Solar Photovoltaics: Principles, Technologies, and Materials

Week 1: Introduction and Solar Radiation Fundamentals

(Assignment 1 Solution)

1) Which of the following angle of incidence of solar radiation will have higher absorptance?
a. 90°
b. 30°
c. 0°
d. 60°
e. 45°

2) Which of the following optical design factor(s) require(s) the solar panels to be installed at an
optimum angle to the horizontal surface?
a. Minimize the transmission and reflection losses
b. Minimize the reflection losses only
c. Maximize absorbance and minimize transmission and reflection losses
d. Minimize absorbance and maximize reflection
e. Minimize absorbance and maximize transmission

3) Which of the following factor(s) influence(s) the solar irradiance on earth’s surface?
a. Wavelength of radiation
b. Absorption
c. Scattering
d. Type of the receiving surface
e. Day of the year
f. Time of the day

4) The sun is said to be the at the zenith when the angle between the solar beam and the horizontal
surface is
a. 0°
 b. 60°
c. 90°
d. 30°
e. 45°

5) The value of zenith angle corresponding to AM 1.5G irradiation is:

a. 0°
b. 60°
c. 35.9°
d. 48.2°
e. 90°

6) The value of the solar declination angle on summer solstice is:

a. -23.45°
b. +23.45°
c. 0°
d. 33.25°
e. 16.25°

7) Which of the following is the angle between the sun ray and its projection on a horizontal plane?
a. Altitude angle
b. Zenith angle
c. Declination angle
d. Hour angle
e. Solar azimuthal angle

8) The solar noon is defined as:

a. Time of the day at which sun’s rays are parallel to a given line of longitude
b. Time of the day at which sun’s rays are parallel to the earth’s surface
c. Time of the day at which sun’s rays are perpendicular to a given line of longitude
 d. Time of the day at which sun’s rays are perpendicular to a given line of latitude

9) The value of the hour angle at 11 AM local solar time is:

a. -15°
b. -90°
c. 45°
d. -30°
e. 15°
Solution: Hour angle = 15° (LST - 12)
= 15° (11-12) = 15°× (-1) = -15°

10) The correct relation between the angle of elevation (𝜃), zenith angle (𝜃𝑧 ) and solar azimuthal angle
(𝛾𝑠 ) is:
a. 𝜃𝑧 = 90° + 𝜃
b. 𝜃 + 𝜃𝑧 = 90° + 𝛾𝑠
c. 𝜽𝒛 = 𝟗𝟎° − 𝜽
d. 𝜃𝑧 − 𝛾𝑠 = 90°

11) At solar noon, which among the following is the correct angular relation? (𝛄S : Solar azimuthal
angle, ⍺: Solar altitude angle, λ: latitude angle, 𝛅)
a. 𝛄S =0° and ⍺=90°-λ-𝛅
b. 𝛄S = 0° and ⍺ = 90°- λ + 𝛅
c. 𝛄S is not equal to 0° and ⍺ = 90°- λ - 𝛅
d. 𝛄S is not equal to 0° and ⍺=90°-λ+𝛅

12) The equation of time (EoT) correction in the solar time equation depends on:
a. Eccentricity of earth’s orbit
 b. Latitude and longitude of location
c. Day light saving
d. Axial tilt of earth

13) The approximate value of the solar declination angle on April 12th, 2023, is:
a. -8.99°
b. +7.52°
c. -3.29°
d. +2.96°
e. +8.29°
Solution: On April 12th, no. of days, n = 31 +28 + 31 + 12 = 102 days
360
𝑆𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑑𝑒𝑐𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒, 𝛿 = 23.45° 𝑆𝑖𝑛 ( (𝑛 − 81))
365
360
𝛿 = 23.45° 𝑆𝑖𝑛 ( (102 − 81))
365
360
𝛿 = 23.45° 𝑆𝑖𝑛 ( (21))
365
𝛿 = 23.45° ∗ 0.3537
𝜹 = 𝟖. 𝟐𝟗°

14) What is the value of equation of time (EoT) (in minutes) for a location in Goa (15.29°N and
74.12°E) on May 30th, 2023?
a. +3.76
b. +4.05
c. +2.64
d. -1.85
e. -4.05
Solution: 𝐸𝑜𝑇 = 9.87 𝑆𝑖𝑛(2𝐵) − 7.53 𝐶𝑜𝑠(𝐵) − 1.5 𝑆𝑖𝑛(𝐵) 𝑚𝑖𝑛
360
Here, 𝐵 = (𝑛 − 81)
365

No. of days, n = 31+28+31+30+30 = 150

360
𝐵= (150 − 81) = 68.05 and 2𝐵 = 136.10
365

𝐸𝑜𝑇 = 9.87 𝑆𝑖𝑛(136.10) − 7.53 𝐶𝑜𝑠(68.05) − 1.5 𝑆𝑖𝑛(68.05) 𝑚𝑖𝑛

 𝐸𝑜𝑇 = 9.87 × 0.6934 − 7.53 × 0.3738 − 1.5 × 0.9275
𝑬𝒐𝑻 = +𝟐. 𝟔𝟒 𝒎𝒊𝒏

15) The maximum day length on April 12th, 2023, in Kanpur (India), located at latitude and longitude
angles of 26.45°N and 80.33°E respectively will be:
a. 11 hour 25 minutes
b. 12 hour 44 minutes
c. 12 hour 33 minutes
d. 12 hour 05 minutes
e. 11 hour 55 minutes
f. 10 hour 51 minutes
2
Solution: Maximum day length: 𝑆𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 15 𝐶𝑜𝑠 −1 (−𝑡𝑎𝑛𝛿𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜑)

Here, 𝜹 = 𝟖. 𝟐𝟗° (for April 12th)

