MT1004-LINEAR ALGEBRA

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A matrix with m rows and n columns is referred to as an m × n matrix or as having size m × n.

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A is

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 𝐴𝐵
𝐴 𝐵

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 Properties of trace
▪ 𝒕𝒓 𝑨 + 𝑩 = 𝒕𝒓 𝑨 + 𝒕𝒓 𝑩
▪ 𝒕𝒓 𝑨𝑩 = 𝒕𝒓 𝑩𝑨
▪ 𝒕𝒓(𝒄𝑨) = 𝒄𝒕𝒓 𝑨
▪ 𝒕𝒓(𝑨𝒕 ) = 𝒕𝒓 𝑨

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Elementary Row operations

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 Equivalent Matrices

e.g 𝑰𝟐 and the matrix are equivalent because we can obtain A from
identity matrix by multiplying row 2 by -3

Elementary Matrix

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 Determinants

For 2×2 Matrices the formula is

Let’s talk about minor and cofactor of an element with the help of which we will calculate determinants of higher order matrices.

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Minor & Cofactor of an element
(In a Square Matrix)

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Problem

By cofactor expansion along the first Row

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By cofactor expansion along the first coulmn

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e. g

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In general

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Evaluating Determinants by Row Reduction

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Practice Problem
Use either elementary row operation or cofactor expansion, to
evaluate the determinant by hand.

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A matrix is said to be in Echelon form if it has the following properties

1. Every nonzero row precedes every zero row.

2. In each successive nonzero row, the number of zeros before the leading entry of a
row increases row by row.

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Inverse of a 2 × 2 Matrix

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Problem
Find the inverse of the matrix

Sol

Another method for finding inverse of a matrix is illustrated in the coming slides.

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Note

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Practice Problem

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General Form of a Diagonal Matrix

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Inverse of a Diagonal Matrix

Power of a Diagonal Matrix

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Practice Problem

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Practice Problem

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A system of linear equations (or a linear system) is a collection of
one or more linear equations involving the same variables.

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Linear System

is a solution of
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In matrix form, we can write ( ) as

where,

A is called the
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 Fundamental Theorem for Linear System

(a) Existence : A linear system of m equations in n unknowns 𝑥1 , 𝑥2 , … , 𝑥𝑛

is consistent, that is, has solutions, if and only if the coefficient matrix A and the
augmented matrix have the same rank. Here,

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(b) Uniqueness. The system has precisely one solution if and only if this common
rank r of A and equals n.
(c) Infinitely many solutions. If this common rank r is less than n, the system
has infinitely many solutions. All of these solutions are obtained by determining r
suitable unknowns (whose submatrix of coefficients must have rank r) in terms of the
remaining unknowns, to which arbitrary values can be assigned.
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𝒓𝟏 = Rank of coefficient Matrix
𝒓𝟐 = Rank of Augment Matrix Linear System
𝒏=Number of Unknowns

𝒓𝟏 = 𝒓𝟐 𝒓𝟏 ≠ 𝒓𝟐

consistent inconsistent

𝒓𝟏 = 𝒓𝟐 = n 𝒓𝟏 = 𝒓𝟐 < n

Unique Solution Infinite Solution

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Practice Problem
Use Fundamental theorem of linear system to check the consistency of the
following linear system. If the system is consistent, then find all possible
solutions:
8𝑥 + 5𝑦 + 11𝑧 = 30
−𝑥 − 4𝑦 + 2𝑧 = 3
2𝑥 − 𝑦 + 5𝑧 = 12.

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Problem

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Practice Problem

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m = Number of Equations
n =Number of Unknowns
Linear System

𝒎 = 𝒏 𝒎≠𝒏

𝒅𝒆𝒕 𝑨 = 𝟎
𝒅𝒆𝒕(𝑨) ≠ 𝟎 Gauss Gauss
Elimination Jordan
Elimination
Unique Solution Gauss Gauss
Elimination Jordan
Elimination

Matrix Cramer’s Gauss Gauss

Inversion Rule Elimination Jordan
Elimination
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Methods for solving a linear System
(or Gauss Elimination)

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Problem

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Problem

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If we reduced the augmented matrix to reduce echelon form, we have

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Practice Problem

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Problem

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Practice Problem
Use Cramer’s Rule to solve (if possible) the system of linear equations.

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e.g.

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Use Fundamental theorem of
linear system to check the
consistency of the linear system.

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A point where two or more things are joined is called a junction.

