Fibre Optics

Introduction
• Optical fiber is the technology associated
with data transmission using light pulses
travelling along with a long fiber which is
usually made of plastic or glass
• 1870 – John Tyndall
• It is based on multiple total internal
reflection
• In communication, light signals are used
instead of electric signals
• Frequency: In RF – 109 In fibre optic – 1013
to 1016 Hz
• Capacity106 times greater
Principle
• Total internal reflection

• Light travels from denser to rarer

medium
• Bent away from normal
• 𝜽𝒓 > 𝜽𝒊

• 𝜽𝒊  → 𝜽𝒓 
• At particular 𝜽𝒊 , refracted ray graze
along the surface separating media
• 𝜽𝒓 = 𝟗𝟎𝒐 → 𝜽𝒊 = 𝜽𝒄
• 𝜽𝒄 = Critical angle
Principle
• Total internal reflection

• 𝜽𝒊 > 𝜽𝒄
• Ray is not refracted, it is reflected
back to the denser medium
→ Total internal reflection

Condition for Total internal reflection

• Ray must travel from denser to rarer medium
• 𝜽𝒊 > 𝜽𝒄
Optic fiber
• Geometry

(Glass)

𝑛𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑒 > 𝑛𝑐𝑙𝑎𝑑𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔

(Doped glass)

Propagation of light trough optical fiber

(cladding)

𝜽𝒊 > 𝜽𝒄
(core)
Structure-Optic fiber

Core:
• Innermost cylindrical region, made of glass/plastic
• Higher refractive index
• Light propagates through core
Cladding
• Surrounds core, made of glass/plastic
• Smaller refractive index
• Responsible for TIR and propagation of light
Sheath
• Outermost cylindrical jacket, made of opaque or colored plastic
• Provide mechanical strength
• Protect from physical damage
• It has primary and secondary coating
Dimension-Optic fiber
Diameter:
• Core – 50 µm
• Cladding - 125 µm
• Sheath - 150 µm
• Outer diameter – 0.1 to 0.15 mm
Length
• 1 km

Ordinary glass is brittle, but optic fiber glasses are tough and
strong
Easily flexible
Can be bent

Types
• Glass core – glass cladding
• Glass core – plastic cladding
• Plastic core – plastic cladding
Acceptance angle and acceptance cone
The acceptance angle 𝜽𝒂 : The maximum angle with the
axis of the core so that all the rays which are incident
within this angle will be accepted and propagated through
the fibre by multiple TIR

Acceptance cone

𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜽𝒂 = 𝒏𝟐𝟏 − 𝒏𝟐𝟐

n1- refractive index of core
n2- refractive index of cladding
Numerical Aperture (NA)
Numerical aperture is the sine of acceptance angle

𝑵𝑨 = 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜽𝒂

𝑵𝑨 = 𝒏𝟐𝟏 − 𝒏𝟐𝟐

• Value ranges between 0.13 to 0.50

• NA is larger, fibre can accept more light

Proof:
By snell’s law at B
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑎 𝑛1
=
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑟 𝑛𝑜
n1- refractive index of core
no- refractive index of outside medium –
air = 1
𝑵𝑨 = 𝒏𝟏 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜽𝒓
Numerical Aperture (NA)
At C
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑐 𝑛2
=
𝑠𝑖𝑛90 𝑛1

𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑐 = cos 90 − 𝜃𝑐
We have, 𝜃𝑐 + 𝜃𝑟 = 90
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑐 = cos 𝜃𝑟

𝑛2
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃𝑟 =
𝑛1

𝑛22
∴ 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑟 = 1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃𝑟 = 1− 2
𝑛1

𝒏𝟐𝟐
𝑵𝑨 = 𝒏𝟏 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜽𝒓= 𝒏𝟏 𝟏−
𝒏𝟐𝟏

𝑵𝑨 = 𝒏𝟐𝟏 − 𝒏𝟐𝟐
Classification of optic fibre
(a) Step index fibre
1. Single mode Fibre (SMF)
• Very thin core – 1 to 10 µm
• Surrounded by thick cladding – 125 µm
• Sheath – 150 µm
• Refractive index of core and cladding are
constants
• 𝑛1 > 𝑛2
• Index profile is in the form of a step