𝝋 = 26.45°
2
𝑆𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝐶𝑜𝑠 −1 (− 𝑡𝑎𝑛(8.29) 𝑡𝑎𝑛(26.45))
15
2
= 𝐶𝑜𝑠 −1 (−0.1457 × 0.4975)
15
2
= 𝐶𝑜𝑠 −1 (−0.07248)
15
2
= × 94.15
15
𝑺𝒎𝒂𝒙 = 𝟏𝟐. 𝟓𝟓 𝒉𝒐𝒖𝒓 = 𝟏𝟐 𝒉𝒐𝒖𝒓 𝟑𝟑 𝒎𝒊𝒏𝒖𝒕𝒆𝒔
 Solar Photovoltaics: Principles, Technologies, and Materials

Week 2: Basics Physics of Semiconductors

(Assignment 2 Solution)

1. The monthly average of daily extraterrestrial radiation falling on a horizontal surface is

33,250 kJ/m2-day and the ratio of the monthly average of sunshine hours per day to the
monthly average maximum possible sunshine hours is 0.49. The empirical constants a and
b are given as 0.26 and 0.43, respectively. What would be the monthly average daily global
radiation in kJ/m2-day?
a. 11252
b. 15650
c. 19262
d. 22561
e. 17894

Solution: 𝐻 ̅0 [𝑎 + 𝑏 ( 𝑆 )] = 33250 × [0.26 + 0.43 × 0.49]

̅𝑔 = 𝐻
𝑆 𝑚𝑎𝑥

= 33250 × 0.4707 = 15650 kJ/m2-day

2. Which of the following is/are correct relation(s) for the density of states D(E) in 3-
dimension?
a. 𝐷(𝐸) ∝ 𝐸 −0.5
b. 𝐷(𝐸) ∝ 𝐸 3/2
c. 𝐷(𝐸) ∝ 𝐸 −2
d. 𝑫(𝑬) ∝ 𝑬𝟎.𝟓
e. 𝐷(𝐸) ∝ 𝐸 −3/2

3. The nature of variation of electron energy (E) with wave vector (k) for an electron in a free
space is:
a. Sinusoidal
b. Hyperbolic
c. Parabolic
 d. Circular

4. In an indirect bandgap semiconductor, an electronic transition between the conduction and

valance band results in:
a. Change in momentum
b. Change in energy
c. No change in energy
d. No change in momentum
e. Change in both energy and momentum

5. The reduction of carrier lifetime in a semiconductor results in:

a. Increase in the SCR dark current
b. Increase in the diffusion assisted dark current
c. Decrease in the SCR dark current
d. Decrease in the diffusion assisted dark current

6. Following is/are correct statement(s) for the carrier mobility in a non-degenerate

semiconductor:
a. It decreases with decreasing temperature.
b. It decreases with increasing temperature.
c. It monotonically decreases for high doping concentrations.
d. It is relatively constant for low doping concentrations.
e. It increases for high doping concentrations.

7. Which of the following condition(s) is/are NOT applicable for a degenerate

semiconductor?
a. 𝐸𝐶 − 𝐸𝐹𝑁 < 3𝑘𝑇
b. 𝐸𝐹𝑃 − 𝐸𝑉 < 3𝑘𝑇
c. 𝑬𝑪 − 𝑬𝑵
𝑭 > 𝟑𝒌𝑻

d. 𝑬𝑷𝑭 − 𝑬𝑽 > 𝟑𝒌𝑻

e. 𝐸𝐶 − 𝐸𝐹𝑁 = 3𝑘𝑇
8. The Si sample maintained at 300 K has electron concentration of 108 /cm3. If the intrinsic
carrier concentration in Si is 1010 /cm3, the hole concentration (in cm-3) in the sample under
equilibrium conditions would be:
a. 1010
b. 1014
c. 108
d. 1012
e. 1018

9. For an intrinsic semiconductor with a band gap of 0.72 eV, what is the position of EF at
300 K if 𝑚ℎ∗ = 5𝑚𝑒∗ ?
a. 0.39 eV
b. 0.52 eV
c. 0.35 eV
d. 0.42 eV

10. In a p-type semiconductor at 300 K, if acceptor density is 1015 cm-3 while intrinsic carrier
concentration is 1010 cm-3, the position of the fermi level of the semiconductor will be at:
a. 0.357 eV above intrinsic Fermi level
b. 0.417 eV above intrinsic Fermi level
c. 0.259 eV below intrinsic Fermi level
d. 0.298 eV below intrinsic Fermi level
e. 0.417 eV below intrinsic Fermi level

(𝐸𝐹 −𝐸𝑖 ) 𝑁 1015

Solution: = 0.0259 𝑙𝑛 ( 𝑛𝐴) = 0.0259 𝑙𝑛 (1010 )
𝑞 𝑖

= 0.0259 × 11.51 = 0.298 eV

11. A semiconductor material has an intrinsic carrier concentration of 1.2 × 1017 m-3. If electron
and hole mobilities are 0.17 and 0.08 m2/V-s, the resistivity (in Ω-m) of the semiconductor
is:
 a. 2.08 × 102
b. 3.12 × 102
c. 2.81 × 103
d. 4.51 × 102
e. 2.91 × 103
1
Solution: 𝜌= 𝑛𝑖 𝑒 (𝜇𝑒 +𝜇ℎ )

1
=
1.2 × 1017 × 1.6 × 10−19 × (0.17 + 0.08)
1
= = 𝟐. 𝟎𝟖 × 𝟏𝟎𝟐
10−2 × 0.48

12. The resistivity of an intrinsic semiconductor is 4.5 Ω-m at 293 K and 2.0 Ω-m at 305 K.
The energy band gap (in eV) of the semiconductor is:
a. 0.96
b. 0.45
c. 0.27
d. 0.56
e. 0.18
𝐸𝑔 1 1 𝜌 3𝑇
Solution: ( − ) = 𝑙𝑛 1 + 1
2𝑘 𝑇 𝑇 1 𝜌 2 2𝑇 2 2

