constraints, and solvers, and a thorough analysis of strategies
optimal solution. used to enhance power grids. Resilience refers to a system’s ability to
Metaheuristic approaches and artificial intelligence techniques are
quickly recover after being disrupted, encompassing various aspects
also widely applied in the literature. For example, genetic algorithm such as technical, economic, and social. The performance of a power
[216], spanning tree [249], and deep reinforcement learning [213].
grid during extreme weather events can be analyzed by dividing the
Indeed, conventional approaches are totally based on mathematical event into four stages: prevention, degradation, restoration, and adap-
programming, and modern approaches, such as the metaheuristic ap-
tation. Strategies to enhance resilience can be classified into two main
proaches and artificial intelligence techniques, combine mathematical categories: long-term hardening strategies and short-term operational
formulations with machine learning algorithms to improve the solver’s
strategies. Long-term hardening strategies focus on the physical hardi-
behavior from different aspects, such as the speed of the solver. ness of the power grid and aim to mitigate the magnitude of major
events, while operational strategies aim to minimize restoration time.
7.2. Resilience evaluation Microgrid strategies to enhance power system resilience are classified
based on local and global resilience, and a detailed comparison of
Due to high-impact and low-probability events across time, evalu- microgrids for global resilience-based restoration and microgrids for
ating the resilience of power systems is extremely important to assess the local resilience-based self-healing strategies is provided. Microgrids
resilience enhancement strategies (see Section 6). By identifying the have gained significant attention from the power system community due
measurement of the resilience of the power system it is possible to to their contribution to enhancing grid resilience.
monitor, determine the resilience level relative to a base system, and
identify the important needs to reduce economic loss. The resilience
metrics are a tool to measure the resilience probability of a distributed 8.2. Future directions
system, normally employed for resilience cost-benefit in planning and
operation during high-impact and low-probability events. Resilience Despite the significant number of studies on strategies to enhance the
metrics can assist distributed service operators, transmission service resilience of power grids and microgrids, there are still big challenges
operators, and other regulators in making decisions regarding resilience that need to be addressed to enhance power grid resilience against se-
investment and rate recovery. Since several factors may affect resilience vere weather conditions. Some of the challenges and possible solutions
in the power grid, it is challenging to quantify resilience accurately using are summarized as such:
specific metrics.
Based on the recent studies in the context of resilience, several • To implement networked microgrids, certain infrastructure is
metrics have been proposed to calculate and evaluate the resilience in necessary, including sufficient telecommunication capabilities with
the power system, for example, surviving probability metrics [229], loss cyber security protections and the measurement and metering
of load expectation metrics [252], loss of load probability, expected equipment. An advanced coordination structure with algorithms and
demand nor served, loss of load frequency [252], expected energy not control strategies is crucial for the successful integration of net-
served [252], probability of microgrid survival [216], restoration per- worked microgrids. Several areas are particularly related to net-
formance [223]. The mathematical formulation of applicable metrics worked microgrid integration and require further research in the
that can be used to evaluate the resilience of the power system is sum- short term.
marized in Table 7. • Enhancing power grid resilience with self-healing capabilities needs
further investigation, such as utilizing microgrids for defensive
8. Conclusion and future directions islanding to mitigate the impact of severe adversity. To prevent a
widespread power failure, the damaged parts of the power grid will
8.1. Conclusion be immediately isolated under this condition.
• The strategy for power grid restoration primarily involves mathe-
This paper presents an extensive review of recent literature on power matical analysis or heuristic techniques. The increase in system
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Power Systems Microgrids Resilience

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Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 207 (2025) 114953

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews

Power systems and microgrids resilience enhancement strategies: A review

1. Introduction decreasing the strength of components [5].

Fig. 1. The overarching structure of the article.

Fig. 2. A general structure of a microgrid.

3.1.3. Energy storage devices

Fig. 4. Control structure of a microgrid [72].

Fig. 6. Grid performance associated with a severe weather event in degraded

Fig. 7. Microgrid strategies to enhance the system resilience.

Table 2 (continued ) Table 2 (continued )

curtailment in most efficient use of

Table 4 Table 4 (continued )

Table 4 (continued ) Table 5

6.3. Comparison between restoration strategy and self-healing strategy

Modern power systems have triggered a significant amount of

7.1. Resilience modelling Table 6

Table 6 (continued ) Table 7

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