Rational Functions Name:

DEFINITION OF A RATIONAL FUNCTION

A rational function f (x) has the following form.

P (x)
f (x) = where P (x) and Q(x) are each polynomial functions
Q(x)

Circle each of the rational functions below.

3x4 − 2x + 9 x3 + 3 x
 
a(x) = b(x) = sin c(x) =
6x2 + 1 x3 − 1 x+1
√
x2 − 4 x−1 3x+1
d(x) = e(x) = √ f (x) =
x2 + 5x − 14 x+1 4x+2
s  2
x5 − x + 1 3 x+4
g(x) = h(x) = i(x) =
x2 + 5 x x4 + 3x2 − 2

DOMAIN OF A RATIONAL FUNCTION

The domain of a rational function is easy to find: simply look for places where Q(x) = 0; these values of x are
not in the domain.
5
For example, the domain of f (x) = consists of all real numbers, except for the places where Q(x) = 0.
x−2
In other words, since Q(x) = x − 2 = 0 when x = 2, the domain of f (x) is {x | x 6= 2}.

Find the domain of each of the following rational functions.

2x 3x2 − 1
f (x) = f (x) =
x−7 x2 − x − 20

1 x2 − 1
f (x) = f (x) =
x2 +4 x2 − 9x + 8

INTERCEPTS
The intercepts of a function are the places where the graph of the function crosses the x-axis or the y-axis.

x-INTERCEPTS y-INTERCEPTS

The x-intercepts are the places where the graph The y-intercepts are the places where the graph
of the function crosses the x-axis. of the function crosses the y-axis.

To find the x-intercepts, factor P (x) and Q(x), A rational function will have at most one
if possible. The x-intercepts are the zeros of P (x) y-intercept. To find it, simply find the value of
that are not also zeros of Q(x). the function at x = 0, if it exists.

Find the x-intercepts of the following functions. Find the y-intercepts of the following functions.

4x − 8 x−7
f (x) = f (x) =
x2 + x − 56 x3 − 8x2 + 3x + 1

5x + 15 2x2 + 3x
f (x) = f (x) =
x2 − 9 x5 − x

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HORIZONTAL ASYMPTOTES
As x → ∞ or as x → ∞, we saw that polynomial functions had one of two behaviors: either y → ∞ or
y → −∞. We called this the end behavior of the polynomial. y

For rational functions, the situation is a little more 4

complicated. As x → ∞ or as x → −∞, some rational
functions approach a specific value. 2
x+1
Consider the rational function f (x) = shown to the
x−1
right. −6 −4 −2 0 2 4 6 x

As x → −∞, we see that y → 1.

−2
As x → ∞, we see that y → 1.

The line y = 1, shown here as a dashed line, is called a −4

horizontal asymptote.

The line y = a is a horizontal asymptote of a function f (x) if either of the following conditions holds:
1. As x → ∞, y → a. 2. As x → −∞, y → a.

How can you determine if a rational function has a horizontal asymptote? Let’s look at the function f (x)
whose graph is shown above as an example. We know from the graph that f (x) has a horizontal asymptote at
y = 1. Note that we can rewrite f (x) as
x+1 1 + x1
f (x) = =
x−1 1 − x1
where we have divided every single term in the numerator and denominator by x. Now, as x gets really, really
1 1+0
large, we see that goes to 0. Thus y → = 1 as x → ∞.
x 1−0
P (x)
Let f (x) = be a rational function. To find the horizontal asymptotes:
Q(x)
1. Determine the highest power of x that is found in either P (x) or Q(x).
2. Divide every single term in both P (x) and Q(x) by the highest power of x.
3. Let x → ∞. If y approaches a number a, then y = a is the horizontal asymptote.

Find the horizontal asymptotes of the following rational functions.