𝐸𝑔 = 1.54 × 10−19 𝐽 = 𝟎. 𝟗𝟔 𝒆𝑽

13. In an intrinsic semiconductor such as silicon, the mobility of electrons is greater than the
mobility of holes due to:
a. Higher effective mass of electrons as compared to holes
b. Higher effective mass of holes as compared to electrons
c. Zero effective mass of electrons
d. Zero effective mass of holes

14. Which of the following is/are used to measure solar radiation?

a. Anemometer
b. Thermistors
 c. Pyranometer
d. Pyrheliometer
e. Concentrators

15. The current density in intrinsic semiconductors varies as:

𝐸𝑔
a. 𝑘𝐵 𝑇
𝐸𝑔2
b. 𝑘𝐵 𝑇
𝐸𝑔
c. 𝑒𝑥𝑝(− 2𝑘 𝑇)
𝐵
𝑬𝒈
d. 𝒆𝒙𝒑(− 𝒌 𝑻)
𝑩
𝐸𝑔
e. 𝑒𝑥𝑝(𝑘 𝑇)
𝐵
 Solar Photovoltaics: Principles, Technologies, and Materials

Week 3: Carrier transport, generation, and recombination in semiconductors

(Assignment 3 Solution)

1. The carrier lifetime in a semiconductor decreases with:

a. Increasing trap density
b. Decreasing trap density
c. Increasing donor concentration
d. Decreasing donor concentration

2. The electron diffusion current in a semiconductor is due to:

a. Electric field
b. Defects
c. Carrier concentration gradient
d. Both carrier concentration gradient and electric field

3. The recombination process most likely to take place in trap-free heavily doped semiconductors
is/are:
a. Non-radiative recombination
b. Auger recombination
c. SRH recombination
d. Radiative recombination

4. When an electric field of intensity 15 V/cm is applied across a semiconductor at a certain

temperature, the average drift velocity of free electrons is 71 m/s. The electron mobility (in cm2/V-
s) in the semiconductor is:
a. 1.33 × 103
b. 3.45 × 103
c. 6.25 × 102
d. 4.73 × 102
e. 5.01 × 102
 Solution: 𝑉𝑑 = 𝜇𝐸
𝑉𝑑
𝜇= 𝐸
71×102 𝑐𝑚/𝑠
𝜇= 15 𝑉/𝑐𝑚

𝝁 = 𝟒. 𝟕𝟑 × 𝟏𝟎𝟐 𝒄𝒎𝟐 𝑽−𝟏 𝒔−𝟏

5. Which of the following is the reason for band bending observed in semiconductor materials?
a. Presence of Electric field
b. Absence of electric field
c. No concentration gradient
d. Concentration gradient

6. Which of the following parameter(s) cannot be determined from the Hall measurements?
a. Charge carrier density
b. Charge carrier lifetime
c. Charge carrier type
d. Charge carrier mobility
e. Charge carrier diffusion length

7. Which of the following is TRUE for an n-type semiconductor under low-level injection conditions?
a. ∆𝑛𝑛 ≫ 0
b. ∆𝑝𝑛 ≫ ∆𝑛𝑝
c. ∆𝒏𝒏 = 𝟎
d. ∆𝑝𝑛 = 0

8. The absorption of a photon of energy Eph in a semiconductor material with band gap Eg, takes
place only when:
a. 𝐸𝑝ℎ < 𝐸𝑔
b. 𝐸𝑝ℎ ≪ 𝐸𝑔
𝐸𝑔
c. 𝐸𝑝ℎ = 3
0.5
d. 𝐸𝑝ℎ = (𝐸𝑔 )
e. 𝑬𝒑𝒉 > 𝑬𝒈

9. Which of the following factor(s) affect the surface recombination?

 a. Thermal velocity
b. Capture cross-section
c. Carrier diffusivity
d. Surface trap density

10. The absorption coefficient (𝛼ℎ𝜈 ) in case of direct band gap semiconductors is given by:
ℎ𝜈 3⁄
a. (ℎ𝜈 + 𝐸𝑔 ) 2
𝐵∗
𝐵∗ 2⁄
b. ℎ𝜈
(ℎ𝜈 − 𝐸𝑔 ) 3

𝐵∗ 1⁄ 3⁄
c. ( ) 2 (ℎ𝜈 − 𝐸𝑔 ) 4
ℎ𝜈
𝑩∗ 𝟑⁄
d. (𝒉𝝂 − 𝑬𝒈 ) 𝟐
𝒉𝝂
𝐵∗ 4⁄
e. ℎ𝜈
(ℎ𝜈 − 𝐸𝑔 ) 3

11. The correct relationship between minority carrier lifetime and diffusion length in an n-type
semiconductor is
a. 𝐿𝑛 = √𝐷𝑛 𝜏𝑛

𝐷𝑝
b. 𝐿𝑝 = √ ⁄𝜏𝑝

c. 𝑳𝒑 = √𝑫𝒑 𝝉𝒑

d. 𝐿𝑝 = √𝜏𝑝 𝐷𝑝
𝜏
e. 𝐿𝑝 = √ 𝑝⁄𝐷
𝑝

12. The electrical resistivity of an n-type semiconductor is 10-2 Ω-cm with electron and hole mobilities
of 750 and 490 cm2V-1s-1. The donor concentration (in cm-3) in the semiconductor would be:
a. 1.25 × 1017
b. 4.66 × 1018
c. 6.45 × 1017
d. 7.25 × 1018
e. 8.33 × 1017