Properties
• High Band width
• Permits only one mode
• Very less loss of energy
• No pulse broadening effect
• No intermodal dispersion
• Due to thin core, construction, handling are
difficult
• Less expensive
• NA and ∆ are smaller
Classification of optic fibre
(a) Step index fibre
2. Multi mode Fibre (MMF)
• Large core diameter compared to SMF
• Refractive index of core and cladding are constants
• 𝑛1 > 𝑛2
• Index profile is in the form of a step
Properties
• Less Band width
• Data transmission
• Easy handling
• Expensive
Classification of optic fibre
(b) Multimode Graded index fibre
• Refractive index of core is not constant, maximum along the axis of core,
decreases radially outward
• Refractive index is graded
• Refractive index of cladding is constants
• 𝑛1 > 𝑛2
• Very thick core – 100 µm
• Cladding - 125 µm
• Sheath – 150 µm
• No.of modes is given by
𝑉2
𝑁𝑚 = 4
• Light rays are travelling in smooth parabolic path
Properties
• High Band width
• Periodic self focusing
• Easy handling
• Highly expensive
• NA and ∆ are higher
• Loss of energy due to attenuation
 PULSE DISPERSION IN MULTIMODE
OPTICAL FIBERS
• Information are sent is first coded in the form of pulses
and then these pulses of light are transmitted from the
transmitter to the receiver where the information is
decoded.
• A pulse of light sent into a fiber broadens in time as it
propagates through the fiber, this phenomenon is
known as pulse dispersion

Causes of Pulse dispersion

1. Inter modal dispersion

2. Material dispersion
 PULSE DISPERSION IN MULTIMODE
OPTICAL FIBERS
Intermodal dispersion: Different rays take different
times to propagate through a given length

Rays making larger angles with the axis (those shown as dotted rays) have to traverse a longer
optical path length and therefore take a longer time to reach the output end.
 PULSE DISPERSION IN MULTIMODE
OPTICAL FIBERS
The distance AB is traversed in time
𝐴𝐶 + 𝐶𝐵
𝑡𝐴𝐵 =
𝑐/𝑛1
𝐴𝐵
𝐴𝐶 = /𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
2

𝐴𝐵
𝐶𝐵 = /𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
2

𝐴𝐵/𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 𝑛1 𝐴𝐵
𝑡𝐴𝐵 = =
𝑐/𝑛1 𝑐 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃

Time taken to to traverse length L is

𝑛1 𝐿
𝑡𝐿 =
𝑐 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
 PULSE DISPERSION IN MULTIMODE
OPTICAL FIBERS
Time taken is a function of angle
𝑛1 𝐿
𝑡𝐿 =
𝑐 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
𝑛1 𝐿
𝑡𝑚𝑖𝑛 = , θ=0
𝑐
𝑛2
𝑡𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑖𝑠 𝑎𝑡 θ = 𝜃𝑐 = cos −1
𝑛1

𝑛1 𝐿 𝑛12 𝐿
𝑡𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝑛2 = 𝑐𝑛
𝑐∗ 2
𝑛1
 PULSE DISPERSION IN MULTIMODE
OPTICAL FIBERS
Time interval
𝑛12 𝐿 𝑛1 𝐿
∆𝜏𝑖 = 𝑡𝑚𝑎𝑥 − 𝑡𝑚𝑖𝑛 = −
𝑐𝑛2 𝑐
𝑛1 𝐿 𝑛2
∆𝜏𝑖 = −1
𝑐 𝑛1

𝑛1 𝐿
∆𝜏𝑖 = ∆
𝑐

𝐿 2
∆𝜏𝑖 = 𝑁𝐴
2𝑛1 𝑐
 PULSE DISPERSION IN MULTIMODE
OPTICAL FIBERS
Material dispersion:
• Light source emits range of wavelengths
• Due to intrinsic property of material, different
wavelengths take different times to travel along the
same path
PULSE DISPERSION IN MULTIMODE
OPTICAL FIBERS
Optic fibre communication
• One of the most important application
• Communication system that carry information through a
guided optical fibre

• Primary building blocks of the system

1. Optical transmitter – converts electrical signal to optical signal
2. Optical fibre transmission (information channel) - provides path
or passage to transmit the optical signals
3. Optical receiver – Receives optical signal and converts to
electrical signal

Transmitter Information Channel Receiver

Optic fibre communication
Optic fibre sensors
• Sensitive device used to measure quantities like
temperature, pressure, displacement, liquid level, electric
current,
• It is based on the principle that modulation of light takes
place when light is transmitted through an optic fibre
subjected to the physical quantity
• Passive sensor – modulation of light takes place outside
sensor
• Active sensor – modulation of light takes place within
fibre
– Intensity modulated
– Phase modulated
– Polarization modulated
Intensity modulated sensor
• Variation of intensity of light (inside/outside)

No pressure- No bending – No leak of light

High pressure - bending – Light leakage

Phase modulated sensor
• Phase depends on – length, dimension, refractive index

• Length modulated by thermal expansion, application of

pressure
• Phase change is determined using interferometric
techniques

No pressure- No bending – No leak of light

High pressure - bending – Light leakage

Advantages
Applications
1. Medical field
Applications
2. Technical applications - communication
Applications
3. Military and defence
In aircrafts, tanks, ships, and submarines- optical fiber
replaced copper wires
Applications
3. Industry
Applications
3. Fibre optic sensors