2x3 + x2 − 8x + 7 6x3 − 5x2 − x − 3

f (x) = g(x) =
4x3 − 5x + 1 x5 + 6x4 + x + 1

VERTICAL ASYMPTOTES
y
x+1
The function f (x) = also has a vertical asymptote. 4
x−1
The line x = 1, shown in the graph as a dashed line, is the
vertical asymptote of f (x). 2

The line x = a is a vertical asymptote of a function

f (x) if either y → ∞ or y → −∞ as x approaches a −6 −4 −2 0 2 4 6 x
from either the left or the right.
−2
To find the vertical asymptotes of a rational function, first
cancel any common factors, then look for places where the
denominator is zero. −4

Find the vertical asymptotes of the following rational functions.

x+6 x2 − 8x − 9
f (x) = g(x) =
4x2 − 81 x3 + 7x2 + 6x

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SLANT ASYMPTOTES
If the degree of the numerator is exactly one more than the degree of the denominator (after common factors
have been cancelled out), then the rational function will have a slant asymptote.

Circle each of the following rational functions that will have slant asymptotes.
3x2 + 1 x x2 + 6x + 5 x5 − 2x4 − x + 1
f (x) = f (x) = f (x) = f (x) =
2x − 1 x+3 x+1 3x2 − x4
To find the equation of the slant asymptote, apply polynomial long division to the rational function.
2x + 1

2x2 − 3x − 1 x−2 2x2 − 3x − 1 1

f (x) = 2x2 − 4x f (x) = + 2x + 1
x−2 x−2
x−1
x−2
y The slant asymptote
1
10 is y = 2x + 1.

A graph of the function is shown to the left. Note that the function
has two asymptotes:
5 There is a slant asymptote at y = 2x + 1.
There is a vertical asymptote at y = 2.

Can a rational function have both a slant asymptote and a

−1 0 1 2 3 4 x
horizontal asymptote? Why or why not?

54 − 8x − x2
Find all of the asymptotes of the rational function f (x) = .
2x + 8

GRAPHS WITH HOLES

When a common factor cancels out of the numerator and the denominator of a rational function, how does that
affect the graph of the function? Let’s try to understand what happens in this situation.

(x − 1)(x + 2)
Evaluate f (x) = x + 2 at x = 1. Evaluate g(x) = at x = 1. Does f (x) = g(x)?
x−1

Graph f (x) on the set of axes below. Graph g(x) on the set of axes below. How does the graph of
y y
f (x) differ from the
4 4 graph of g(x)?

3 3

2 2

1 1

−2 −1 0 1 2 3 x −2 −1 0 1 2 3 x

−1 −1

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TRANSFORMATIONS OF RATIONAL FUNCTIONS
1
You can use transformations on the graph of f (x) = to generate the graphs of other rational functions.
x
1 1 1
Let a(x) = . Let b(x) = + 1. Let c(x) = .
x+1 x 2x

Describe the transformation Describe the transformation Describe the transformation

that has been applied to this that has been applied to this that has been applied to this
function. function. function.

Graph a(x). Graph b(x). Graph c(x).

y y y
2 2 2

1 1 1

−2 −1 0 1 2 x −2 −1 0 1 2 x −2 −1 0 1 2 x

−1 −1 −1

−2 −2 −2

GRAPHING RATIONAL FUNCTIONS

Here are some tips for graphing rational functions without the use of a calculator.
1
Determine if the rational function is a transformation of f (x) = . If so, apply your knowledge
x
of transformations to the graph of the rational function.
Factor the numerator and denominator and identify any holes in the graph.
Find the horizontal asymptotes by letting x → ∞.
Find the vertical asymptotes by looking for places where the denominator is zero.
If the degree of the numerator is one more than the degree of the denominator, then use long
division to find the slant asymptote.
Find the x-intercepts by setting y = 0 and find the y-intercepts by setting x = 0.
x2 − x − 6
Let’s practice graphing a rational function. Consider the function f (x) = .
2x2 − 5x − 3

Find all of the holes, asymptotes, and intercepts of f (x). Graph f (x) on the set of axes below.
y
3

−3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3 x

−1

−2

−3

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