1
Solution: 𝜌= 𝑁𝐷 𝑒𝜇𝑛
1
𝑁𝐷 = 𝜌𝑒𝜇𝑛
 1
𝑁𝐷 = 10−2 ×1.6 × 10−19 ×750
1
𝑁𝐷 = 10−2 ×1.6 × 10−19 ×750

𝑵𝑫 = 𝟖. 𝟑𝟑 × 𝟏𝟎𝟏𝟕 𝒄𝒎−𝟑

13. Which of the following represents the dependence of charge density on electric field in the
depletion region (E: electric field, V: electric potential, x: direction coordinate)?
a. Charge density is directly proportional to (dE/dx)
b. Charge density is inversely proportional to (dE/dx)
c. Charge density is inversely proportional to (dV/dx)
d. Charge density is directly proportional to (dV/dx)
e. Charge density is inversely proportional to -(dV/dx)

14. Which of the following specifies the low-level injection condition in an n-type semiconductor?
(Here, n and p are carrier concentrations under arbitrary conditions, n0 and p0 are the equilibrium
carrier concentrations, ∆𝑛 and ∆𝑝 are deviations in the carrier concentrations from their
equilibrium values)
a. ∆𝒑 ≪ 𝒏𝟎 , 𝒏 ≈ 𝒏𝟎
b. ∆𝑛 ≪ 𝑝0 , 𝑝 ≈ 𝑝0
c. ∆𝑝 ≫ 𝑛0 , 𝑛 ≈ 𝑛0
d. ∆𝑛 ≫ 𝑝0 , 𝑝 ≈ 𝑝0

15. At which position in the bandgap do the shallow trap levels reside in an n-type semiconductor?
a. Close to Fermi level
b. Just below the valence band
c. Just above the conduction band
d. Deep below the valence band
e. Just below the conduction band
 Solar Photovoltaics: Principles, Technologies, and Materials

Week 4: Semiconductor junctions

(Assignment 4 Solution) Feb 8, 2023

1. Which of the following is TRUE for the depletion region width on heavily doping the n-
side in a p-n junction diode?
a. Depletion region width increases on the n-side
b. Depletion region width decreases on the n-side
c. Depletion region width increases on the p-side
d. Depletion region width increases on the p-side
e. Depletion region width remains constant

2. A silicon p-n junction diode has an ideality factor (η) of 1.5. The change in the voltage
when the current changes from 1 mA to 20 mA is:
a. 0.225 V
b. 0.156 V
c. 0.096 V
d. 0.117 V
e. 0.192 V
𝒒𝑽
Solution: 𝑰 = 𝑰𝟎 (𝒆𝜼𝒌𝑻 − 𝟏)
𝑘𝑇 𝐼
So, change in voltage is given as: Δ𝑉 = 𝜂 ln (𝐼2)
𝑞 1

20 × 10−3
Δ𝑉 = 1.5 × 0.026 ln ( )
10−3

= 1.5 × 0.026 × 2.996 = 𝟎. 𝟏𝟏𝟕 𝑽

3. Following is/are CORRECT for depletion region in a p-n junction diode:

a. Maximum value of potential occurs at the junction of the diode.
b. Variation of electric field with position is linear.
c. Ratio of depletion region width on n- and p-side depends on the ratio of dopant
concentration.
 d. Charge density gradients is proportional to the electric field.

4. The built-in potential in a p-n junction diode is dropped more in:

a. Bulk region
b. Region of high doping concentration
c. Region of low doping concentration
d. Does not change with doping concentration

5. The reverse saturation current in a p-n junction diode does not depend on:
a. Applied bias
b. Carrier lifetime
c. Minority carrier concentration
d. Diffusion length of charge carriers

6. The application of a reverse bias to a p-n junction diode will result in:
a. Raising the potential barrier for carrier transport
b. Decreasing the charge carrier concentration
c. Lowering the potential barrier for carrier transport
d. Changing the bandgap of the semiconductors

7. Which of the following take(s) place on applying forward bias to a p-n junction diode?
a. Electron diffusion current from p-side to n-side increases.
b. Hole diffusion current from p-side to n-side increases.
c. Hole diffusion current from n-side to p-side increases.
d. Electron diffusion current from n-side to p-side increases.
e. Hole diffusion current from p-side to n-side does not change.

8. The mobility of electrons in an n-type semiconductor is 1200 cm2/V-s. The value of

diffusion coefficient (in cm2/s) for electrons is:
a. 35.6
b. 43.2
 c. 19.6
d. 39.1
e. 31.2
𝑘𝑇 𝑐𝑚2
Solution: 𝐷𝑛 = 𝜇𝑛 × = 1200 × 0.026 𝑉 = 𝟑𝟏. 𝟐 𝒄𝒎𝟐 /𝒔
𝑞 𝑉.𝑠

9. The correct Einstein relationship for electrons in a non-degenerate and non-uniformly

doped semiconductor is:
𝑞
a. 𝐷𝑛 = 𝜇𝑛 𝑘𝑇
𝒌𝑻
b. 𝑫𝒏 = 𝝁𝒏 𝒒
𝑘𝑇
c. 𝐷𝑛 = 𝜇𝑝 𝑞
𝑞
d. 𝐷𝑛 = 𝜇𝑝 𝑘𝑇
𝑘𝑇
e. 𝐷𝑝 = 𝜇𝑝 𝑞

10. Following assumption(s) is/are required in the bulk regions of a p-n junction diode for the
calculation of total current in the forward bias:
a. Diffusion based minority carrier current
b. Low level injection is maintained
c. No generation and recombination
d. High level injection is maintained