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Problem 1

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Practice Problem

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Practice Problem
Find conditions on 𝑎 such that the system has (i) no solution (ii) one
solution or (iii) infinitely many solutions.

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Practice Problem

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A chemical equation is said to be balanced if for each type of atom in the reaction, the same
number of atoms appears on each side of the arrow. For example

by which we mean that one methane molecule combines with two stable oxygen molecules
to produce one carbon dioxide molecule and two water molecules.

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If a chemical equation is not balanced, for example

The standard convention is to use the smallest positive integers that will balance
the equation.
To balance this equation we must find positive integers 𝑥1 , 𝑥2 , 𝑥3 and 𝑥4 such
that

For each of the atoms in the equation, the number of atoms on the left must be
equal to the number of atoms on the right. Expressing this in tabular form we
have
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Problem

and then we will solve the

linear system.
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Practice Problem

Write a balanced equation for the given chemical reaction.

(a)

(b)

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Solving the linear system we can obtain 𝑎 and 𝑏 and then by putting these
value in (8) we can get the equation of line.

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Problem
Find a polynomial that interpolate the points −2, 3 , −1, 5 , 0, 1 , (1, 4) and
2, 10 .
Solution

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Solving the linear system we obtain

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Practice Problem

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Practice Problem
Make a linear system for the following problem.

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Practice Problem

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The set of all ordered 𝑛-tuples of real numbers is denoted by the symbol 𝑅𝑛 .
When convenient, ordered 𝑛-tuples can be denoted in matrix notation as column
vectors. For example, the matrix

can be used as an alternative to 𝑠1 , 𝑠2 , … , 𝑠𝑛 .

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It may have occurred to you that an ordered pair 𝑣1 , 𝑣2 can represent
either a vector with components 𝑣1 and 𝑣2 or a point with coordinates 𝑣1
and 𝑣2 (and similarly for ordered triples). Both are valid geometric
interpretation.
The term “vector” is used in various ways in mathematics, physics,
engineering, and other applications.

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3, 4, 5, 7, 8, 9, and 10.

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𝑚𝑛
𝑛𝑛

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We know that the sum of two symmetric n × n matrices is symmetric
and that a scalar multiple of a symmetric n × n matrix is symmetric. Thus, the set of
symmetric n × n matrices is closed under addition and scalar multiplication and hence
is a subspace of 𝑀𝑛𝑛 . Similarly, the sets of upper triangular matrices, lower triangular
matrices, and diagonal matrices are subspaces of 𝑀𝑛𝑛 .

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Thus the solution set of a homogenous Linear system of 𝑚 equations in 𝑛 unknowns is a
subspace of 𝑅𝑛 .

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Practice Problem
Determine whether the following sets are subspaces of R 3 with respect to the standard
operation of vector addition and scalar multiplication. [06 Marks]

(a) A = {( x, y, z)  R : x + 2 y − z = 0 = 3x − 5z}
3

(b) B = {( x, y, z)  R3 : x + 2 y − z = 1}

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Linear Combination of vectors

Consider vectors 𝒗𝟏 , 𝒗𝟐 , … , 𝒗𝒏 and scalars 𝑐1 , 𝑐2 , … , 𝑐𝑛 then an expression of the form

𝑐1 𝒗𝟏 + 𝑐2 𝒗𝟐 + ⋯ + 𝑐𝑛 𝒗𝒏

is called a linear combination of 𝑣1 , 𝑣2 , … , 𝑣𝑛 with coefficients 𝑐1 , 𝑐2 , … , 𝑐𝑛 .

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Examples

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Problem

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Practice Problems

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Problem

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Linear Independence

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Problem

Solution

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Problem

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A vector space 𝑉 is said to be finite-dimensional if there is a
finite set of vectors in 𝑉 that spans 𝑉 and is said to be infinite-dimensional
if no such set exists.
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The vector space 𝑃∞ of all polynomials with real coefficients is an infinite

dimensional vector space because it has no finite spanning set.
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Dimension

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Practice Problem

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Coordinates Relative to a Basis

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Problem

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Problem
The vectors

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.

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Practice Problem

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.

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Transition Matrices

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In short

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Problem

Solution

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Practice Problem

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and use the transition matrix obtained in part 1 solution to compute

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Row Space, Column Space and Null Space

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Then we can write

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Problem

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Thus

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Problem

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Problem

Solution

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Problem

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Solution

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Problem

Solution

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Practice Problem 1
Determine whether b is in the column space of 𝐴, and if so, express b as a
linear combination of the column vectors of 𝐴.