11. The depletion approximation for a p-n junction diode in dark and without bias is:
a. Electric field is non-zero in both n and p quasi neutral regions.
b. Electric field is zero in both n and p quasi neutral regions.
c. Electric field is finite in the depletion region.
d. Electric field is zero in both the depletion and quasi neutral regions.
e. Electric field is non-zero in the whole device.
12. Which of the following represents the long-base approximation for a p-n junction diode?
(Here, Ln and Lp are the diffusion lengths of electrons and holes respectively, xn and xp are
the ends of equilibrium depletion region on the n- and p-side of the diode)
a. 𝑥𝑛 ≪ 𝐿𝑛 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑥𝑝 ≪ 𝐿𝑝
b. 𝑥𝑛 ≫ 𝐿𝑛 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑥𝑝 ≫ 𝐿𝑝
c. 𝑥𝑛 ≪ 𝐿𝑝 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑥𝑝 ≪ 𝐿𝑛
d. 𝒙𝒏 ≫ 𝑳𝒑 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒙𝒑 ≫ 𝑳𝒏

13. A silicon-based p-n junction diode maintained at room temperature under equilibrium
conditions has a p-side doping of NA = 1017 cm-3 and an n-side doping of ND = 1016 cm-3
respectively. The value of built-in potential would be: (Intrinsic carrier concentration in
silicon at 300 K is 1010 cm-3)
a. 0.778 V
b. 0.696 V
c. 0.512 V
d. 0.852 V
e. 0.458 V
𝑘𝑇 𝑁 𝐴 𝑁𝐷 1017 ×1016
Solution: 𝑉𝑏𝑖 = 𝑙𝑛 ( ) = 0.026 × 𝑙𝑛 ( ) = 𝟎. 𝟕𝟕𝟖 𝑽
𝑞 𝑛𝑖2 (1010 )2

14. A homojunction diode is under a forward bias condition with applied voltage 0.3 V. If the
doping concentrations on both p- and n-side of diode is 1015 cm-3 and intrinsic carrier
concentration is 1010 cm-3 at 300 K, the junction potential (in volts) of the diode would be:
a. 0.312
b. 0.298
c. 0.225
d. 0.364
e. 0.411
𝑘𝑇 𝑁 𝐴 𝑁𝐷 1015 ×1015
Solution: 𝑉𝑏𝑖 = 𝑙𝑛 ( ) = 0.026 × 𝑙𝑛 ( ) = 𝟎. 598 𝑉
𝑞 𝑛𝑖2 (1010 )2

𝑉𝑗 = 𝑉𝑏𝑖 − 𝑉𝐴 = 0.598 − 0.3 = 𝟎. 𝟐𝟗𝟖 𝑽

15. The diffusion coefficients of electrons and holes in a semiconductor are 33.2 and 12.6 cm2/s
respectively, and carrier lifetimes for electrons and holes are 0.05 and 0.21 µs, respectively.
The ratio of the diffusion lengths of electrons and holes in the semiconductor is:
a. 0.556
b. 0.391
c. 0.581
d. 0.792
e. 0.812
𝑳𝒏 𝑫 ×𝝉 𝟑𝟑.𝟐×𝟎.𝟎𝟓 𝟏.𝟔𝟔
Solution: = √𝑫𝒏 ×𝝉𝒏 = √𝟏𝟐.𝟔×𝟎.𝟐𝟏 = √𝟐.𝟔𝟒𝟔 = √0.6274 = 𝟎. 𝟕𝟗𝟐
𝑳𝒑 𝒑 𝒑
Assignment No. 5
The due date for submitting this assignment has passed.
Due
As per our records you have not submitted this assignment.
11 Which of the following statement(s) is/are NOT CORRECT for an unbiased p-n junction diode under illumination?

There is no generation or recombination current in the space charge region.

Holes move from n-region to p-region while electrons move from p-region to n-region.
The quasi-fermi levels of electrons and holes are equal.
Holes move from p-region to nregion while electrons move from n-region to p-region.
The carrier concentration is much above the equilibrium concentration in both p and n region.
No, the answer is incorrect.
Score: 0
Accepted Answers:
There is no generation or recombination current in the space charge region.
The quas-fermi levels of electrons and holes are equal.
Holes move from p-region to n-region while electrons move from nregion to p-region.

2) In a p-n junction photovoltaic device, the shot-circuit condition is corectly represented as

OV 0,1, = 0
Ov=0,!, 0
Oy0,I, » 0
Ov0,I, 0
Ov=0,1, =0
No, the answer is incorrect.
Score: 0
Accepted Answers:
V= 0.I, + 0
3) Which of the following is/are correct for direct bandgap semiconductors in dark conditions?

Space change reqion dominates the total dark current.

Drift current dominates the total dark current
Diffusion current dominates the total dark current.
Radiative recombination current can be significant.
Dark current is negligible
No, the answer is incorrect.
Score: 0
Accepted Answers:
Space change region dominates the total dark current.
Radiative recormbination current can be significant

4) Which of the following methods can be employed to increase the quantun efficiency in an illuminated p-n junction diode?
Surface passivation
Increase in the reflection losses
Decrease in the cell width

Increase in the cell width

Light trapping
No, the answer is incorrect.
Score: 0
Accepted Answers:
Surface passivation
Light trapping
5) Which of the following represents the short-base approximation for a p-n junction diode? (Here, Ln and Lp are the diffusion l
holes respectively, Xn and xp are the ends of equililbrium depletion region on the n- and p-side of the diode)
OXn << Ln and xp e Lp
xn 2> Ln and xp 2> Lp

OXn c< Lp and xp << Ln

x>> Lp and xp 2> Ln
No, the answer is incorrect.

Accepted Answers:
vo ssLn and xp <e Ln

6) For a p-n junction photovoltaic device, as temperature increases, then:

 Light trapping

5) Which of the folowing represents the short-base approximation for apnjunction diode? (Here, Ln and Lp are the diffusion lengths of electrons and
holes respectively, xn and xp are the ends of equilibrium depletion region on the and p-side of the diode)
Xn c< L and xp ee Lp

Xn > Ln and xp » Lp
Xn c<Lo and xp ee Ln

Xn 3>Lp and xp >> Ln

No, the answer is incorrect

Accepted Answers
Xn << Lp and xp <<Ln

6) For a pn junction photovoltaic device, as temperature increases, then:

Mainly Voc decreases
Mainly Voc increases
UVoc and Jsc both increases
Voc and Jsc both decreases

No, the answer is incorrect

Score:
Accepted Answers:
Mainly Voc decreases

T) Following parameter(s) affect(s) the quantum eficiency of photovoltaic devices:

OAbsoption coefficient
Thickness of the device
Surface quality

OApplied electrical bias

No, the answer is incorrect.
Score: 0
Accepted Answers:
Applied electrical bias

8) Following is/are correct for the design and operation of an efficient photovoltaic device (Eg: bandgap of the semiconductor)
Low surface reflection from the cell surface
Low mobility of charge carriers
Minimization of recombination rates throughout the device
High surface reflection from the cell surface
Maximízation of the absorption of photons with E>E
No, the answer is incorrect.
Score: 0
Accepted Answers:
Low surface reflection from the cell surface
Minimization of recombination rates throughout the device
Maximization of the absorption of photons with E»Ep

) The photocurent in a p-n junction diode depends on:

Quantum efficiency
Diffusion of majority charge carriers
Applied electrical bias
intensity of illunination
No, the answer is incorrect.

Aeceoted Answers
Quantum efficiency
Intensity of ilumination

10) The improvement in the fill factor of a particular solar cell device would necessarily lead to:

Decrease in the bias dependent current

Increase in the open circuit voltage
Increase in the shot-circuit current

Increase in the maximum power extracted

Decrease in the maximum power extracted
No, the answer is incorrect
Accepted Answers:
Decrease in the bias dependent current
Increase in the maximum power extracted

1) Consider a pt-n silicon diode with acceptor and donor ion concentrations as 101 cm and 1015 cm
respectively. The hole diffusion coefficient in the n-side is 1.6 cm/sec and t 107 sec When the active
area of the device is 102 cm² the reverse saturation current (in A) in the diode will be: (Intrinsic carrier
concentration, n = 1010 cm, Boltzmann constant 1.38x10 JK electron change: 1.6x10:1 C)

15 1014)
O1.6*10(-12)
 Decrease in the maximum power extracted
No. the answer is incorrect
Score: 0
Accepted Answers:
Decrease in the bias dependent current
Increase in the maximum power extracted

11) Consider a pn silicon diode with acceptor and donor ion concentrations as 101 cm and 1015 cm
respectively. The hole diffusion coefficient in the n-side is 1.6 cm²/sec and T = 107 sec When the active
area of the device is 10 cm². the reverse saturation curent (in A) in the diode will be (Intrinsic carrier
concentration, n = 1010 cm, Boltzmann constantt 1.38x10 JK electron change: 1.6x10-1 C)

O15*1o14)
O1610--12)
9,8 10-13)

C64*10-13)
O27*10-(-15)
No, the answer is incorect.
Score: 0
Accepted Answers:
6410-13)

12) Consider a p-n junction diode of area1 cm² under illumination of 100 mWicm² gives short circuit current
density of 24 mA/cm and open circuit voltage of 1.1V and generates maximum power of 22 mW. The fill
factor (in 96) of the diode will be:

71.8

79.5
83.3
869

75.1
No, the answer is incorrect.
Score: 0
Accepted Answers:
833

13) Consider a p-n junction diode of area 1cm under illumination of 100 mWicm gives short circuit current
density of 24 mA/cm² and open circuit voltage of 1.1 Vand generates maximum power of 22 mW. The
power conversion efficiency (in 9%) of the diode will be:

19.86
21.99
23,56
18.53
21.05
No, the answer is incorrect
Score: 0
Accepted Answers:
21.99

14) The expression for current density (Je) in an illuminated p-n junction diode is Jnet = J-Ja Which of the
following is correct between V=0 and V=Voe? (Here, Je is the short-circuit current density at zero bias, Jaa
is bias dependent dark current, Jet is total current, Voeis the open-circuit voltage of the device)

Jret <0, Je<0, Jaat <0

OJ<0, Jas<0, Ja>0
0Jnet >0, Jae>0, Ja<0
OJoat C0, Jse>0, Jáa >0
No, the answer is incorrect.
Score: 0
Accepted Answers:
Jnet <0, Jse <0, Jea >0
15) Recormbination in the bottom layer of a top illuminated solar cell can be manifested by:

Drop in quantum efficiency at short wavelengths

Drop in quantum efficiency at middle wavelengths
Drop in quantum efficiency at all wavelengths
Drop in quantum efficiency at long wavelengths
No, the answer is incorrect
Score: 0
Accepted Answers:
Drop in quantum efficiency at long wavelengths
 Solar Photovoltaics: Principles, Technologies, and Materials

Week 6: First Generation Solar Cells

(Assignment 6 Solution)

1. The shunt resistance in the solar cells can be increased by:

a. Increasing the bandgap
b. Increasing the dark saturation current
c. Reducing the defect density in the device
d. Reducing the non-radiative recombination
e. Increasing the defect density in the device

2. Which of the following is/are applicable for improving the efficiency of single junction silicon solar
cells?
a. Base should be n-type and thicker as compared to the emitter.
b. Base should be p-type and thicker as compared to the emitter.
c. Emitter should be p-type and thicker as compared to the base.
d. Emitter should be n-type and very thin as compared to the base.
e. Base should be p-type and very thin as compared to the emitter.