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Practice Problem 2
Find bases for the row space and column space of the matrix

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Problem

Solution

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Inner Product Spaces

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Practice Problems

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Norm of a vector and Distance b/w two vectors in an Inner Product Space

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Practice Problems

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More Practice Problems
1)
Let 𝒖=(𝑢1 , 𝑢2 ) and 𝒗=(𝑣1 , 𝑣2 ) be vectors in ℝ2 . Show that < 𝒖, 𝒗 >= 4𝑢1 𝑣1 + 𝑢2 𝑣1 +
𝑢1 𝑣2 + 4𝑢2 𝑣2 is an inner product on ℝ2 .
2)

−1 3 0 −2
For 𝐴 = and 𝐵 = , use the inner product < 𝑨, 𝑩 > =2 𝑎11 𝑏11 +
4 −2 1 1
𝑎12 𝑏12 + 𝑎21 𝑏21 + 2𝑎22 𝑏22 in 𝑀22 to find (a) < 𝑨, 𝑩 > (b) 𝑨 (c) 𝑑 𝑨, 𝑩 .
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Technique for making an orthogonal set an orthonormal Set

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Example

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Practice Problem

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The Gram-Schmidt Process

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Problem

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Practice Problem

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𝒃

b−𝑨ෝ
𝒙

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For every linear system A𝒙 = 𝒃, the associated normal system

𝐴𝑇 A𝒙 = 𝐴𝑇 𝒃---------------------------------------(1)

is consistent, and all solutions of (1) are least squares solutions of 𝐴𝒙 = 𝒃.

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Problem

Solution

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Problem

Solution

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Note

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We know that a square matrix has linearly independent column vectors if and only if it is
invertible. Thus, every invertible matrix has a 𝑄𝑅-decomposition.

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Problem

Solution

Applying the Gram–Schmidt process with normalization to these column vectors yields the
orthonormal vectors

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Eigenvalues & Eigenvectors

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Note: An eigenvalue of 𝜆 = 0 is possible.

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Example

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The question is : How to find the eigenvalues and eigenvectors of a given
square matrix.

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Problem

Solution

( Characteristic Polynomial )

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Problem

Solution

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Problem

Solution

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we have

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Similarly

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Practice Problem

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Finding characteristic equation can sometime become tedious, here is
a short formula for find characteristic equation of a 3 × 3 matrix

det 𝜆𝐼 − 𝐴 = 𝜆3 − 𝑐1 𝜆2 + 𝑐2 𝜆 − 𝑐3

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In short, characteristic polynomial of a 3 × 3 matrix is given by:
det 𝜆𝐼 − 𝐴 = 𝜆3 − 𝑡𝑟 𝐴 𝜆2 + 𝑆𝑢𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑜𝑟𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑔𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑠 𝜆 − det(𝐴)

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Practice Problem 1
Find the characteristic equation, the eigenvalues, and bases for the
eigenspaces of the given matrices.

𝐴= & 𝐵=

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Practice Problem 2

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Similar Matrices

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 and are similar matrices

because there is such that

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Diagonalizable Matrix

e.g
is diagonalizable

( Detail in previous Slide)

Because A is similar to the diagonal
matrix

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Problem

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Problem

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Practice Problem

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Problem

( Previous Slides )

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Practice Problems
(1)

(2) Find a matrix 𝑃 that diagonalizes 𝐴 and compute 𝐴100 , where

(a) (b)

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Linear Transformations

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Problem

Solution

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Linear Transformation

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Examples of Linear Transformation

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Problem

Solution

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Problem

Solution

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That's why

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Problem

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Kernel & Range of a Linear Transformation

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Problem

Solution

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Practice Problem
Determine whether the mapping 𝑇 is a linear transformation, and if so, find its kernel:

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 .

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𝑅𝑛 𝑅𝑚

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Method for finding standard Matrix for a Linear Transformation
from 𝑹𝒏 to 𝑹𝒎

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Problem

Solution

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Practice Problem

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Problem

Solution

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By solving both systems we get

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By using the linearity properties of 𝑇, we obtain

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Problem

Solution
The standard matrix for T is

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Practice Problem 1

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Practice Problem 2

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Reflection Operators

Reflection about 𝑥-axis

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Reflection about 𝑦-axis

Reflection about the line 𝑦 = 𝑥

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Reflection about 𝑥𝑦-plane

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Reflection about 𝑥𝑧-plane

Reflection about 𝑦𝑧-plane

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Thank you

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