3. The light coupling in a top-illuminated solar cell can be enhanced by:

a. Using antireflection coatings
b. Making the bottom layer thick
c. Using deeply buried contacts
d. Making the top layer thin
e. Texturing the front surface

4. Which of the following affect(s) the external quantum efficiency of solar cells?
a. Incident power density of radiation
b. Collection of charge carriers
c. Band wavelength of irradiation
d. Thickness of the electrodes
e. Absorption coefficient of the material

5. Which of the following statement(s) is/are correct for polycrystalline silicon when compared to
single-crystal silicon?
a. Smaller carrier diffusion length
 b. Better compositional control
c. Lower defect density
d. Higher defect density
e. Very low light absorption

6. The correct sequence for the generation of electricity in solar cells is:
a. Absorption → creation of exciton → exciton dissociation → diffusion of charge
carriers to electrodes → collection of charge carriers
b. Absorption → diffusion of the exciton to electrodes → collection of charge carriers
c. Absorption → exciton dissociation → diffusion of charge carriers to electrodes → collection
of charge carriers
d. Absorption → creation of exciton → diffusion of charge carriers to electrodes → collection
of charge carriers
e. Absorption → creation of exciton → exciton dissociation → collection of charge carriers

7. The approximate thickness (in microns) of the absorber layer in monocrystalline silicon solar cells
is:
a. 3000
b. 0.5
c. 300
d. 50
e. 1200

8. The use of a high bandgap semiconductor in a photovoltaic device will give rise to:
a. Small photocurrent
b. Large fill factor
c. High open circuit voltage
d. Low series resistance

9. Which of the following is/are favorable for efficient silicon solar cells?
a. Large built-in electric field
b. Heavily doped base and heavily doped emitter
c. Large diffusion length of minority charge carriers
d. Higher optical depth for radiation energy below the bandgap of the material
10. A solar cell delivers a short circuit current of 3.5 A under AM 1.5 illumination. The reverse saturation
current is 10-10 A. The open circuit voltage (in volts) at 300 K, neglecting any internal resistance in
the cell, would be: (Boltzmann constant kB = 1.38 × 10-23 J/K, electronic charge e = 1.6 × 10-19 C)
a. 0.631
b. 0.846
c. 0.325
d. 0.526
e. 0.701
𝒌𝑻 𝑰𝒔𝒄
Solution: 𝑽𝒐𝒄 = 𝒍𝒏 ( + 𝟏)
𝒒 𝑰𝒐

3.5
𝑉𝑜𝑐 = 0.026 ∗ 𝑙𝑛 ( −10 + 1) = 0.026 ∗ 24.278 = 𝟎. 𝟔𝟑𝟏 𝑽
10

11. Which of the following is/are correct for an ideal I-V curve for a solar photovoltaic device? (Here, V
is the applied bias, J is the current density, Voc is the open circuit voltage and Vmax is the maximum
voltage from the device)
𝒅(𝑱(𝑽)) −𝟏
a. ( ) = 𝟎
𝒅𝑽 𝑽=𝑽𝒐𝒄

𝑑(𝐽(𝑉)) −1
b. ( ) = ∞
𝑑𝑉 𝑉=𝑉𝑚𝑎𝑥

𝑑(𝐽(𝑉)) −1
c. ( ) = 0
𝑑𝑉 𝑉=𝑉𝑚𝑎𝑥

𝒅(𝑱(𝑽)) −𝟏
d. ( ) = ∞
𝒅𝑽 𝑽=𝟎

12. Which of the following strategy(ies) is/are adopted to improve the current collection from the top
electrode of silicon solar cells?
a. Heavy doping near contacts
b. Light doping near contacts
c. Use of SiO2 layer on Si
d. Deeply buried contacts
e. Use of antireflection coating

13. Which of the following method is adopted to reduce surface recombination in silicon solar cells?
a. Use of antireflection coatings
b. Surface passivation
c. Textured front surface of the cell
 d. Heavily doped front surface of the cell

14. Silicon nitride (SiNx) coating on the emitter in polycrystalline silicon solar cells is done to:
a. Reduce the charge carrier recombination
b. Absorb light and give rise to electron-hole pairs
c. Reduce surface recombination
d. Reduce the defect density in the absorber layer
e. Reduce the reflection losses

15. Typical absorber layer of a c-Si solar cell absorbs 36 % of the light with wavelength λ = 1100 nm
incident from the AM1.5 illumination. Assuming that the absorption coefficient for infrared light is α
(1100 nm) = 10 cm-1, the approximate thickness (in µm) of the absorber layer is:
a. 296
b. 446
c. 356
d. 495
e. 396
Solution: 𝑰(𝒕) = 𝑰𝟎 [𝟏 − 𝐞𝐱𝐩 (−𝜶𝒕)]
𝐼 36
𝑒𝑥𝑝 (−𝛼𝑡) = 1 − =1− = 0.64
𝐼0 100

−𝛼𝑡 = ln(0.64) = −0.446

0.446
𝒕= = 0.0446 𝑐𝑚 = 𝟒𝟒𝟔 𝝁𝒎
10
 Solar Photovoltaics: Principles, Technologies, and Materials

Week 7: Second-Generation Solar Cells

(Assignment 7 Solution)

1. The starting material in the manufacturing of semiconductor-grade silicon is:

a. Silicon vapor
b. Silicon tetrachloride
c. Silicon melt
d. Trichlorosilane
e. Siloxane

2. Which of the following can be used as window layer in GaAs solar cells?
a. n-GaAs
b. InGaAs
c. p-GaAs
d. AlGaAs
e. CdGaAs

3. Which of the following process(es) is/are used for manufacturing semiconductor-grade silicon?
a. Union carbide process
b. Float zone method
c. Siemens process
d. Czochralski process
e. Ethyl corporation process

4. Which of the following type of silicon exhibit the lowest carrier mobility?
a. Single crystal silicon
b. Polycrystalline silicon
c. Amorphous silicon
d. Both single crystal silicon and polycrystalline silicon

5. The intermixing between CdS and CdTe layer in CdTe solar cells leads to:
a. Increase in quantum efficiency at higher wavelengths
b. Increase in quantum efficiency at lower wavelengths
c. Decrease in quantum efficiency at lower wavelengths
 d. Decrease in quantum efficiency at higher wavelengths

6. Which of the following is/are common impurity element(s) in metallurgical grade silicon?
a. Tin
b. Aluminium
c. Zinc
d. Calcium
e. Lanthanum

7. The POCl3 treatment in silicon solar cells is done to achieve:

a. Formation of good contact with metal electrode
b. n-type doping of emitter
c. p-type doping of emitter
d. Improved surface texturing
e. n-type of base

8. Which of the following is used as carrier in the spray deposition of CdTe films?
a. Hydrogen
b. Nitrogen
c. Polyethylene acetate
d. Propylene glycol

9. Which of the following belong(s) to the family of chalcogenides?

a. Cadmium sulfide
b. Gallium arsenide
c. Cadmium telluride
d. Amorphous silicon
e. Polycrystalline silicon

10. CdCl2 treatment in CdTe solar cells results in:

a. Larger grain size in CdTe films
b. Poor crystallinity of CdTe films
c. n-type character of CdTe
d. Reduced defect density in CdTe
e. Reduced radiative recombination

11. The surface recombination in GaAs solar cells can be reduced by:
 a. Using p-AlGaAs as the window layer
b. Heavy doping of the emitter
c. Using n-AlGaAs as the back surface field layer
d. Using n-AlGaAs as the window layer
e. Antireflection coating ZnS/MgF2

12. Staebler-Wronski effect in hydrogenated amorphous silicon solar cells leads to:
a. Increase in the shunt resistance
b. Increase in the defect density
c. Increase in the power output with light soaking time
d. Decrease in the density of tail states
e. Decrease in the power output with light soaking time

13. The p-type character of CdTe can be increased by:

a. Cd interstitials
b. In doping
c. Au doping
d. Te vacancies
e. Cd Vacancies

14. Which of the following is/are correct for CdTe solar cells in superstrate configuration?
a. p-type CdTe is the absorber layer
b. n-type CdS is the absorber layer
c. p-type CdTe is the window layer
d. CdS layer is much thicker than the CdTe layer
e. n-type CdS is the window layer

15. The strategy(ies) employed to improve the performance of CdTe solar cells is/are:
a. Heavy n-type doping of window layer
b. CdS treatment
c. Back contact of copper
d. Heavy n-type doping of absorber layer
 Solar Photovoltaics: Principles, Technologies, and Materials

Week 8: Third Generation Solar Cells

(Assignment 8 Solution)

1. Which of the following defect is responsible for increased carrier recombination in CIGS solar cells?
a. Indium atom substituting copper sites
b. Copper atom substituting indium sites
c. Copper vacancies
d. Selenium vacancies
e. Selenium atom substituting copper sites

2. Which of the following is/are required for efficient exciton dissociation in single junction organic
solar cells?
a. Cathode and anode of the same work function
b. Presence of interfaces
c. Presence of an electric field
d. High thickness of photo-absorbing layer
e. Absence of an electric field

3. The band gap of Cu(InGa)Se2 can be tuned by:

a. Varying the indium and gallium ratio
b. Incorporating indium vacancies
c. Varying the thickness of Cu(InGa)Se2 films
d. Incorporating copper interstitials
e. Incorporating indium interstitials.

4. Which of the following is/are true for organic semiconductors?

a. They are indirect band gap semiconductors.
b. They are direct band gap semiconductors.
c. Radiative recombination is high in organic semiconductors.
d. They have high exciton binding energies.
e. They have high exciton diffusion lengths

5. The semiconducting behavior of organic semiconductors is attributed to:

a. Presence of benzene ring
b. Delocalization of pi electrons
 c. Delocalization of sigma electrons
d. Doping of elements such as iodine or sulphur

6. Which of the following is used as a dopant in polypyrrole based organic solar cells?
a. Pentacene
b. CuSO4
c. ZnCl2
d. FeCl3
e. MgF2

7. The reason(s) for using soda lime glass as substrate in the fabrication of Cu(InGa)Se2 solar cells
is/are:
a. Na reduces series resistance
b. Na helps in surface passivation
c. Na reduces defect density
d. Na improves light absorption
e. Na improves film texture

8. Following is/are the critical issue(s) with dye-sensitized solar cells:

a. Electrolyte degradation
b. Use of photoelectrodes
c. Use of liquid dyes
d. High photon absorption

9. The superiority of bulk heterojunction organic solar cells over bilayer organic solar cells is due to:
a. A much thicker absorber layer
b. Better dissociation of excitons
c. Better optical absorption of the materials
d. Better interfacial contact between donor and acceptor phases

10. Which of the following do(es) not happen in a conventional dye sensitized solar cells?
a. Migration of electrons through TiO2 layer
b. Absorption of holes by dye molecules during regeneration
c. Absorption of photons by the sensitizer
d. Migration of holes through the electrolyte
11. The oxide(s) that can be used as transparent conducting electrode in solar cells is/are:
a. Zinc oxide
b. Indium doped tin oxide
c. Aluminium doped zinc oxide
d. Tin oxide
e. Fluorine doped tin oxide

12. For better photovoltaic performance, the photosensitizer used in the dye sensitized solar cells
should have:
a. Low band gap
b. High band gap
c. High ionic conductivity
d. High electronic conductivity

13. The dopant added to polythiophene to make it conducting is:

a. FeCl3
b. SO3CF3-
c. NH4Cl
d. SN2CF3-
e. ZnCl2

14. The photoelectrode(s) used in dye sensitized solar cells is/are:

a. Nano-TiO2
b. Nano-SnO2
c. Platinum
d. Nano-ZnO
e. NiO

15. Which of the following feature(s) of perovskite materials is/are beneficial for their use in solar cells?
a. Stability under ambient conditions
b. Low defect density
c. High absorption coefficient
d. Short charge carrier diffusion length
e. Long charge carrier diffusion length